Module 2

What is Ergonomics?

The word Ergonomics comes from:

• Ergon = Work
• Nomos = Laws

Ergonomics = Science of designing work according to human body and mind.

In simple words: Ergonomics means fit the job to the person — not the person to the job.

International Ergonomics Association says: Ergonomics studies how humans interact with
machines, tools and workplace, and designs them so that comfort, safety and efficiency
improve.

Ergonomics is: the study of workers and their working environment to make work
comfortable, safe and productive.

Why Ergonomics is Needed?

Humans are not machines. If workplace is badly designed:

• body gets tired

• errors increase
• accidents occur
• productivity decreases

Example:
Give a worker a heavy hammer → fatigue → mistake → injury.

So industries now design the workplace around the worker.

Main Aim of Ergonomics

1. Reduce fatigue
2. Prevent injury
3. Improve comfort
4. Increase efficiency
5. Increase productivity

So ergonomics helps both:

• Employee (health)
• Employer (production)
Historical Background

• After World War II, many aircraft accidents occurred.

• Machines had become advanced, but controls were confusing.
• Engineers realized:
accidents were not only mechanical failure → human-machine mismatch.

In:

• Britain → the field was called Ergonomics

• USA → the field was called Human Factors

Both study the same idea but from slightly different viewpoints.

Sciences Involved in Ergonomics

Ergonomics is multidisciplinary. It uses knowledge from:

• Anatomy (body structure)

• Physiology (body functioning)
• Psychology (human behaviour)
• Industrial medicine
• Mechanical design
• Architecture
• Lighting/illumination engineering

So ergonomics is actually a combination of engineering + medical science + psychology.

Why is Ergonomics Important?

Engineering is not only designing machines — it is designing work for humans.

Ergonomics is important because it: fits the job to the worker, instead of forcing the worker
to adjust to the job.

If work is not designed properly, the human body gets stressed, and that leads to fatigue, pain
and finally injury.

What Ergonomics Does

Ergonomics focuses on designing:

• workstations
• tools and equipment
• working posture
• work methods
 • environment (lighting, temperature, noise)

So that the worker can work comfortably, safely and efficiently.

Main Objectives of Ergonomics

1. Reduce fatigue
2. Prevent injuries
3. Increase comfort
4. Improve productivity
5. Improve job satisfaction
6. Improve safety

Why It Is Really Needed

When a person works in:

• awkward posture
• repeated movements
• extreme heat/cold
• improper seating
• heavy lifting

the body experiences continuous physical stress.

Human body (muscles, joints, nerves, bones) is called the musculoskeletal system.

If stress continues:

• first → discomfort
• then → pain
• finally → injury

These injuries are called:

Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSD)

Early Warning Symptoms (students easily relate)

• Neck pain (mobile use / laptop)

• Back pain (long sitting)
• Wrist pain (typing)
• Shoulder pain (lifting loads)
• Eye strain (screen exposure)
These are not normal —
they are signs of poor ergonomics.

How Poor Ergonomics Causes Accidents

Poor ergonomics → fatigue → reduced attention → human error → accident.

Example:
A tired crane operator may press the wrong control.

So ergonomics is actually accident prevention.

Benefits of Ergonomics

Ergonomics improves both worker well-being and organizational performance.

When the workplace, tools and tasks are properly designed according to human abilities and
limitations, many positive outcomes are obtained.

1. Improved Health and Safety

• Reduces body strain and fatigue

• Prevents back pain, neck pain, eye strain and joint problems
• Decreases risk of accidents and injuries
• Protects the musculoskeletal system

Example:
Proper chair height and lifting methods prevent spinal injuries.

2. Reduction in Workplace Injuries and Health Problems

Poor ergonomics leads to Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSDs) such as:

• Carpal tunnel syndrome

• Shoulder strain
• Lower back pain
• Tendon injuries

Ergonomic improvements reduce sick leave and medical treatment.

3. Higher Morale and Discipline

(“moral” should be morale — meaning worker satisfaction)

When workers feel comfortable and safe:

• they are happier

 • absenteeism reduces
• cooperation improves
• discipline improves

A comfortable worker becomes a motivated worker.

4. Improved Quality of Work

Fatigue causes mistakes.

Ergonomics reduces fatigue → workers concentrate better → fewer errors.

Example:
An operator in a well-lit control room reads gauges correctly and avoids wrong readings.

5. Increased Productivity

When work is easier to perform:

• speed increases
• effort decreases
• output improves

Workers can work longer without tiredness.

Example:
Using a trolley instead of manual lifting increases daily work output.

6. Improved Competitiveness of Industry

Fewer injuries + better productivity + better quality = lower production cost.

Therefore companies become more competitive in the market.

7. Reduced Fatigue

(Your point “Fever” should actually be Fewer)

Ergonomics reduces:

• physical exhaustion
• mental stress
• overexertion

Workers feel less tired at the end of the day.

10 Principles of Ergonomics (Detailed Explanation)

Ergonomics means designing the job to fit the worker, not forcing the worker to fit the job.
These principles help in reducing fatigue, musculoskeletal disorders (MSD), injury and
improving productivity.

1. Work in Neutral Posture

A neutral posture means the body joints are naturally aligned and not bent or twisted.

• Head straight (not bent forward)

• Back straight
• Shoulders relaxed
• Wrists straight
• Knees slightly bent while standing

2. Reduce Excessive Force

Tasks should not require high muscular effort.

Examples:

• Lifting heavy cement bags

• Tightening hard bolts
• Pushing loaded trolleys

Ergonomic solutions:

• Use trolleys, cranes, wheelbarrows

• Use power tools instead of manual tools

Benefit: Prevents muscle injury and fatigue.

3. Keep Everything Within Easy Reach

Tools and materials should be located close to the worker.

• Avoid stretching or bending repeatedly

• Frequently used tools must be within arm reach

Importance:
Reduces shoulder and back strain and saves time → improves efficiency.

4. Work at Proper Height

Working surface height must suit the task.

Type of Work Ideal Height
Precision work Above elbow level
Light work At elbow level
Heavy work Below elbow level

Reason:
Wrong height causes neck bending, back pain and shoulder stress.

5. Reduce Repetitive Movements

Repeated motion (typing, hammering, drilling) causes cumulative trauma disorders.

Examples:

• Continuous keyboard use

• Bricklaying without rest

Solution:

• Job rotation
• Short breaks
• Mechanization

Benefit: Prevents tendonitis and wrist injury.

6. Minimize Static Load (Avoid Staying in One Position Long)

Standing or sitting in one posture for a long time causes muscle fatigue.

Examples:

• Continuous standing supervisor

• Computer operator sitting for 6–8 hours

Solution:

• Sit-stand workstations
• Rest pauses
• Stretching

Benefit: Improves blood circulation and reduces fatigue.

7. Reduce Contact Stress

Contact stress occurs when a body part presses against a hard or sharp surface.
Examples:

• Wrist resting on table edge

• Kneeling on concrete floor
• Carrying bricks on shoulder

Solution:

• Padding
• Gloves
• Rounded edges

Benefit: Prevents nerve compression and soft tissue injury.

8. Provide Clearance and Space

Enough space must be available for movement.

• Adequate leg room

• Enough space around machines
• No cramped workstations

Importance:
Prevents awkward posture, accidents and improves comfort.

9. Maintain Comfortable Environmental Conditions

Working conditions should be comfortable.

Includes:

• Proper lighting
• Ventilation
• Temperature control
• Noise reduction

Effect:
Poor environment leads to eye strain, headaches, heat stress and reduced concentration.

10. Move, Exercise and Take Breaks

Human body is designed for movement.

• Short breaks every 1–2 hours

• Stretching exercises
• Alternating tasks
Benefit:
Reduces fatigue, improves circulation and increases productivity.

Types of Ergonomics
Ergonomics is the science of fitting the job to the worker so that work can be performed safely,
comfortably, and efficiently.
It is broadly classified into three main types:

1) Physical Ergonomics

Physical ergonomics deals with the human body’s response to physical and physiological
workload during work activities.
It focuses mainly on the interaction between the worker’s body and tools, machines, and
workplace design.

Key aspects:

• Working posture
• Repetitive movements
• Manual material handling
• Force exertion
• Vibration exposure
• Workplace layout

Common problems:

• Back pain
• Neck pain
• Muscle fatigue
• Repetitive Strain Injuries (RSI)
• Carpal Tunnel Syndrome

Examples:

• Proper chair and desk height for computer users

• Using mechanical lifting devices instead of manual lifting
• Anti-vibration gloves for machine operators
• Proper design of tools and handles

Objective:

To reduce physical stress and musculoskeletal disorders and improve comfort and
productivity.
2) Cognitive Ergonomics

Cognitive ergonomics deals with the mental processes of humans while performing work.
It studies how workers think, understand, remember, and make decisions during tasks.

Key aspects:

• Mental workload
• Decision making
• Attention and concentration
• Human error
• Training and skill development
• Human–machine interaction

Common issues:

• Mental fatigue
• Confusion in operating systems
• Operator errors
• Stress due to excessive workload

Examples:

• Easy-to-understand control panels

• Warning alarms and signals
• Proper training for machine operators
• Clear safety instructions and labels

Objective:

To reduce human errors, mental stress, and accidents while improving efficiency and safety.

3) Organizational Ergonomics

Organizational ergonomics deals with the design of work systems, organizational structure,
and work policies in a workplace.

It focuses on improving the overall working environment and employee well-being.

Key aspects:

• Work schedules and shift work

• Teamwork and communication
• Job satisfaction
• Motivation and supervision
• Work-life balance
 • Workplace culture

Examples:

• Proper shift scheduling

• Adequate rest breaks
• Fair supervision
• Employee participation in decision-making
• Telecommuting (work from home)

Role of Ergonomics in FSP (Facilities and Services Planning)

As a Facilities and Services Planner (FSP), it is the responsibility to design and organize the
workplace so that workers can perform their duties safely, comfortably, and efficiently.

Ergonomics plays a very important role in workplace planning because it helps in adapting the
workplace to suit human capabilities and limitations, rather than forcing workers to adapt to
poorly designed workstations.

Role and Responsibilities:

1. Workstation Safety
o Provide properly designed workstations to avoid awkward postures.
o Ensure suitable height of tables, chairs, and equipment.
o Arrange tools within easy reach to reduce excessive bending and stretching.
2. Worker Health Protection
o Prevent musculoskeletal disorders such as back pain, neck pain, and joint injuries.
o Reduce fatigue and physical strain during work.
o Provide adequate lighting, ventilation, and thermal comfort.
3. Workplace Environment Design
o Plan layout to allow smooth movement of workers and materials.
o Reduce unnecessary lifting, pushing, and pulling activities.
o Introduce mechanical aids (trolleys, conveyors, lifting devices).
4. Safety Improvement
o Minimize risk of accidents and injuries.
o Provide safe handling methods for tools and machines.
o Ensure proper placement of controls and displays.
5. Productivity Enhancement
o Comfortable workers perform tasks faster and more accurately.
o Reduces errors and rework.
o Improves quality of work and job satisfaction.

Importance

The study of ergonomics helps a planner understand human limitations and capabilities,
enabling them to:
 • Provide a safe workplace
• Protect worker health
• Improve efficiency and morale
• Create a healthy working environment

Task Analysis (Ergonomics)

Task Analysis is a systematic method used to study a job by breaking it into small steps in order
to understand what a worker actually does, and to identify possible risks, errors, fatigue or
injuries.

Task Analysis means carefully observing a job step-by-step and checking whether the job suits
the worker or is harmful to the worker.

It helps us compare:

• Job demands (what the work requires)

with
• Human capability (what the worker can safely do)

If job demand is higher than human capability → injuries, stress, and accidents occur.

Definitions (Simplified)

• It is a method of breaking work into smaller elements and studying their relationship.
• It studies both physical actions and mental processes needed to complete a task.
• It helps identify ergonomic problems in a workplace.

Hierarchical Task Analysis (HTA)

HTA is the most commonly used task analysis technique.

Here, a job is divided into:

1. Main task (Goal)

2. Sub-tasks
3. Small actions

So the job is studied in a structured manner from general → specific.

Example (Easy for Students)

Job: Drinking water from a water cooler

Main Task: Drink water

Sub-tasks:

1. Walk to water cooler

2. Take a glass
3. Bend and open tap
4. Fill water
5. Lift glass
6. Drink water
7. Keep glass back

Now we analyze:

• Is the tap too low? (bending → back pain)

• Is the glass heavy? (hand strain)
• Is the cooler placed far? (extra walking fatigue)

This is how ergonomic problems are identified.

Purpose of Task Analysis

Task analysis helps to:

• Understand how work is actually performed

• Identify unsafe postures and repetitive motions
• Reduce worker fatigue
• Prevent injuries
• Improve efficiency and productivity
• Design better tools and workstations

Types of Activities Studied in Task Analysis

1. Physical Activities
o Lifting
o Bending
o Standing
o Repetitive movements
2. Cognitive Activities (Mental Work)
o Decision making
o Attention
o Memory
o Monitoring instruments

Steps in Task Analysis

1. Select the job to be studied

2. Observe the worker performing the job
 3. Break the job into small steps
4. Record posture, time, and effort required
5. Identify risk factors
6. Suggest improvements

Task Analysis in System Design (Ergonomics)

Task analysis is not only used for safety — it is also very important in designing machines,
workplaces and systems.

It helps the designer understand:

What the worker must do, how he does it, and whether the system suits human capability.

The main aim is to match human ability with system requirement.

Why Task Analysis is Important in System Design

Task analysis ensures that:

• Human performance requirements match the worker’s abilities

• The system can be operated safely
• Work becomes efficient and comfortable
• Human errors are reduced

In simple terms:

System should fit the human, not human should struggle to fit the system.

Where the Results of Task Analysis Are Used

The information obtained from task analysis is used to design:

1. Machine controls and displays (interface design)

2. Workplace layout
3. Tools and equipment
4. Instruction manuals and support materials
5. Training programs
6. Testing and evaluation procedures

Example:
If a control switch is too high or too far → worker stretches → shoulder pain + errors → accident
risk.
Task analysis helps designers place the switch at correct height and distance.
Function Allocation

Before doing task analysis, engineers decide:

Which work should be done by humans and which by machines?

This is called function allocation.

Example:

• Calculations → Computer
• Decision making → Human operator
• Lifting heavy loads → Machine

Sometimes after task analysis, engineers realize:

The work given to humans is too difficult or unsafe → then they shift it to machines.

Two Phases of Task Analysis

1. Task Description

It is the first step.

Here the entire job is broken down systematically:

Function → Task → Sub-task → Step

Example (Operating a drilling machine):

• Start machine
• Fix workpiece
• Select speed
• Drill hole
• Stop machine

Each task is further divided into smaller steps.

2. Task Analysis (Detailed Study)

After listing the steps, each step is examined to determine:

Physical demands

• Force required
• Posture
 • Repetition
• Lifting

Cognitive demands (Mental work)

• Attention
• Decision making
• Memory
• Monitoring instruments

This helps to identify:

• Fatigue
• Human error
• Accident possibilities

What Task Analysis Finally Provides

Task analysis gives important design information:

• Correct height of table and chair

• Proper reach distance of controls
• Comfortable posture
• Safe working method
• Training requirements

Methods Used in Task Analysis (Ergonomics)

There are different methods to study how a job is actually performed.

These methods help us understand work steps, worker effort, possible errors and accident
risks.

1) Flow Process Chart

A flow process chart records the complete sequence of work activities in order.

It shows:

• Operation
• Inspection
• Transport
• Delay
• Storage

Purpose:
• Understand how work moves step-by-step
• Identify unnecessary movements
• Reduce worker fatigue and time wastage

Example:
In a workshop, a worker walks repeatedly to pick tools → long walking distance → fatigue →
lower productivity.
Flow chart helps rearrange tool placement near workstation.

2) Critical Task Analysis

This method identifies important or dangerous tasks where mistakes can cause:

• Accidents
• Equipment damage
• Injury
• Production loss

Focus:
• Tasks that require high attention
• Tasks involving heavy machines or hazardous materials

Example:
Switching ON a boiler, electrical maintenance, working at heights — these are critical tasks.
Proper training and safety procedures are then designed.

3) Hierarchical Task Analysis (HTA)

In HTA, a job is broken down step-by-step into smaller parts.

Job → Main tasks → Sub-tasks → Actions

Purpose:
• Understand exactly how work is performed
• Identify where errors may occur
• Improve safety and training

Example:
Operating a lathe machine:

1. Fix workpiece
2. Set speed
3. Start machine
4. Monitor cutting
5. Stop machine

Each step is studied separately.

Techniques for Collecting Task Data

To perform task analysis, we must first collect information about the job.
The following techniques are used:

1) Documentation Review

Studying existing records such as:

• SOP (Standard Operating Procedure)

• Safety manuals
• Maintenance reports
• Accident reports

Helps understand how the job is supposed to be done.

2) Surveys and Questionnaires

Workers are asked to fill forms regarding:

• Difficulties in work
• Pain or discomfort
• Fatigue
• Suggestions

Useful for identifying ergonomic problems.

3) Interviews

Direct discussion with workers, supervisors and operators.

Provides:
• Real work experience
• Hidden problems not written in manuals

4) Observation

The analyst directly watches the worker performing the job.

This is one of the most important methods.

Helps identify:

• Wrong posture
• Repetitive motion
• Unsafe practices
 • Manual handling risks

5) Verbal Protocols (Think-Aloud Method)

While doing the job, the worker explains what he is thinking.

Example:
“I am checking pressure gauge… I am reducing valve… now temperature is high…”

Ergonomic Task Analysis

Ergonomic task analysis is the systematic study of a job to identify:

• physical strain
• unsafe movements
• repetitive actions
• risk of injury

It helps in modifying the job or workplace so that the work fits the worker (not the worker
fitting the job).

The National Safety Council recommends the following approaches:

1) General Observation

This is the simplest and most commonly used method.

The safety officer observes workers while they are doing their job.

Focus on:

• manual material handling

• bending and twisting
• repetitive movements
• awkward posture

Observation is more effective when workers behave naturally (not consciously changing
behavior).

Example:
A worker repeatedly bending to lift cement bags → leads to back pain → workstation height
needs correction.
2) Questionnaires and Interviews

Used to identify hidden ergonomic problems.

Questionnaires

• easy to distribute
• quick to analyze
• covers many workers

Interviews

• detailed information
• real experiences
• identifies pain, fatigue, discomfort

Typical questions:

• Do you feel pain during work?

• Which task causes fatigue?
• Which activity is most difficult?

3) Videotaping and Photography

Modern and very effective method.

Work is recorded using video or photos and later studied carefully.

Advantages:

• permanent record
• slow motion analysis possible
• helps identify wrong posture

Note:
Flash photography may disturb workers; therefore high-speed cameras are preferred.

Example:
Video shows a machine operator twisting his wrist repeatedly → risk of repetitive strain injury
(RSI).

4) Drawing and Sketching

A sketch of the workstation or workflow is prepared.

It helps to identify:
 • improper layout
• unnecessary movement
• long walking distance
• poor tool placement

Important:
The drawing must be accurate.

Example:
Tools kept far away → worker walks repeatedly → fatigue → layout redesign needed.

5) Measuring the Work Environment

Actual measurements are taken to find ergonomic problems.

Measurements include:

• weight of object lifted

• lifting height
• carrying distance
• frequency of movement
• working temperature
• lighting level

Questions answered:
• How far is material carried?
• How heavy is the load?
• How often is the motion repeated?

These help in designing safer work.

6) Understanding Ergonomics of Aging

A major concern in industries.

Nearly 30% of workers are 45 years or older.

With aging:

• muscle strength decreases

• reaction time slows
• vision reduces
• injury risk increases

Therefore workplace should be modified:

 • reduce heavy lifting
• provide mechanical aids
• improve lighting
• provide seating/rest breaks

Hierarchical Task Analysis (HTA)

Hierarchical Task Analysis (HTA) is a systematic ergonomics method used to study a job by
breaking a task into smaller and smaller steps until each individual action of the worker is
clearly understood.

In simple words:
HTA studies “What the worker does, step-by-step” so that unsafe actions, errors, fatigue and
unnecessary effort can be identified and corrected.

Hierarchical Task Analysis (HTA) is one of the most commonly used task-analysis methods in
ergonomics and safety engineering.
In this method, a job is studied by arranging the work steps in the exact order in which the
worker performs them. The aim is to clearly understand the sequence of actions so that errors,
unsafe practices and unnecessary effort can be identified and corrected.

Basic Concept

HTA answers three important questions:

1. What is the worker trying to achieve? (Goal)

2. What steps are performed to achieve it? (Tasks/Subtasks)
3. In what sequence are they performed? (Plan/Order)

So the structure becomes:

Goal → Tasks → Sub-tasks → Actions

Example (Production Worker Packaging Process)

Goal: Pack the product safely and correctly

Task Steps (in order of performance):

1. Collect products coming from the production line

2. Place the product in shrink-wrap
3. Run the product through the heat-shrink machine
4. Put the product inside the package/carton
5. Glue the ends of the package
6. Fix the label on the front of the package
7. Place the finished product on the finished goods line
Here, each step must happen in sequence.
If the order changes → product damage, rework, or worker injury may occur.

Important Points in HTA

• There is no single correct way to list steps.

• The steps depend on:
o Type of job
o Worker skills
o Equipment used
o Target group (new workers / experienced workers)

Therefore, the first stage of HTA is deciding what information is required and who the
analysis is for (training, safety, design improvement, etc.).

Signs of Success (Performance Indicators)

HTA should also include how we know the task is done correctly.
These are called success indicators.

Examples:

• Carpenter: edges properly aligned

• Plumber: no leakage in pipe joints
• Machine operator: correct dimension and no defects
• Packaging worker: proper sealing and label alignment

These indicators help:

• Trainers teach workers properly

• Workers self-check their work
• Supervisors inspect quality and safety

Why HTA is Important

HTA helps to:

• Identify unsafe actions

• Reduce accidents
• Develop Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)
• Improve training programs
• Improve quality of work
• Reduce worker fatigue

Ergonomic Importance
Through HTA we can identify:

• Awkward postures
• Repetitive movements
• Heavy lifting
• Unnecessary walking
• Machine hazards

Then improvements can be made such as:

• Providing trolleys
• Changing workstation height
• Using mechanical aids
• Rearranging layout

If / Then Analysis (Conditional Task Analysis)

If/Then Analysis is a type of task analysis used when a worker’s action changes depending on
a situation or condition.
In many jobs, the worker does not always follow the same fixed steps. Instead, the next step
depends on what he observes.
So the task is written in the form:

IF (condition occurs) → THEN (action to be taken)

It is also called decision-based task analysis, because the worker must think and decide before
acting.

Simple Idea

Not all work is routine.

Sometimes the worker must:

• check a condition
• make a judgment
• choose a different action

This decision-making process is captured using If/Then analysis.

Engineering / Workplace Examples

Example 1: Pump Operation (Water Treatment Plant)

• IF pump pressure is normal → continue operation

• IF pressure is low → check suction pipe blockage
• IF pressure is high → check delivery valve
Example 2: Electrical Work

• IF power supply is ON → switch OFF main breaker first

• IF no power supply → begin repair work

Example 3: Construction Site

• IF scaffold is stable → worker allowed to climb

• IF scaffold is loose → stop work and repair immediately

Why It Is Important (Ergonomics & Safety)

If/Then analysis helps to:

• Understand worker decision making

• Prevent human error
• Prepare emergency procedures
• Develop safety instructions
• Train new workers properly

Many accidents happen not because workers don’t know steps, but because they don’t know
what to do in abnormal conditions.
If/Then analysis solves this problem.

Difference from Hierarchical Task Analysis

HTA If/Then Analysis

Fixed sequence of steps Decision-based steps
Same order every time Order changes with condition
Routine work Variable / emergency work

Model-Based Analysis (MBA) – Ergonomic Task Analysis Method

Model-Based Analysis is a task analysis method mainly used for skilled, professional or
complex jobs where it is difficult to clearly list fixed step-by-step procedures.

In some work (designing, troubleshooting, diagnosis, supervision, laboratory work, operation

control rooms), the worker does thinking, judgment and experience-based actions.
So instead of only observing physical steps, we study the mental model (how the person thinks
and decides while working).

In simple words:
Model-Based Analysis studies how an expert performs a task in his mind and then converts
that thinking process into a learning model for others.
Why this method is needed

Some tasks are not mechanical or repetitive:

• designing a treatment plant

• diagnosing equipment failure
• laboratory testing
• safety supervision
• emergency response

Here, the worker:

• observes
• interprets
• decides
• acts

These cannot be described easily using simple step listing. Therefore Model-Based Analysis is
used.

Basic Principle

The method depends on the task performer (expert) to:

1. Identify what actions are required

2. Decide the correct sequence
3. Explain the reasoning behind the action
4. Convert experience into a teachable process

So, instead of “what steps are done”, we study “how the worker thinks while doing the task.”

Advantages

• Suitable for complex and skilled jobs

• Captures expert knowledge
• Improves training quality
• Reduces human error
• Improves safety decision making
• Helps prepare SOPs and manuals

Cognitive Task Analysis (CTA)

Cognitive Task Analysis is a special type of task analysis that studies the mental activities
involved in doing a job — not only what a worker does, but how the worker thinks while
doing it.
It focuses on the psychological processes such as:

• perception
• attention
• memory
• judgment
• problem-solving
• decision-making

In simple words:
CTA explains how the brain works during a task and how experience and situation (context)
influence decisions.

Why Cognitive Task Analysis is Important

Many workplace accidents do not occur because a worker cannot physically do the job.
They occur because of wrong decisions, misjudgment, distraction or misinterpretation.

Examples:

• Operator misreads a pressure gauge

• Supervisor ignores warning signs
• Driver reacts late to a hazard
• Engineer chooses wrong valve operation

These are human error accidents, and CTA helps to understand them.

Main Goal of CTA

The goal of Cognitive Task Analysis is to determine the actual decision requirements of the
task.

It identifies:

• what information the worker observes

• how the worker interprets it
• why a decision is taken
• what cues (signals) guided the action

Steps in Cognitive Task Analysis

1. Map the Task (Traditional Task Analysis)

First, list all the physical steps of the job.

Example (Boiler Operator):

 1. Check pressure gauge
2. Check temperature
3. Observe steam flow
4. Adjust valve

This gives the structure of the task.

2. Identify Critical Decision Points

Find moments where the worker must think and decide.

Example:

• When pressure increases

• When alarm sounds
• When flow reduces

These are the points where accidents are most likely.

3. Cluster and Link Decision Points

Connect related decisions.

Example:
High pressure → Alarm → Valve operation → Shutdown decision

This shows the decision chain.

4. Prioritize Decision Points

Identify which decisions are most important or risky.

Example:
Emergency shutdown decision is more critical than routine monitoring.

5. Diagnose and Characterize Decisions

Study:
• strategies used
• signals (cues) noticed
• interpretation of signals
• conclusions made

Example:
Operator heard unusual vibration → assumed normal → did not stop machine → machine
failure.
CTA finds the reason behind the mistake, not just the mistake.

Example (Workshop Accident)

Worker operating a drilling machine:

• hears abnormal sound

• sees vibration
• continues operation

Physical analysis: Machine failed

Cognitive analysis: Worker misinterpreted warning signs

So the real problem = decision error, not mechanical error.

Applications

Cognitive Task Analysis is used in:

• industrial safety
• aviation
• nuclear plants
• medical surgery
• chemical industries
• control rooms
• emergency response

Benefits

• Identifies human error causes

• Improves training programs
• Helps design safer equipment
• Improves warning systems
• Reduces accidents
• Improves decision making

Difference: Physical vs Cognitive Task Analysis

Physical Task Analysis Cognitive Task Analysis

What the worker does How the worker thinks
Body movements Mental processes
Steps and actions Decisions and judgments
Ergonomic posture Human error prevention
Ergonomic Injuries / Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSDs)

Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSDs) are injuries or disorders that affect the body’s movement
system — muscles, bones, joints and supporting tissues.

They mainly affect:

• muscles
• tendons
• ligaments
• joints
• nerves
• cartilage
• spinal discs

MSDs are also called Repetitive Motion Injuries (RMI) or Cumulative Trauma Disorders
(CTD) because they usually develop slowly over time, not suddenly like an accident.

Why MSDs Occur

MSDs happen when the human body is forced to work beyond its natural capacity
repeatedly.

Normally, the body needs:

• proper posture
• rest
• variation in movement

If a worker keeps doing the same motion or maintains a wrong posture for long time, the tissues
become strained → inflammation → pain → permanent injury.

Examples (Easy to Understand)

Occupation Possible MSD

Computer operator Neck pain, wrist pain
Civil drafter Shoulder stiffness
Construction worker Back injury
Machine operator Hand tendon injury
Drivers Lower back pain

Common Types of MSDs

1. Back pain (most common in construction and lifting work)

2. Carpal Tunnel Syndrome – numbness and tingling in fingers (computer users)
 3. Tendonitis – swelling of tendons due to repeated movement
4. Neck and shoulder strain
5. Knee joint pain
6. Sciatica – pain from lower back radiating to leg

Risk Factors Causing MSDs

MSDs occur due to two types of factors:

1. Individual Risk Factors (Personal Factors)

These depend on the worker’s physical condition.

• Age (older workers recover slower)

• Poor nutrition
• Lack of exercise
• Obesity
• Smoking
• Medical conditions (diabetes, arthritis)
• Fatigue or insufficient sleep

Example:
Two workers doing same job — the unfit worker develops injury earlier.

2. Ergonomic Risk Factors (Workplace Factors)

These are the main causes of MSDs.

a) High Repetition
Doing the same movement again and again.

Example:

• Typing continuously
• Hammering repeatedly
• Assembly line work

Effect → Tendon swelling and nerve compression

b) Awkward Posture
When the body is not in natural alignment.

Examples:

• Bending neck toward laptop

• Twisting while lifting materials
 • Working with raised arms

Effect → muscle strain and joint damage

c) Static Posture (Sitting or Standing for Long Time)

Remaining in same position for hours.

Examples:

• Computer operators
• Drivers
• Lab technicians

Effect → reduced blood circulation → stiffness and pain

d) Manual Handling / Heavy Lifting

Lifting or carrying heavy loads improperly.

Examples:

• Cement bags
• Bricks
• Equipment

Effect → spinal disc injury and chronic back pain

e) Forceful Exertion
Applying excessive force using body.

Example:

• Tightening bolts
• Using heavy tools

f) Vibration
Working with vibrating machines.

Example:

• Jackhammers
• Drilling machines

Effect → nerve damage and hand numbness

Early Symptoms (Students should recognize)

MSDs usually start with warning signs:

• mild pain
• tingling sensation
• numbness
• stiffness
• swelling
• reduced grip strength
• fatigue

If ignored → becomes permanent injury.

Why MSDs Are Important

• Largest category of workplace injuries

• About 30% of workers’ compensation costs
• Major reason for absenteeism
• Reduces productivity
• Causes long-term disability

Prevention (Very Important)

1. Maintain correct posture

2. Adjust chair and workstation height
3. Take short breaks (every 30–40 minutes)
4. Use mechanical lifting devices
5. Avoid twisting while lifting
6. Stretching exercises
7. Proper lighting and workstation design
8. Job rotation (avoid repetitive work)

Prevention of MSD (Musculoskeletal Disorders)

Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSDs) are injuries or disorders affecting the muscles, tendons,
ligaments, joints, nerves, and supporting blood vessels.
Common examples: back pain, neck strain, carpal tunnel syndrome, tendonitis, shoulder pain.

They usually occur due to poor ergonomics, repetitive work, heavy lifting, vibration, and
prolonged awkward posture — very common in laboratories, construction sites, and computer-
based work (relevant for engineering students and site engineers).

1. Workplace Ergonomic Design

• Adjust chair height so feet rest flat on the floor.

 • Maintain neutral posture (back straight, shoulders relaxed).
• Computer monitor at eye level (no neck bending).
• Keyboard and mouse at elbow height.
• Provide proper lighting to avoid leaning forward.

Principle: Fit the job to the worker, not the worker to the job.

2. Proper Working Posture

Sitting

• Keep back supported with lumbar support.

• Knees at 90° angle.
• Avoid slouching or leaning forward.

Standing

• Keep weight equally on both feet.

• Use footrest if standing long hours.
• Avoid bending the neck continuously.

Lifting (Very Important for Civil Engineers)

Use SAFE LIFTING TECHNIQUE:

1. Bend knees, not the back

2. Keep load close to body
3. Lift using leg muscles
4. Do not twist while lifting
5. Ask help for heavy loads

3. Work Organization & Rest Breaks

• Follow 20–20–20 rule (every 20 min, look 20 feet away for 20 sec).
• Take short micro-breaks (5 min/hour).
• Alternate heavy and light tasks.
• Avoid prolonged continuous computer work.

4. Reduce Repetitive Motions

• Rotate job duties among workers.

• Use mechanical aids (trolleys, wheelbarrows, hoists).
• Avoid continuous hammering, drilling, typing without breaks.

5. Use of Tools & Equipment

 • Use ergonomically designed tools.
• Select correct handle size and weight.
• Avoid vibrating tools for long duration.
• Maintain tools (sharp tools need less force).

6. Manual Material Handling Control

• Use mechanical handling devices:

o cranes
o forklifts
o conveyors
o hand trolleys
• Team lifting for heavy objects.
• Reduce load weight whenever possible.

7. Exercise & Physical Fitness

• Daily stretching exercises (5–10 minutes).

• Strengthening of back and shoulder muscles.
• Warm-up before heavy work.
• Maintain healthy body weight.

Simple workplace stretches:

• Neck rotation
• Shoulder rolls
• Wrist stretch
• Back extension

8. Training & Awareness

• Educate workers about ergonomic hazards.

• Demonstrate proper lifting techniques.
• Early reporting of pain or discomfort.
• Conduct periodic ergonomic assessments.

9. Administrative Controls

• Limit overtime work.

• Provide adequate manpower.
• Schedule rest pauses.
• Implement job rotation policy.

10. Personal Protective Measures

• Use lumbar support belts (where necessary).

 • Anti-vibration gloves.
• Knee pads for floor work.
• Proper safety shoes.

Early Warning Signs of MSD

Workers should report immediately if they experience:

• Persistent back/neck pain

• Tingling or numbness in fingers
• Reduced grip strength
• Swelling in joints
• Muscle fatigue

(Static Loading (Holding Same Position)

Meaning:
When a muscle is kept in the same position for a long time without movement.

Normally muscles need contraction and relaxation.

If a worker holds a posture continuously → blood circulation decreases → oxygen supply
reduces → muscles fatigue and pain starts.

Examples

• Sitting in front of computer for 3–4 hours continuously

• Standing laboratory technician
• Surveyor holding leveling instrument
• Driver driving continuously

Effects

• Neck stiffness
• Shoulder pain
• Lower back pain

Even sitting is also a load on the spine. Sitting long time is equal to lifting a small weight
continuously.

2. Repetition (Repeated Movement)

Meaning:
Doing the same motion again and again with very little rest.

Examples
 • Typing on keyboard
• Using mouse continuously
• Assembly line work
• Brick laying
• Hammering nails

What happens in body

Repeated motion → tendons rub against bone → swelling → nerve compression.

Common Result
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome (wrist nerve problem)

Symptoms

• Tingling in fingers
• Hand numbness
• Weak grip

3. Force (Excessive Effort)

Meaning:
When a worker uses high physical effort or strength to perform a task.

Examples

• Lifting cement bags

• Tightening bolts using spanner
• Pulling heavy pipes
• Pushing wheelbarrow

Effect on Body
High force → excessive pressure on muscles and spinal discs → back injury.

This is why most construction workers suffer lower back pain.

4. Awkward Posture

Meaning:
Working in an unnatural body position.

The human body is designed to work best in neutral posture (straight back, relaxed shoulders).

When joints move away from normal position → stress increases.

Examples
 • Bending neck toward laptop
• Twisting body while lifting
• Working overhead (electricians, painters)
• Bending during floor work

Consequences

• Neck strain
• Shoulder injury
• Disc slip (slipped disc)

Very important teaching line:

Bad posture + long time = permanent injury

5. Contact Stress

Meaning:
When a hard or sharp surface presses a small area of the body.

This compresses nerves and blood vessels.

Examples

• Wrist resting on table edge while typing

• Kneeling on hard floor
• Using tools with hard handles
• Leaning elbow on sharp edge

Effects

• Nerve damage
• Numbness
• Reduced blood circulation

Students easily understand this:

After resting elbow on desk long time → hand “goes to sleep”.

6. Vibration

Meaning:
Continuous vibration transmitted from machine to human body.

Sources

• Jackhammer
• Drilling machine
 • Compactor
• Heavy vehicles
• Excavator

Effects

• Hand-arm vibration syndrome

• Numb fingers
• Loss of grip strength
• Joint damage

Long-term exposure can even affect blood vessels (white finger disease).

How These Factors Cause MSDs

Usually injuries are not due to a single factor.

They occur due to combination:

Example:
Construction worker
= heavy lifting (force) + bending (awkward posture) + repetition
→ Back injury

Computer operator
= static sitting + repetition + contact stress
→ Neck and wrist pain

Ergonomic Control Methods (Protection Against MSDs)

Ergonomic controls aim to reduce exposure to risk factors such as force, repetition, vibration,
contact stress, and awkward posture — the main causes of Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSDs).

Ergonomic controls follow the Hierarchy of Control:

1. Engineering Controls (Most Effective)

Physical changes made to workplace, tools, or equipment to eliminate the hazard.

Examples

• Use lifting devices (hoists, cranes, trolleys) for heavy materials

• Reduce load weight
• Adjust worktable height to avoid bending and long reach
• Position materials close to the worker
• Use conveyors/diverters to reduce repetitive handling
• Provide adjustable chairs and footrests
 • Redesign hand tools (proper handle size, low-vibration tools)

Result: Eliminates awkward posture and excessive force → best prevention of back pain and
shoulder injuries.

2. Administrative & Work Practice Controls

Changes in work procedures and management policies.

• Team lifting for heavy objects

• Job rotation (workers alternate tasks using different muscle groups)
• Provide micro-breaks and rest pauses
• Limit overtime and repetitive continuous work
• Maintenance of power and pneumatic tools
• Provide additional helper (“floater”) workers during heavy work

3. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Last line of defense — reduces exposure but does not remove hazard.

• Anti-vibration gloves
• Knee pads
• Lumbar support belts
• Padded gloves
• Proper safety shoes
• Thermal gloves in cold environment

Ergonomic Safety Program

An effective MSD prevention program should include:

1. Establish a formal Ergonomics Program

2. Worker training and awareness
3. Feedback from workers and supervisors
4. Conduct Job Hazard Analysis (JHA)
5. Early recognition and reporting of symptoms

Safe Work Habits (Very Important for Students & Site Engineers)

• Warm-up and stretch before repetitive or heavy activity

• Take a break every 20–30 minutes
• Avoid any long sustained posture (sitting or bending)
• Maintain correct workstation setup
• Adjust chair, monitor, and keyboard properly

Early Warning Signs of MSD

(Should be reported immediately)

• Pain or tenderness
• Tingling / numbness in fingers
• Swelling in joints
• Reduced grip strength
• Morning stiffness
• Burning sensation in muscles

Worker Awareness Rules

• Respect pain → Stop the activity causing pain

• Recognize early inflammation signs and react early
• Do not ignore mild discomfort (it becomes chronic injury)
• Be aware of workstation environment (lighting, height, reach distance)

Advantages of Ergonomics

Ergonomics is the science of designing the workplace, tools and tasks to fit the worker.
Applying ergonomics benefits both employees and the organization.

1. Health & Safety Benefits

• Reduces musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) such as back pain, neck pain, carpal tunnel
syndrome
• Prevents fatigue and overexertion injuries
• Minimizes accidents caused by poor posture or improper handling
• Decreases eye strain and headaches (proper lighting & monitor setup)
• Improves overall physical comfort

2. Increased Productivity

• Workers perform tasks faster and more efficiently

• Less time lost due to discomfort or injury
• Improved work speed and accuracy
• Better concentration and reduced mental fatigue

3. Improved Work Quality

• Fewer human errors

• Better precision in work (especially in technical and machine operations)
• Reduced material damage and rework

4. Reduced Absenteeism & Medical Costs

• Fewer sick leaves

 • Reduced compensation claims
• Lower treatment and rehabilitation expenses
• Faster recovery of workers

5. Improved Employee Morale

• Workers feel comfortable and valued

• Higher job satisfaction
• Reduced stress
• Better motivation and teamwork

6. Better Utilization of Workforce

• Workers can work longer without excessive fatigue

• Suitable for both young and aging workers
• Inclusive workplace (accommodates different body sizes and abilities)

7. Organizational Benefits

• Increased company productivity and profit

• Compliance with safety regulations
• Reduced legal liability
• Improved company image and reputation

Workspace Envelope (Ergonomics)

1. What is a Workspace?

A workspace is the area in which a worker performs job activities.

It includes:

• Work table/desk
• Chair
• Tools and machines
• Computer or equipment
• Materials used in the task

While designing a workspace, the arrangement must consider: posture, reach, clearance,
access, and vision of the worker.

2. Need for Proper Workspace Design

If the workplace is poorly designed:

• Worker bends, twists, or stretches repeatedly

• Muscles get strained
 • Fatigue increases
• Chances of accidents and errors increase
• Efficiency decreases

So, ergonomics aims to fit the job to the person, not the person to the job.

3. Workspace Envelope

A workspace envelope is the three-dimensional (3D) area around the worker within which
he/she can comfortably perform tasks while staying in one position.

It mainly depends on:

• Arm length (reach)

• Direction of movement
• Nature of work (precision work or heavy work)

In simple words:
It is the comfortable reaching area of the hands without bending or stretching the body.

4. Functional Arm Reach

The limits of the workspace envelope are decided by functional arm reach:

• Forward reach
• Side reach
• Vertical reach

Objects placed outside this zone force workers to:

• Lean forward
• Twist the spine
• Raise shoulders

This leads to MSDs (back pain, shoulder pain, neck pain).

5. Arrangement of Items

Items should be placed according to frequency of use:

Zone Placement
Primary (Normal reach area) Frequently used items (keyboard, tools, mouse)
Secondary (Maximum reach area) Occasionally used items (files, materials)
Outside reach Rarely used items (storage racks, cupboards)
6. 5th Percentile Design Principle

Workspace envelopes are designed for the 5th percentile person.

This means:

• Designed for the smaller users (shorter reach)

• Therefore, 95% of people can comfortably reach everything

If we design for tall people only → short workers cannot reach tools → unsafe posture.

7. Benefits of Proper Workspace Envelope

• Reduces fatigue
• Prevents musculoskeletal disorders
• Improves comfort
• Increases productivity
• Reduces mistakes and accidents

Seated Workspace (Ergonomics)

A seated workspace is a workstation designed for tasks performed while sitting, such as
computer work, drafting, laboratory work, and office activities.
Proper seated workstation design helps maintain a neutral body posture, reduces fatigue, and
prevents musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs).

Correct Sitting Posture

For maximum comfort and minimum strain:

• Upper arms relaxed and close to the body

• Elbows bent at approximately 90°
• Wrists straight (not bent up, down, or sideways)
• Back supported by the chair
• Head upright (not bending forward)

This posture:

• Reduces muscle tension

• Improves blood circulation
• Prevents neck, shoulder, and wrist pain
• Particularly important for repetitive tasks like typing

Work Surface Height

 • Ideally, the working item (keyboard, notebook, drawing board, etc.) should be at
elbow height when seated.
• Adjustable height tables are best because people have different body sizes.

If adjustment is not available:

• Fix the table height so that the keyboard or work material aligns with elbow level.

Why important?

• Too high → shoulders lift → shoulder and neck pain

• Too low → bending forward → back and neck strain

Leg and Thigh Clearance

There must be adequate space under the desk for:

• Thighs
• Knees
• Leg movement

Insufficient clearance causes:

• Compression of thighs
• Reduced blood circulation
• Numbness and discomfort

Foot Support

Some shorter users cannot place their feet flat on the floor.

In such cases:

• Provide a footrest

Benefits:

• Maintains proper hip posture

• Reduces lower back pressure
• Improves circulation in legs

Fine / Precision Work

(Reading, electronics assembly, drawing, microscope work)

• The work surface can be raised slightly for better visibility

 • However, elbow support must be provided (armrests or padded support)

Reason:
Raised work level increases hand stability and visual accuracy, but without support it causes
shoulder fatigue.

Additional Good Practices

• Keep monitor at eye level

• Screen distance: about arm’s length (50–70 cm)
• Take a short break every 20–30 minutes
• Stretch wrists, neck, and back
• Use a chair with:
o Backrest
o Lumbar support
o Adjustable height

Standing Workspace (Ergonomics)

A standing workspace is the work area designed for a worker who performs tasks while
standing upright.
The workspace envelope in standing posture is the area where a person can comfortably
reach, hold, and manipulate objects without bending the trunk, raising the shoulders, or
overstretching the arms.

The human body produces maximum strength and control when:

• Elbows are close to the body

• Elbows are bent about 90° (right angle)
• Shoulders remain relaxed

If work is too high or too low → the worker lifts shoulders or bends the back → leads to fatigue
and MSDs.

General Principles for Standing Workstation Design

1. Heavy / Forceful Work

(hammering, pushing, drilling, chiseling, manual assembly requiring force)

• Work surface should be 100 – 250 mm BELOW elbow height

• Reason: Worker can use body weight and shoulder muscles effectively.

If too high: shoulders lift → neck & shoulder pain

If too low: excessive bending → lower back pain
2. Normal (Light) Work

(inspection, packing, sorting, simple assembly)

• Work surface should be at elbow height or slightly below

This allows:

• Neutral posture
• Relaxed shoulders
• Minimum fatigue

3. Precision Work

(writing, electronics assembly, laboratory work, drawing)

• Work surface should be 50 – 100 mm ABOVE elbow height

Reason:

• Object comes closer to the eyes

• Reduces bending of the neck and trunk
• Improves accuracy and visual control

In fact, precision work is better done sitting, because the back can be supported and hands
stabilized.

Alternating Postures

Standing continuously causes:

• Leg fatigue
• Varicose veins
• Lower back pain

So, ergonomics recommends:

• Use high stools (perching stools)

• Workers can alternate between standing and semi-sitting position

This reduces load on:

• Spine
• Knees
• Feet
Adjustable Workstations

Best ergonomic solution: Adjustable height work surfaces

Advantages:

• Each worker adjusts table height according to body size

• Suitable for both tall and short workers

If adjustment is not possible:

• Design for the tallest user

• Provide foot platforms/footrests for shorter workers

Additional Recommendations for Standing Work

• Provide anti-fatigue floor mats

• Keep frequently used tools within normal reach
• Avoid overhead work
• Provide footrest bar to shift body weight
• Encourage short breaks and stretching

Visual Ergonomics

Visual ergonomics is the branch of ergonomics that studies how the human eye interacts with
work, tools, displays, lighting and the surrounding environment.
Its goal is to design workplaces so that tasks can be performed comfortably, safely, and
efficiently without causing eye strain or visual fatigue.

In simple terms:

Visual ergonomics means designing the workplace according to the capability and limitations of
the human eye.

Objectives of Visual Ergonomics

• Reduce eye strain and visual fatigue

• Improve visibility and clarity of objects
• Prevent headaches and blurred vision
• Increase work accuracy and productivity
• Improve safety and comfort

How Visual Ergonomics Works

Visual ergonomics studies the relationship between three things:

 1. The Individual (Worker)
o Visual acuity (clarity of vision)
o Age
o Need for spectacles
o Eye focusing ability
2. The Task
o Reading small letters
o Computer work
o Precision assembly
o Drawing or laboratory observation
3. The Environment
o Lighting level
o Glare
o Contrast
o Viewing distance

When these three are properly balanced → comfortable vision and better performance.

Common Visual Problems in Workplaces

Poor visual design can cause:

• Eye strain (Asthenopia)

• Headache
• Blurred vision
• Watery or dry eyes
• Neck and shoulder pain (due to leaning forward)
• Reduced concentration
• Errors in work

Important Factors in Visual Ergonomics

1. Lighting (Illumination)

Lighting should be adequate but not excessive.

Too low → eye strain

Too bright → glare

Recommended:

• Reading/office work: ~300–500 lux

• Precision work: ~750–1000 lux

2. Glare Control
Glare is excessive brightness that disturbs vision.

Types:

• Direct glare – from lamps

• Reflected glare – from screen or table surface

Control methods:

• Use curtains/blinds
• Matte (non-shiny) surfaces
• Anti-glare screen filters
• Proper positioning of lights

3. Viewing Distance

Correct distance between eye and object:

• Computer monitor: 50–70 cm (arm’s length)

• Books: 35–40 cm

Too close → eye fatigue

Too far → leaning forward → neck pain

4. Viewing Angle

The top of the monitor should be at or slightly below eye level.

Reason:
Human eyes naturally look slightly downward while relaxed.

5. Contrast and Text Size

• Black text on white background is best

• Avoid low contrast colors (yellow on white, blue on black)
• Font size: 11–14 pt minimum for screen work

6. Screen Brightness & Blue Light

Excess brightness causes:

• Eye dryness
• Sleep disturbance
• Digital eye strain

Use:
 • Night mode / blue light filter
• Moderate brightness equal to room lighting

Preventive Measures (20-20-20 Rule)

Every 20 minutes,
look at an object 20 feet away
for 20 seconds.

Benefits:

• Relaxes eye muscles

• Prevents computer vision syndrome

Applications of Visual Ergonomics

• Computer workstations
• Control rooms
• Laboratories
• Classrooms
• Mobile phone usage
• Driving and transportation systems

Workspace envelope

A workspace envelope is the 3-dimensional space around a worker within which he/she can
comfortably reach, see, and handle tools, materials and controls while maintaining a
correct posture.

It is mainly based on human reach capability (arm length + body movement).

In ergonomics, workstations are designed so that frequently used items are placed inside the
normal reach zone.

Why it is Important

• Reduces excessive bending and stretching

• Prevents fatigue and musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs)
• Improves speed and accuracy of work
• Increases safety and comfort

Physical Design of a Workspace Includes

Designing a workplace is not just arranging furniture — it must match the human body
dimensions (anthropometry).

Important aspects:
 • Amount of space required
• Position of furniture and equipment
• Posture of the worker
• Reach distance
• Clearance for legs and body movement
• Visual field (line of sight)
• Access to tools and controls

Poor workspace design leads to:

• Back pain
• Neck strain
• Repetitive strain injuries
• Accidents
• Reduced productivity

Workspace Factors

While designing a workspace, the following factors must be considered:

1. Posture – Sitting or standing position should be natural and comfortable.

2. Reach – Frequently used tools should be within arm reach.
3. Clearance – Enough space for legs, knees and movement.
4. Vision – Objects should fall within normal viewing angle.
5. Force requirement – Heavy work requires lower working height.
6. Frequency of use – Often-used items placed closer.
7. Adjustability – Adjustable chairs and tables for different users.
8. Safety – Avoid sharp edges and obstruction.

Seated Workspace

A seated workstation is used for office work, laboratory work, drafting, computer work, and
precision tasks.

Guidelines

• Elbows should be at about 90°

• Work surface at elbow height
• Back supported by chair
• Feet flat on floor or footrest
• Adequate thigh clearance
• Monitor at eye level
• Keyboard near the body
Advantages

• Less fatigue
• Suitable for precision work
• Better control of small movements

Standing Workspace

Standing workstations are common in workshops, construction sites, assembly lines and
laboratories.

Guidelines

• Heavy work: table 100–250 mm below elbow level

• Normal work: table at elbow height
• Precision work: table 50–100 mm above elbow level
• Provide anti-fatigue mats
• Allow alternate sitting/standing (high stools)

Advantages

• More mobility
• Suitable for handling large materials
• Better for forceful activities

Limitations of Workspace Envelope

Although useful, workspace envelope design has certain limitations:

1. Human body size varies

o People differ in height, arm length and strength
o One fixed design cannot suit everyone
2. Based on static posture
o Real work involves body movement and dynamic actions
3. Does not consider fatigue
o Repeated reaching causes tiredness even within reach zone
4. Age and gender differences
o Elderly workers and women may have smaller reach and strength
5. Environmental factors ignored
o Lighting, temperature, vibration also affect performance
6. Not suitable for complex tasks
o Tasks requiring body rotation, bending or walking exceed envelope limits
7. Personal habits
o Workers may adopt incorrect posture despite good design
Hazard cognition and analysis

Hazard cognition and analysis is a very important concept in occupational safety and
ergonomics.
It means recognizing (identifying), understanding, and evaluating workplace hazards before
they cause an accident, injury, or health problem.

1. Hazard Cognition (Hazard Recognition)

Hazard cognition is the ability of a worker or supervisor to identify a potential source of harm
in the workplace.

A hazard is anything that has the potential to:

• cause injury
• cause illness
• damage equipment
• harm the environment

It mainly depends on:

• awareness
• experience
• training
• observation skills

Examples

• Wet floor → slip hazard

• Poor posture → ergonomic hazard
• Exposed wire → electrical hazard
• Dust and fumes → health hazard
• Heavy lifting → musculoskeletal disorder

Workers must be trained to “see danger before it happens.”

Types of Workplace Hazards

1. Physical Hazards
o Noise
o Heat
o Vibration
o Radiation
o Poor lighting
2. Chemical Hazards
o Gases
 o Vapors
o Fumes
o Dust
o Toxic chemicals
3. Biological Hazards
o Bacteria
o Viruses
o Fungi
o Contaminated water
4. Ergonomic Hazards
o Awkward posture
o Repetitive movement
o Improper workstation
o Heavy lifting
5. Mechanical / Safety Hazards
o Moving machinery
o Sharp edges
o Falling objects
o Slippery floors
6. Psychosocial Hazards
o Stress
o Shift work
o Work pressure
o Harassment

2. Hazard Analysis

Hazard analysis is the systematic study of hazards to determine the level of risk and how to
control them.

It answers three questions:

1. What can go wrong?

2. How likely is it to occur?
3. What will be the consequence?

So,

Hazard + Exposure = Risk

Steps in Hazard Analysis

Step 1: Identify the Hazard

• Inspect workplace
• Observe workers
 • Review accident records
• Conduct interviews

Step 2: Assess the Risk

Risk depends on:

• Probability (chance of occurrence)

• Severity (seriousness of injury)

Step 3: Decide Control Measures

Apply suitable safety measures.

Step 4: Implement Control

• Training
• PPE
• Engineering modification

Step 5: Review

• Monitor workplace
• Check effectiveness

Methods of Hazard Analysis

1. Job Hazard Analysis (JHA) / Job Safety Analysis (JSA)

o Break job into steps
o Identify hazards in each step
o Suggest safe procedure
2. Checklist Method
o Pre-prepared safety checklist
o Simple and quick
3. What-If Analysis
o Ask: “What if something fails?”
4. Fault Tree Analysis (FTA)
o Graphical method tracing accident causes
5. Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA)
o Studies equipment failure and its effect
6. Safety Audit
o Periodic inspection of workplace
Hazard Analysis Techniques

These techniques are systematic methods used to identify hazards, analyze risk and prevent
accidents before they occur — especially in industries, laboratories, construction sites, and
treatment plants.

1. Preliminary Hazard Analysis (PHA)

Definition

Preliminary Hazard Analysis (PHA) is a basic and early stage risk analysis method used
during the planning or design stage of a project to identify possible hazards.

It is the first safety check done before installation or operation of a system.

Purpose

• Detect hazards at the beginning itself

• Avoid costly corrections later
• Improve design safety

Steps

1. Identify system components (machine, plant, process)

2. Identify possible hazards
3. Determine possible accident consequences
4. Estimate severity
5. Suggest preventive measures

Example

In a wastewater treatment plant:

• Chlorine storage → gas leakage hazard

• Sludge handling → biological hazard
• Pumps → mechanical hazard

Advantages

• Simple and quick

• Useful during design stage
• Low cost

Limitation

• Not very detailed

 • Depends on experience of analyst

2. Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA)

Definition

FMEA is a systematic method used to identify how a component or system can fail and
what will be the effect of that failure.

It answers:

“What happens if this part fails?”

Key Terms

• Failure Mode → How it fails

• Effect → What happens after failure
• Cause → Why it failed

Procedure

1. Select equipment/system
2. Identify all components
3. Identify possible failures
4. Study effects of failure
5. Assign risk priority
6. Provide corrective actions

Risk Priority Number (RPN)

𝑅𝑃𝑁 = 𝑆𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑂𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 × 𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Higher RPN → Higher danger → Immediate correction needed

Example

Pump in water treatment plant:

• Failure: motor stops

• Effect: no water supply
• Consequence: process shutdown

Advantages

• Detailed analysis
 • Prevents equipment failure
• Improves reliability

Limitation

• Time-consuming
• Requires technical knowledge

3. Hazard and Operability Study (HAZOP)

Definition

HAZOP is a structured and systematic team-based technique used to identify hazards and
operational problems in complex processes.

It is widely used in:

• chemical plants
• oil refineries
• treatment plants
• process industries

Principle

It studies deviations from normal operation using guide words.

Common Guide Words

• No
• More
• Less
• Reverse
• As well as
• Other than

Example

Pipeline carrying water:

Parameter Guide word Meaning

Flow No Flow Pump failure
Pressure High Pipe burst
Temperature More Overheating

Steps
 1. Divide system into sections
2. Apply guide words
3. Identify deviations
4. Find causes
5. Predict consequences
6. Suggest safety measures

Advantages

• Very powerful technique

• Detects hidden hazards

Limitation

• Requires trained team

• Time intensive

4. Human Error Analysis (HEA)

Definition

Human Error Analysis studies mistakes made by workers or operators and their effect on
safety.

Most industrial accidents occur due to:

Human error rather than machine failure

Types of Human Errors

1. Slip – Doing wrong action unintentionally

(press wrong switch)
2. Lapse – Forgetting action
(forget to close valve)
3. Mistake – Wrong decision
(wrong chemical dosage)
4. Violation – Ignoring rules
(not wearing helmet)

Causes

• Fatigue
• Stress
• Poor training
• Poor workplace design
• Time pressure
Prevention

• Training
• Clear instructions
• Ergonomic design
• Alarms and indicators

5. Fault Tree Analysis (FTA)

Definition

FTA is a graphical method that traces the causes of an accident using logic diagrams.

It starts with:

Top Event (Accident) and works backward to find root causes.

Logic Gates Used

1. OR Gate
o Any one cause can create accident
2. AND Gate
o All causes must occur together

Example

Top Event: Worker electric shock

Possible causes:

• Insulation failure
• Wet floor
• No earthing
• No PPE

(Shown as a tree diagram)

Advantages

• Identifies root cause

• Very systematic
• Good for accident investigation

Limitation

• Requires expertise
 • Complex for large systems

Comparison of Techniques

Method Stage Used Focus Nature

PHA Early design General hazards Basic
FMEA Equipment Component failure Detailed
HAZOP Process plants Process deviation Team based
HEA Worker Human mistakes Behavioral
FTA After/Prediction Accident causes Logical diagram

Risk Assessment Matrix

Probability Severity Risk Level

Low Minor injury Low risk
Medium Injury Moderate risk
High Serious injury / death High risk

Control Measures (Hierarchy of Control)

1. Elimination – Remove hazard (best method)

2. Substitution – Replace with safer material/process
3. Engineering Controls – Guards, enclosures, ventilation
4. Administrative Controls – Training, work rotation, SOP
5. PPE – Gloves, helmet, mask, goggles (last option)

Importance of Hazard Cognition and Analysis

• Prevents accidents
• Reduces occupational diseases
• Protects workers
• Improves productivity
• Reduces compensation cost
• Ensures legal compliance (Factories Act, OSHA principles)

Emergency Planning in Occupational Safety

Emergency Action Plan (EAP)

Definition

An Emergency Action Plan (EAP) is a written procedure that tells workers what to do
immediately when an emergency occurs to protect life and prevent panic.
It focuses mainly on evacuation and immediate actions.

Purpose

• Save human life

• Avoid confusion
• Prevent stampede/panic
• Ensure safe evacuation

When it is used

• Fire accident
• Explosion
• Gas leakage
• Earthquake
• Chemical spill
• Electrical hazard

Main Elements of an EAP

1. Emergency reporting procedure

o Alarm system
o Whom to inform (supervisor/fire/security)
2. Evacuation procedures
o Exit routes
o Emergency doors
o Assembly point (muster point)
3. Roles and responsibilities
o Floor warden
o Fire warden
o First aid team
4. Emergency contacts
o Fire station
o Ambulance
o Police
o Hospital
5. Rescue and medical help
o First aid kits
o Stretchers
o Trained personnel
6. Training & drills
o Mock drills
o Evacuation practice

Example
If a fire occurs in a laboratory:

• Raise alarm
• Switch off electricity
• Use fire extinguisher (if small fire)
• Evacuate building
• Assemble at muster point

2. Emergency Response Plan (ERP)

Definition

An Emergency Response Plan (ERP) is a detailed plan describing how trained personnel and
management will control and handle the emergency situation after evacuation.

EAP = Escape plan (for workers)

ERP = Control plan (for trained response team)

Purpose

• Control hazard
• Reduce damage
• Protect property and environment
• Restore operations

Contents of ERP

1. Emergency control center

2. Incident commander (usually plant head/safety officer)
3. Communication system
4. Firefighting arrangements
5. Spill containment procedure
6. Rescue operations
7. Medical management
8. Coordination with outside agencies

Example (Chemical Plant)

If chlorine gas leaks:

• Isolate area
• Use breathing apparatus
• Stop leakage
• Neutralize gas
• Inform district emergency authority
Difference Between EAP & ERP

EAP ERP
Focus on evacuation Focus on controlling emergency
For all employees For trained response team
Immediate actions Detailed technical actions
Life safety Property & environmental safety

3. Decision for Action

Meaning

“Decision for Action” refers to the process of deciding what action should be taken during an
emergency and who should take it.

In emergencies, time is critical, so decisions must be:

• Quick
• Clear
• Command-based

Steps in Decision Making During Emergency

1. Identify the emergency

o Fire, gas leak, collapse, injury
2. Assess severity
o Minor
o Major
o Disaster level
3. Raise alarm
o Siren / bell / announcement
4. Select appropriate action
o Evacuate
o Shelter-in-place
o Firefighting
o Shutdown system
5. Assign responsibility
o Safety officer
o Supervisor
o Rescue team
6. Call external agencies
o Fire brigade
o Police
o Ambulance
Example

Electrical panel fire:

Situation Decision
Small fire Use CO₂ extinguisher
Large fire Evacuate + call fire brigade
Shock injury Stop power + first aid + ambulance

Simple Understanding

• EAP → How workers escape safely

• ERP → How emergency is controlled
• Decision for Action → Who decides what to do and when

Decision for Action – Purpose and Considerations (Emergency Response /

Accident Situation)

After identifying a hazard, accident, or emergency, the decision for action means selecting the
most appropriate immediate response to control the situation and protect people, property, and
the environment.

Purpose of Decision for Action

1. Protect human life first (workers, visitors, public)

2. Control and minimize the hazard (fire, chemical leak, equipment failure, collapse, etc.)
3. Prevent escalation of the incident
4. Reduce property damage
5. Avoid environmental contamination
6. Ensure organized response instead of panic
7. Enable quick recovery and restoration of normal operations
8. Comply with safety laws and emergency procedures

Key Considerations While Taking a Decision

When a supervisor or safety officer decides what to do, the following factors must be evaluated
quickly:

1. Nature of Emergency

• Fire
• Explosion
• Toxic gas leak
• Electrical shock
• Structural failure
 • Medical emergency

Different emergencies require different responses.

2. Severity of the Situation

• Minor (first aid sufficient)

• Moderate (medical attention required)
• Major (evacuation required)

3. Risk to Human Life

• Number of people exposed

• Injuries already occurred?
• Possibility of fatalities

4. Possibility of Escalation

• Can the fire spread?

• Can a gas leak become an explosion?
• Can a chemical spill contaminate water/air?

If yes → immediate evacuation.

5. Available Resources

• Fire extinguishers
• First aid kit
• Trained personnel
• Emergency team
• PPE

Decision must match available capability.

6. Time Factor

• Is immediate action required?

• Can help wait for external agencies?

(Example: electrical shock needs immediate power shutdown)

7. Communication

• Inform workers
• Alert emergency team
• Call fire brigade/ambulance
 • Notify management

Clear communication prevents panic.

8. Environmental Impact

• Chemical entering drainage?

• Smoke affecting nearby area?
• Hazardous waste release?

Environmental protection must also be considered.

9. Legal and Safety Procedures

• Follow Emergency Action Plan (EAP)

• Follow Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)
• Record and report incident