Experiment 1

Electronics and Electricity Symbols

Everything you see around you is made of atoms, which are particles so small you can’t see them without a special
type of microscope. But atoms are made of even smaller particles, called protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Protons and neutrons form an atom’s nucleus (its center), and electrons orbit the nucleus like
planets orbiting the sun. Protons and electrons are both electrically charged: protons have a positive
charge, and electrons have a negative charge. That’s why the electrons stick with an atom in the first
place. The positive and negative charges act like opposite sides of a magnet and attract each other
Electronics is a system are present every where in today world . These are used in all the spheres of life ,whether it
is entertainment or space , medical or defense , communication or computers of automobiles or aero planes . Only the
magnitude of application of electronics system varies in varies fields , but electronics is almost everywhere –less more
. The advancement of electronics as well as its application is increased day by day . On the other hand ,the size of
equipment is decreasing day by day .Today thousands of electronics components can be embedded on a small thumb
sized IC (integrated circuit) . They has been reduced but the functions performed have been increased to highest
levels . Electronics make a big difference to all our lives with out Electronics , our lives would be less comfortable ,
less safe , less interesting less fun
ELECTRO COMPONENT
Type Of Electronics Passive Component And Active Component
1 . Passive component :-are not able to generate an increase of power
Example –Resistor , capacitor , inductor , transformer ……. etc.
2. Active component :- in contrast , a transistor has a low power in put (small current ) and converts this in to a high-
power out put (large current). Example diode , LED ,semiconductor , op- ampi…..etc

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• Electricity: is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and motion of matter that has a
property of electric charge.
• Circuits: The path on which electricity flows is called a circuit.
• Titans of Electronics
• The first practical electrical generator was designed by Michael Faraday in 1831. He discovered that if you
rotate a conductive metal wire in a magnetic field, a process called induction, you can generate a current. A
generator uses mechanical energy to turn the wire, converting mechanical energy into electric energy that can
cause current to flow through a circuit.
• Voltage (V)
• Named after Italian scientist Alessandro Volta is the measurement of emf. It is the measure of the force
required to move electricity between two points on a circuit, known as the potential difference (p.d.) between
those two points.
• Current (I)
• Because current (I) is all electrons moving through a circuit, we measure it as it moves through a single point.
An ampere (pronounced AM-peer and abbreviated as amp or simply A) is defined as a coulomb of current that
moves through a point in one second.
• Direct Current (DC) is current that travels in one direction only. Batteries of all sorts provide DC power. In a
DC circuit, the current flows from the negative terminal of the battery through the circuit to the positive
terminal of the battery.
• Polarity is a positive or negative electrical charge.
• Alternating Current (AC) has electron flow in both directions, alternating between forward and backward. It
also has changes in polarity. Most households receive AC current from their power company. AC is easier to
transmit at large voltages across greater distances to neighborhood substations. Transformers are used at these
substations to lower the voltages for levels appropriate for household use.
• Neutral and face source
• Tips: Read about AC and DC generation and transmission systems.

• What is symbols?
(Writers uses to represent things, idea, concept, object etc. example dollars )

•
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 Electronics and Electricity symbols
Components Symbol Usage
name
Light bulb Glows when charge moves through it

Cell or DC source Provide energy for charge to move

AC source Provide alternative current for charge

to move

Switch allows the circuit to be open or closed

Ground
to make circuit current complete
Connecting lead Connect the circuit element together

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Components Symbol Usage
name

Capacitor Used to store charge

Resistor Resist the flow of charge

(it convert electrical power in to heat energy)

Inductor glows when charge move

through it
Is able to convert electrical energy to magnetic

Voltmeter Measure the potential

difference

Ammeter Measure current in the circuit

Speaker It gives out sound when it

gets current
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Transformer Transfer Power From One Circuit to
another circuit
Diode Current flow in electronics circuit.
convert AC to DC)
LED Diode

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 Measuring Instruments
• A measuring instrument is a device to measure a physical quantity.
 Experiment 1- use digital test equipments.
Difference between digital and analogue?
(digital information in discrete
Analogue information in continuous
1. using digital voltmeters
• ✓ Brief Theory

Objective:- Using Digital Multi meter

It is the measure of the force required to move electricity between two points on a circuit, known as the
potential difference (p.d.) between those two points.
• ✓ Required Material
a) Digital Multi meter
b) Connector (wire or leads)
c) AC or DC power supply

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• ✓ Procedure using digital voltmeter
1) Identify the measurable quantity (i.e voltage) weather AC or DC.
2) If the measurable quantity is AC select the knob on AC position and the range depend on the measured value
3) If the measurable quantity is DC select the knob on DC position and the range depend on the measured value
4) Connect the digital multi meter with AC or DC power supply by using wire (parallel) i.e
 Red leads connect on the positive terminal to the circuit.
 COM (Black) leads connect to the negative terminal to the circuit. As shown in the figure below.
5. Record the value on LCD display of digital voltmeter

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• Legend
1. Selection Knob What Variables To Be Measured
2. Range Selection
3. Probes (Leads)
4. The Quantity To Be Measured (I.E. Ac Power Supply)
5. LCD (Display Unit)

There is a necessity to discuss a few important terms here before we move on to subsequent chapters.
Current
It is simply the flow of electrons. A continuous flow of electrons or charged particles can be termed as Current. I
or I indicate it. It is measured in Amperes. This can be alternating current AC or direct current DC.
Voltage
It is the potential difference. When there occurs a difference in potentialities, between two points, there is said to
be a voltage difference, measured between those two points. It is indicated by V. It is measured in Volts.
Resistance
It is the property of opposing the flow of electrons. The possession of this property can be termed as resistivity.
This will be discussed later in detail.
Ohm’s Law
With the terms discussed above, we have a standard law, which is very crucial for the behavior of all the electronic
components, called as Ohm’s Law. This states the relation between current and voltage in an ideal conductor.
According to Ohm’s law, the potential difference across an ideal conductor is proportional to the current
through it. 𝑽∝𝑰

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 • ✓ Data Collection and Analysis
Experiment Measuring value Calculated /given Difference
using digital value
voltmeter
AC DC AC DC

3
4

✓ Questions
• What is the cause of difference between calculated/given and measured value of voltage.

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• ✓ Result and discussion
• ✓ Conclusion
• How to measuring by multimeter
• AC Voltage ______(V)
• AC Current _______(A)
• DC Voltage _______(V)
• DC Current _______(A)
• Ohm ____________(Ω)
• Continuity_________

• Material required
• • Cell or DC source
• • Resistor
• • Voltmeter
• • Ammeter
• • Connecting leads Batteries

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 Experiment 2
OHM’S- LAW COLOR CODE
Resistor
Resist is the word which means ―to oppose‖. Resistance is the property of opposing the flow of electrons, in a conductor or a
semiconductor. A Resistor is an electronic componentwhich has the property of resistance.

Symbol and Units Ohms ()

The units of resistance is Ohms, which is indicated by Ω (omega).

The formula for resistance is
𝑹 = 𝑽𝑰
Where V is Voltage and I is Current. It would really be difficult to manufacture the resistors with each and every value. Hence, few
values are chosen and the resistors of such values are only manufactured. These are called as ―Preferred Values‖. In practice, the
resistors with near values are chosen to match the required applications. This is how a practical resistor looks like
Titans of Electronics
French physicist Charles Augustine de Coulomb is the namesake of the coulomb. The ampere is named after French scientist André-
Marie Ampère.
Resistance (Ω)
Resistance is the oppositional force to emf. It might help to think of resistance as the equivalent of friction slowing down a moving
object. As current is pushed through a circuit by voltage, it encounters resistance, which reduces the voltage.
Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s Law states that the current (I) between two points is directly proportional to the voltage (V) and inversely proportional to the
resistance (R). As an equation, it is written I = V/R. If you have any two of the variables, you can solve for the other.
Power (P):
In a direct current circuit, power is voltage multiplied by current. The unit of measurement for power is the watt (W), named after the
Scottish scientist James Watt. One volt pushing one amp of current equals one watt.
Joule’s Law
Joule’s law is used to calculate the amount of power provided by a circuit. Joule’s First Law gives us the following equation:

Power = Voltage × Current or P = V x I

11
 CONT….

To distinguish left from right there is a gap between the C and D bands.
1) band A is first significant figure of component value (left side)
2) band B is the second significant figure
3) band C is the decimal multiplier
4) band D if present, indicates tolerance of value in percent (no band means 20%

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Colour 1st 2nd 3 rd multiplex Tolerance Tempe
digit digit digit rature
Black 0 0 0 100 =1
Brown 1 1 1 101=10 +1% (F) 100
Red 2 2 2 102 =100 + 2% (G) 50
Orange 3 3 3 103 = 1000 =1k 3% 25
Yellow 4 4 4 104 =10000=10k 4%
Green 5 5 5 105 =100000=100k 0.5% (D) 10
Blue 6 6 6 106 =1000000 =1M 0.25% (C) 5
Violent 7 7 7 107 =10000000 =10M 0.10% (B)
Grey 8 8 8 108 =100000000=100M 0.05%(A)
White 9 9 9 109 = 1G
Gold 10-1= 0.1 5% (J)
Silver 10-2= 0.01 10% (K)
No color 20%

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For example, a resistor with bands of
yellow, violet, red, and gold will have first digit
4 (yellow in table below), second digit 7 (violet), followed by 2 (red) zeros:
4,700 ohms. Gold signifies that the tolerance is ±5%, so the real resistance
could lie anywhere between 4,465 and 4,935 ohms.
All coded components will have at least two value bands and a multiplier; other bands are optional.

Resistor Calculate using Measured value Difference

Color Using
method Ohmmeter
R1
R2
R3
R4
Questions
1) What is the cause of difference between calculated and measured value
of resistance of resistors.
2) Just mention different types of Resistors?

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Questions
1) What is the cause of difference between calculated and measured value
of resistance of resistors.
2) Just mention different types of Resistors?

The five color band resistors are manufactured with tolerance of 2% and 1% and also for other high accuracy
resistors. In these five band resistors, the first three bands represent digits, fourth one indicates multiplier and the
fifth represents tolerance. Let us look at an example to understand the color coding process.
Example 1: Determine the value of a resistor with a color code yellow, blue, orange and silver.
Solution: The value of yellow is 4, blue is 6, orange is 3 which represents multiplier. Silver is ±10 which is the
tolerance value. Hence the value of the resistor is 46x103 = 46kΩ The maximum resistance value for this resistor is
46kΩ or 46000Ω+10% = 46000+4600 = 50600Ω = 50.6kΩ The minimum resistance value for this resistor is
46kΩ or 46000Ω-10% = 46000-4600 = 41400Ω = 41.4kΩ

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 Experiment 3
Measuring Resistance.
Objective:-Measuring resistance of resistor using color coding method.
Brief theory:-
The electronic color code is used to indicate the values or ratings of electronic
components, very commonly for resistors, but also for capacitors, inductors, and others.
Resistance slowdowns the flow of charges in the circuit. We use the symbol R to
show the resistance and it is measured in unit is called ohms with the symbol Ω.

Required materials
DC Source 12V
1. Resistors R1=1k,R2=10k and R3=1k.
2. Digital Multimeter.
3. Connecting wires.

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Measure:
Total Current It = __________
Current Through R1 I1 = _______
Current Through R2 I2 = _______
Current Through R3 I3 = _______
Voltage Across R1 VR1 = _______
Voltage Across R2 VR2 = _______
Voltage Across R3 VR3= _______

Calculate The Total Resistance

1. How does IT compare with the individual currents I1, I2 and I3?

2. Determine the relationship between the supply voltage VT and the individual

voltage drops VR1, VR2 and VR3. 3. Determine the relationship between RT and the individual resistances R1, R2 and R3.
Measure
Voltage From Point A To Reference VA= ______
Voltage From Point B To Reference VB = ______
Voltage From Point C To Reference VC = ______
Voltage From “Point A” To Point C” VAC= ______
Voltage From “Point C” To Point A” VCA= ______
Voltage From “Point R” To Point B” VRB= ______
Voltage From “Point R” To Point A” VRA= ______

Note: By Convention, Place The + Lead At The First Point And The - Lead At The

• B. Parallel Circuits
• Construct the circuit shown below:

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• Measure:
• Total Current IT =______ _______
• Voltage Across R1 VR1 = _______
• Voltage Across R2 VR2= ________
• Current Through R1 I1 = _______
• Current Through R2 I2 = _______

• Calculate The Total Resistance

• 4. How Does IT Compare With The Individual Currents I1 And I2?

• 5. Determine The Relationship Between The Supply Voltage VT And The Individual Voltage Drops VR1 And VR2.
• 6. Determine The Relationship Between RT And The Individual Resistances R1 And R2. Replace R2 With A 10k Resistor And
Repeat The Following Measurements.
• Measure:
• Total Current IT = _____
• Voltage Across R1 VR1 = _______
• Voltage Across R2 VR2= _______
• Current Through R1 I1 = _______
• Current Through R2 I2 = _______

• Calculate The Total Resistance

• 7. Do The Relationships Expressed In Questions 4, 5 And 6 Still Hold True For This Circuit? If Not, Can You Determine A
Relationship That Will Hold True For Both Circuits?
• 8. In A Parallel Branch Of Two Resistors, The Resistor With The Larger Resistance Will Have [A Larger / The Same / A Smaller]
Current. Circle The Correct Answer.
• 9. In A Parallel Branch Of Two Resistors, The Resistor With The Larger Resistance Will Have [A Larger / The Same / A Smaller]
Voltage Drop. Circle The Correct Answer

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• C. Series – Parallel Combinations
• In actual practice, you’ll rarely come across a circuit comprised solely of series
• or parallel resistors. Usually, you’ll find a combination of the two forms as
• illustrated in the following example.

• Construct the circuit shown below :

• Based on what you learned in part A and part B of the experiment, you should
• be able to analyze this electric circuit.
• MEASURED VALUES:
• VT = ____________ IT = ____________
• V1 = ____________ I1 = ____________
• V2 = ____________ I2 = ____________
• V3 = ____________ I3 = ____________
• V4 = ____________ I4 = ____________
• V5 = ____________ I5 = ____________

Hint to determine calculated values: Using what you know about series and
parallel circuits, determine the total equivalent resistance of the circuit first.
CALCULATED VALUESRT = ____________
VT = ____________ IT = ____________
V1 = ____________ I1 = ____________
V2 = ____________ I2 = ____________
V3 = ____________ I3 = ____________
V4 = ____________ I4 = ____________
V5 = ____________ I5 = ____________

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• EXPERIMENT 3
• Kirchhoff’s Laws
• Objective:-Utilizing of Kirchhoff’s current and voltage Law.
• Brief theory:
• The first law, known as Kirchhoff’s current Law(or KCL), states that the current flows uniformly in a circuit. Electrons do
not bunch up. At any node the sum of the current flowing in to the node is exactly equal to the sum of the currents
• flowing out of the node.
• The second law, Known as Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law(KVL), states that the sum of the voltage in a closed loop is always
equal to zero. This experiment provides an opportunity to utilize Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law and
• Kirchhoff’s Current Law as tools to analyze more complex circuits.
• Material required:
• • DC Power Supply
• • 1k resistors
• • 2k resistor
• • Multimeters

• Procedure:
• Build the following circuit: Based on what you learned in part A and part B of the experiment, you should be able to analyze
this electric circuit.

• MEASURED VALUES:
• VT = ____________ IT = ____________
• V1 = ____________ I1 = ____________
• V2 = ____________ I2 = ____________
• V3 = ____________ I3 = ____________
• V4 = ____________ I4 = ____________
• V5 = ____________ I5 = ____________

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• 1. Calculate the current flowing through each resistor. Support your work.
• Be sure to show the directions of the currents used in your equations
• on the circuit diagram above.
• Current through R1 I1 = _______
• Current through R2 I2 = _______
• Current through R3 I3 = ______
• 2. Measure:
• Current through R1 I1 = _______
• Current through R2 I2 = _______
• Current through R3 I3 = _______
• 3. Determine a new value for B1 so that the voltage across R1 is equal to zero (B2 = 10V).
• 4. Test your solution.
• 5. Determine a new value for B2 so that the voltage across R1 is equal to zero (B1 = 5V).
• 6. Test your solution.
• 7. Is there any possible, non-trivial (i.e. B1 = 0 and B2 = 0) combination for B1 and B2 that will cause the voltage across R3 to be zero? Test
any possible solution.
• Wheat Stone Bridge
• The basic bridge circuit is shown below .The fundamental concept of the wheat stone
• bridge is that two voltage or potential, dividends in the same circuit are both supplied
• by the same input as shown below .The circuit output is taken from both voltage divider
• outputs.

• .

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• In its classic form, a galvanometer is connected between the output terminals and is
• used to monitor the current flowing from one voltage divider to the other. If the two
• voltage dividers have exactly the same ratio (R1/R2=R3/R4) then the bridge is said to
• be balanced. And no current flows in either direction through the galvanometer. If one
• of the resistors changes even a little bit in value, the bridge will become unbalanced and
• current will flow the galvanometer. Thus, the galvanometer becomes a very sensitive
• indicator of the balance condition.
• In its basic application a , d , c voltage (E) is applied to the wheat stone bridge and a
• galvanometer(G) is used to monitor the balance condition. The value of R1and R3 are
• precisely known , but do not have to be identical R2 is calibrated variable resistance,
• the current value of which may be read from a dial or scale.
• An known resistor , Rx is connected as the fourth side of the circuit as shown and power
• is applied R2 is adjusted until the galvanometer, G reads zero current at this point.

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There are many types of resistors according to the type of material used, the
manufacturing procedure and their applications. The classification is as shown below.

Type Of Resistors

Linear resistors have linear VI characteristics and non-linear resistors has non-linear VI characteristics. Non-
linear resistors are the resistors whose voltage and current characteristics vary non-linearly. The voltage and
current values vary depending upon other factors like temperature and light, but they may not be linear.
Thermistor
Thermal means temperature. In this resistor, the resistance varies with temperature. If heat increases, the
resistance decreases and vice versa. This is used for measurement and control purposes.
The main types of thermistors are NTC and PTC.
• NTC is Negative Temperature Coefficient and in such devices, the resistance
decreases as the temperature increases. These are used to protect the devices from over-voltage conditions.
• PTC is Positive Temperature Coefficient and in such devices, the resistance
increases as the temperature increases. These are used to protect the devices from

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 Thermistor

Photo Resistor
Photo means light. In this resistor, the resistance varies with light. As light increases resistance decreases and vice
versa.
This is also used for measurement and control purposes. It is also called as LDR (Light Dependent Resistor)

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 Varistors
The resistance of a varistor, varies with the applied voltage. As the voltage increases, the resistance decreases and if
the voltage decreases, the resistance increases. It is also called as VDR (Voltage Dependent Resistor).

Surface Mount
These are being highly used since the introduction of surface mount technology. These can be termed as chip
resistors, which means a resistive layer integrated on a ceramic chip. These surface mount resistors are very small
when compared to the normal resistors and hence occupy less space. They are effective and dissipate less heat. The
invention of these resistors has changed the look of a PCB (Printed Circuit Board) and reduced its size greatly.
The advantages of surface mount resistors are—
• These are compact in size.
• These are very stable.
• They have good tolerance.
• They are effective in reducing heat dissipation.

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 Linear resistors
Linear resistor is one whose resistance doesn’t vary with the flow of current through it. The current through it, will
always be proportional to the voltage applied across it. Linear resistors are further classified as Fixed and Variable
resistors.
Variable Resistors
Variable resistors are those whose values can be varied manually, according to the requirement. A particular value
of resistance is chosen from a range of resistance values, with the help of a shaft connected. The symbol of a
variable resistor is as shown below.

These resistors are better understood with the help of the classification we have. Variable resistors are further
divided into Potentiometers, Rheostats and Trimmers

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 Potentiometer
A Potentiometer is simply called as a Pot. This is a three-terminal resistor having a shaft which slides or rotates. This
shaft when operated forms an adjustable voltage divider. The following figure shows an image of a Potentiometer

A potentiometer also measures the potential difference (voltage) in a circuit. A path of resistive material
with resistance of low to high value is laid internally and a wiper is placed so that it connects the resistive
material to the circuit. This is mostly used as a volume controller in TV sets and Music systems.
Rheostat
A Rheostat can be simply called as a Wire wound resistor. A Resistive wire is wound around an insulating
ceramic core tightly.
A Wiper slides over these windings. One connection is made to one end of the resistive wire and the
second connection is made to the wiper or the sliding contact, to obtain the desired resistance. he Rheostat
is used to control current. These are mostly used in the speed control of heavy motors. The resistance
obtained by these is in the order of kilo ohms. Rheostats are mostly available as single tube and double
tube rheostats, as shown in the following figure.

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 Rheostats
Objective:
1. To study the difference between rheostats and potentiometers.
2. To learn the use of each
Equipment: IDL-800 Digital lab, patching board multimeter.
Access parts: Rheostats, resistors, connecting wires.
Introduction
A Rheostat is generally used as a current controlling device while a potentiometer is
used to control voltage. There are two ways of using a variable resistor. It may be used
as a rheostat for controlling the current in a circuit, when only one end connection and
the sliding contact are required .It can also act as a potential divides for controlling the
p.d applied to a device all three connections then being used.
Procedure
1. Determine the action of a series circuit as follows
a. Connect the circuit shown
b. have the instructor check the circuit
c. With the switch still open, turn the knob of the rheostat fully counter clockwise.
d. with power switch closed, set the power supply to 12 V using voltmeter.
e. Record the current reading _________________________ma
f. Calculate and record the total resistance ____________ ohms.
g. Turn the knob if the rheostat fully clockwise and record the current reading _____________ ma.
h. Calculate and record the total resistance now in the circuit ___________ohms.
i. Explain why there was a difference in the amount of current in the circuit with the rheostat fully counter clock wise and with the
rheostat fully clockwise.

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 As a variable resistance they are often used for tuning and
calibration in circuits. Now a days , the usage of rheostats
was replaced by switching electronic devices, as rheostats
have lower efficient
Trimmer
Trimmer is both a variable resistor and a potentiometer
. (measures potential difference).
This Trimmer Potentiometer is, in short called as Trim Pot.
If these are used as variable resistors, then they are called as
Preset Resistors. These trim pots are of different types such
as single turn or multi turn. These are small variable resistors
used for tuning and calibration. Their life span is shorter than
other variable resistors.
Fixed Resistors
Fixed resistors are one type of linear resistors. A resistor is
said to be a fixed resistor, if its value is fixed. The value of
fixed resistor can’t be varied like a variable resistor as its
value is determined at the time of manufacturing itself. The
following figures represent the symbol of a fixed resistor.

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The fixed resistors are classified into different types, depending upon their manufacturing processes and the materials
used in their manufacturing. The classification is as follows.

Carbon composition
The Carbon composition resistors are a blend of carbon particles, graphite and ceramic dust mixed with a binder
substance like clay. This mixture is treated with high pressure and temperature. After the whole thing is molded in
a case, the leads are fixed.
• Thermal mass of the carbon composition resistor is higher so as to with stand high energy pulses.
• These resistors have low stability and high noise which is a disadvantage.
The following figure shows an image of carbon composition resistor.

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 Carbon composition resistors are used in Surge protection, Current limiting, and High voltage power supplies.

Wire wound
A Wire wound resistor is formed by wounding a wire made up of a resistive material around a core. The metallic
core acts as a non-conductive material while the resistive wire conducts, but with some resistance. The image of
a wire wound resistor is as shown below.

Usually a ni chrome wire or a manganic wire is used to wind the core because they offer high resistance.
Whereas plastic, ceramic or glass is used for core.
• Wire wound resistors are very accurate.
• They work excellently for low resistance values and high power ratings.
These are the oldest type of fixed resistors, but are being used even now.
Thick Film
The film resistors have a resistive layer on a ceramic base, whose thickness defines the type they belong to. The
thickness of resistive layer on thick film resistors is much higher than thin film resistors. Thick film resistors
are produced by firing a special paste, which is a mixture of glass and metal oxides, onto the substrate. There
are three main types in thick film resistors like Fusible resistors, Cermet film resistors, and Metal oxide film
resistors.
Fusible Resistors
The Fusible resistors are similar to wire wound resistors. But these resistors along with providing resistance, act
as a fuse. The image of a fusible resistor is as shown below.

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In this resistor, the current flows through a spring loaded connection, which is placed closely to the body of the resistor.
The blob that is attached to the spring wire of the resistor takes the heat generated by the resistor due to the current flow.
If this heat is increased, the attachment to the blob gets melted up and opens the connection
Hence we can say that, these resistors limit the current, but if the circuit power rating exceeds a specified value, these
resistors act as a fuse to open or break the circuit. The value of these resistors is usually of less than 10 Ohms. These
resistors are generally used in TV sets, amplifiers and other expensive electronic circuits.

Cermet Film Resistors

The Cermet film resistors are the film resistors made up of a special material called Cermet. Cermet is a composite alloy
made by combining Ceramic and Metal. This combination provides the advantages in both of these materials like high
temperature resistance and wear resistance of ceramic along with flexibility and electrical conductivity of a metal

. A metal film layer is wrapped around a resistive material and is fixed in a ceramic metal or cermet substrate. Leads are
taken to make the connections easy while fixing on a PCB. They offer high stability as temperature cannot affect their
performance.
.

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 Metal Oxide film resistors
A Metal oxide film resistor is formed by oxidizing a thick film of Tin chloride on a heated glass rod, which is a
substrate. They have high temperature stability and can be used at high voltages. These resistors have low operating
noise.

Metal oxide film resistors differ with metal film ones only regarding the type of film coated.
Metal oxide is a metallic compound like tin with oxygen to form tin oxide, which is coated as a film on the resistor. The resistivity of
this resistor depends upon the amount of antimony oxide added to the tin oxide.
Thin Film
Thin film resistors have a resistive layer of width 0.1 micrometer or smaller on the ceramic base. Thin film resistors have a metallic
film that is vacuum deposited on an insulating substrate.
Thin film resistors are more accurate and have better temperature coefficient and is more stable. The thin film resistors are further
divided into two types such as
• Carbon film resistors
• Metal film resistors
Carbon film resistors
A Carbon film resistor is made by depositing a carbon film layer on a ceramic substrate. The carbon film acts as the resistive material
to the current and the ceramic substance acts as an insulating substance. Metallic caps are fixed at both the ends and copper leads are
drawn out. The following figure shows the construction of a carbon film resistor

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The main advantages of these resistors are their high stability, wide operating range, low noise, and low cost. The carbon film resistors are
the most preferred ones over carbon composition resistors due to their low noise.
Metal Film Resistors
The film coating makes the difference between metal oxide film resistors and metal film resistors. A thin film of metallic substance such as
nickel chromium is used to coat the resistor in a metal film resistor whereas a film of metal oxide like tin oxide is used to coat the resistor in
a metal oxide resistor.

Wattage
While using a resistor, if the flow of current increases, the resistor dissipates some heat. If this value crosses a certain critical value, the
resistor may get damaged. The wattage rating of a resistor is printed on some higher value resistors in order to avoid such situation.
Wattage is the amount of electric power expressed in watts. Electric power is the rate of transfer of electrical energy.
Power 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝐼2𝑅

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 Basic Electronics Capacitor
• Capacitor is passive component it is store electric charge
• Capacitor: an electrical device characterized by its capacity to store an electric charge.
• How a Capacitor Works
• A capacitor is constructed of two layers, or plates, of conductive material separated by an insulator. When voltage passes
through a capacitor, it creates an electric field in insulating material, called the dielectric, situated between the two layers.
The field holds an electric charge in the dielectric.
• Tips:
• Capacitors can be dangerous to work with. In some common electronic devices, capacitors hold enough charge to be fatal,
and they can hold a charge for quite some time after the device it is connected to no longer works. Always assume that
capacitors are fully charged and can release their full charge. Nt
• Farads
• Differences in the dielectric medium determine the amount of charge that can be held in the electric field of the capacitor.
The measure of capacitance is the farad, represented by an F. A farad is equal to the current in coulombs required to raise the
voltage across the capacitor by one volt.
• A coulomb is an ampere second, the amount of current provided by one ampere of power in one second.

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• Experiment 7
• Capacitance and Capacitor
• Objective: -The purpose of this experiment is to investigate a capacitor as it
• charges and discharge at DC voltage and observe the behaviors of
• combination of capacitors in the circuit.
• Theory:-A capacitor is device for storing electric charge and energy. The amount
• of charge that can be stored on the plates is directly proportional the amount of
• voltage. The constant of proportionality is called capacitance C. capacitance is
• the charge stored per volt and measure in Farad (F).since capacitance is
• mathematically measured in C=Q/V so the units are in terms of charge over
• potential difference.1 C of charge is very large amount of charge. so, small
• amount of voltage applied. A 1 F capacitor it store enormous amount of charge.
• Therefore capacitor often denoted by microfarads (1x10-6), nanofarads (1x10-9)
• and picofarads(1x10-12).
• Q=CV
• Material Reqiured
• • Dual channel oscilloscope
• • Multimeter.
• • Capacitors C=10μF, (3)
• • Resistor R=15KΩ
• • Circuit Evaluator
• • Connecting wires.

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