Department of Civil Engineering

2nd Semester

Engineering Geology
Presented by
Er. Ravi Ghimire
1
 Chapter: 5

Structural Geology

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Structural Geology
• Structural geology is the study of the shapes, arrangement, and deformation
of rocks within the Earth's crust, and the forces that caused them. These
structures are generally classified into two main types:
a. Primary Structures:
 These are features formed during or shortly after the original deposition or
crystallization of the rock, before any significant deformation.
 They reflect the original conditions of formation.
 Examples: bedding, lamination, ripple marks, mud cracks, cross-beds,
graded beds, sole marks, etc.
3
Mud Cracks Sole Mark 4
b. Secondary Structures:
• These are features that form after the original rock has formed, typically due
to tectonic forces like compression, tension, or shear. They result from
deformation processes.
• Some examples of Secondary (deformation) structures are lineation,
foliation, fold, joint, fault etc.

5
 Joint Foliation

Foliation refers to the planar or layered structure in rocks, particularly

metamorphic rocks. When during metamorphism the stress in one direction is
much stronger than the others, the minerals in the rocks align themselves by
flattening and stretching to reduce the stress, hence forming foliations. 6
Engineering Properties of Rocks
a. Intact Rock: Rock containing no discontinuities. An intact specimen may
be considered isotropic but lateral and vertical variation in properties
makes a rock mass anisotropic and heterogeneous than intact rocks. At or
near Earth surface, where gravity driven failures are common, strength
and deformability of a rock exposure is dependent on the strength and
deformability of rock mass. But at great depth, intact rock strength plays a
role. An intact specimen may be described by standard geological terms
such as rock name, mineralogy, texture, degree and kind of cementation,
and weathering. 7
b. Rock Mass: Mass of rocks interrupted by discontinuities. Rock mass may be
described by combining both intact rock properties and discontinuity
properties. Important rock mass properties are
• Intact rock strength
• Discontinuities in rock mass
• Condition of discontinuities
• Weathering of rock mass
• Rock mass deformation

8
Rock Deformation
• Rock deformation refers to any change in the shape, position, or volume of a
rock body in response to stress (force per unit area).
• When the stress exceeds the rock's internal strength, the rock deforms. The
main reasons for rock deformation are:
Overlying pressure
Elastic or brittle nature of rocks
Tectonic activities (Plate tectonics)
Hydrostatic pressure
Temperature variation inside the earth’s crust
Earthquake and volcanoes 9
• The effect of rock deformation leads to the formation of secondary structure.

Stress (The Driving Force)

 Stress is defined as force per unit area.
 Pressure exerted on the rock body inside the earth’s surface due to weight
of rock above them is termed the lithostatic pressure, (sometimes called
confining pressure or isostatic pressure).
 The lithostatic pressure increases with depth in the earth and reaches
tremendous values in the interior.
 If stress is not equal from all directions then the stress is a differential
stress. 10
Three kinds of differential stress occur:
Type of Stress Effect Tectonic Setting Example
Compressional Squeezes rocks together Convergent boundaries (Himalayas)
Divergent boundaries (Mid-Atlantic
Tensional Pulls rocks apart
Ridge)
Transform boundaries (San Andreas
Shear Rocks slide past each other
Fault)

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Strain (The Result of Stress i.e. Deformation)
• Strain is the deformation caused by stress, which is change in volume, or
distortion which is change in form or both.
• It describes how much a rock bends, stretches, compresses, or breaks when
subjected to tectonic forces.

• There are three stages of deformation:

i. Elastic Deformation: Elastic deformation is a temporary change in shape
or size that is reversible. Rocks experience elastic deformation when
subjected to stress, but as long as the stress is within their elastic limit,
the rock will return to its original shape when the stress is removed. 12
ii. Ductile Deformation: Ductile deformation involves rocks bending or
flowing without breaking, resulting in a permanent change in shape. It is
most common in the lower crust and mantle of the Earth, where the
temperature and pressure conditions are relatively high. Ductile
deformation can produce a variety of features like folds, foliation,
lineation.
iii. Brittle Deformation: Brittle deformation occurs when rocks fracture or
break under stress. It is most common in the upper crust of the Earth,
where the temperature and pressure conditions are relatively low. Brittle
deformation can produce a variety of features like faults, joints, breccia.
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Summary
Secondary Structure Formed By Description
Bending of rock layers into arches
Folds Ductile deformation
(anticlines) and troughs (synclines).
Fractures with displacement; includes
Faults Brittle deformation
normal, reverse, and strike-slip faults.
Joints Brittle deformation Cracks in the rock with no movement.
Alignment of minerals due to pressure
Cleavage Ductile deformation
i.e. common in metamorphic rocks.
Layered or banded appearance in
Foliation Ductile deformation
metamorphic rocks.
Linear features aligned due to stress
Lineation Ductile deformation
(e.g., mineral alignment). 14
Attitude (or Orientation) of Geological Structures
• The attitude of geological structures refers to the three-dimensional orientation
of some geological features such as rock layers, faults, and folds in relation to
the Earth's surface.
• Understanding the attitude of geological structures is crucial in geological
mapping, resource exploration, and understanding the deformation history of a
region.
• The attitude of the planar features is defined by their strike, dip amount and
dip direction.
• For linear structures like fold axes or fault lineaments, it's described using trend
and plunge 15
a. Strike: The strike is an imaginary horizontal line can be drawn in any plane
surface. It is expressed as the compass direction of that line with the
geographical north direction. It is measured as an angle (in degrees) from
north (0° to 360°). For example, a strike of N35°E means the line runs
northeast at a 35° angle from north.

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b. Dip: Dip or dip angle or dip amount is the inclination of the geological
plane surface and it is defined as the acute angle (0-90°) between the
geological plane surface and an imaginary horizontal plane surface. Dip
represents the maximum inclination of the bed or foliations. It is measured
in a vertical plane that is at right angle to the strike of the bed.

c. Dip Direction: Dip direction is the direction of inclination of geological

planes. It is always measured perpendicular to the strike.
Note: Dip Direction vs. Dip Angle
Dip direction describes the direction of the downward slope, while dip angle
describes the angle of that slope. 17
Example: If a Limestone layer has a:
• Strike: N60°E
• Dip: 30° to the SE
Then the rock layer is tilted 30° down
toward the southeast, and the
horizontal line on the bed (strike line)
runs in a northeast-southwest direction.

d. Apparent Dip: It is the angle of dip measured in a direction that is not

perpendicular to the strike of the geological feature (e.g. bedding plane or
fault). It always appears less than or equal to the true dip. 18
e. Trend: Trend is the direction of that particular linear feature from the
geographic north line. It is represented in azimuth.

f. Plunge: Plunge, or angle of plunge, is the inclination of the feature measured

downward relative to horizontal. A horizontal line would have a plunge of 0°,
and a vertical line would have a plunge of 90°.

Brunton Compass 19
Feature Type Definition Measured As Example
Compass direction of a
Angle from North (0°–
Strike Planar horizontal line on an N60°E or 060°
360°)
inclined plane
Dip Direction the plane is Compass direction,
Planar SE (Southeast)
Direction dipping toward perpendicular to strike
Angle between the inclined
0° (horizontal) to 90°
Dip Angle Planar plane and a horizontal 30°
(vertical)
plane
Compass direction in which
Angle from North (0°–
Trend Linear a linear feature plunges 120°
360°)
downward
Angle between the linear
0° (horizontal) to 90°
Plunge Linear feature and the horizontal 20°
(vertical)
plane 20
Notation in Geological Map
On geological maps, strike and dip can be represented by a (T) symbol with a
number next to it. The longer line represents strike, and is in the same
orientation as the strike angle.
Dip is represented by the shorter line,
which is perpendicular to the strike line in
the downhill direction.
The number gives the dip angle, in
degrees, below horizontal, and often does
not have the degree symbol.
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Strike and dip information recorded on a map can be used to reconstruct
various structures, determine the orientation of subsurface features, or detect
the presence of anticline or syncline folds.

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Device Used for Measuring Dip and Strike
Brunton Compass or similar Compass Clinometer
(combines a compass and a clinometer in one
device) is the instrument used to measure strike and
dip in the field.
 The compass portion is used to
determine the strike (the horizontal
direction), while the clinometer
measures the dip (the angle of
inclination). 23
Fold
• Folds may be defined as undulations or bends that are developed in the
rocks of the Earth’s crust, as a result of the stresses.
• Folds are primarily caused by tectonic forces that deform rock layers.
• The movements of tectonic plates are a major driver of folding, particularly
in mountain building regions. Himalayan Mountains and the Alps are known
for their extensive folding.
• The most common cause is compressional stress, which pushes rock layers
together, forcing them to bend instead of break, especially when the rocks
are ductile (soft and flexible) due to temperature, pressure, or composition.
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Other Contributing Factors for Formation of Fold

Factor Role in Folding

Temperature Hot rocks deform more easily, promoting folding over faulting.

Pressure High confining pressure at depth encourages ductile behavior.

Ductile rocks (like shale, limestone) fold more easily than

Rock Type
brittle ones (like sandstone, granite).

Folding is a slow process over millions of years; sudden stress

Time
may cause fracturing instead of folding.
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Parts of a fold
i. Limbs: The sides of the fold is known as limb. An individual fold will have
maximum two limbs, commonly the left and right limb.
ii. Hinge: The limbs intersect at the tightest part of the fold, called the hinge
(maximum curvature). An imaginary line that shows the location of
maximum curvature on a fold is the hinge line.
iii. Fold Axis: A line connecting all points on the hinge is called the fold axis.
If the fold axis is not horizontal, then fold is called a plunging fold and the
angle that the fold axis makes with a horizontal line is called the plunge of
the fold. Often, the fold axis is the same as the hinge line 26
iv. Axial Plane: An imaginary plane that divides
the fold as symmetrically as possible is known
as axial plane. It marks the center of the fold.

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Classification of Folds
Folds are geological features created by the deformation of rock due to
compressive stress. There are basically two main types of folds: anticlines and
synclines.

a. Anticline Fold

• An anticline fold is a type of fold that

is convex upward, meaning that it
looks like an "A" in cross-section.

• The oldest rocks are at the core of the fold, and the youngest rocks are on
the outermost flanks. 28
• The highest part of the anticline is called the crest. Limbs dip away from each
other at the crest.
• Due to the compression, the centre of the compressed strata bends in an
upward motion forming the anticline.
• Anticlines can be symmetrical or asymmetrical.
• A symmetrical anticline is one in which the
axial plane, which is the plane that divides the
fold into two equal halves, is vertical.
• An asymmetrical anticline is one in which the
axial plane is tilted.
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b. Syncline Fold
• A syncline fold is a type of fold that is concave upward, meaning that it
looks like an “U" in cross-section.

• The youngest rocks are at the core of

the fold, and the older rocks form the
outer flanks of the fold.
• The limbs dip towards the common
centre. The lowest part of a syncline is called trough.
• The compressional stress forces the centre of the strata to bend in
downward direction forming the syncline.
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31
 Comparison between Anticline and Syncline Folds

Anticline Fold Syncline Fold

Convex upward (like an arch or ∩) Concave upward (like a trough or ∪)

Oldest rocks at the core (center) Youngest rocks at the core (center)

Rock layers dip away from the center Rock layers dip toward the center

Formed under compressional stress Formed under compressional stress

Limbs (sides) slope downward and

Limbs slope upward and inward
outward
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Some other types of folds:
i. A symmetrical fold is one in which the axial plane is vertical.
ii. An asymmetrical fold is one in which the axial plane is inclined.
iii. An isoclinal fold has limbs that are essentially parallel to each other and
thus approximately parallel to the axial plane.
iv. A recumbent fold has an essentially horizontal axial plane.
v. A chevron fold has no curvature in its hinge and straight-sided limbs form a
zigzag pattern.
vi. An overturned fold has a highly inclined axial plane such that the strata on
one limb are overturned.
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Identification of Folds in Field
• Repetitive Layering: Observe repetitive patterns in the rock layers, indicating
folding.
• Symmetrical or Asymmetrical Structures: Look for symmetrical or
asymmetrical bending of rock layers.
• Axial Plane: Identify the plane that divides the fold into two equal halves,
known as the axial plane.
• Foliation: Observe the alignment of mineral grains within the rock layers,
which may indicate folding.
• Curved or Wavy Bedding Planes: Look for rock layers that are no longer
horizontal or flat but are curved or undulating. 35
 These curved beds are a visual indication of folding.

• Local or small scale folds are directly observed in the field in cut-slopes
during road construction, excavations or drilling for special purposes.
• In most of the cases folds in the field should be inferred by looking at the
attitude of the beds.
• Large scale folds are recognized in the field by plotting the attitude of the
beds or foliation plane in the geological map and their cross-sections.
• The repetition of beds in the field and varying thickness of strata in one
place than other of the same geology also will indicate folds.
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 Engineering Considerations involved in Dealing with Folded Rocks
When dealing with folded rocks in engineering projects, several geotechnical and
structural challenges must be considered. Folded rocks can significantly affect the
design, stability, and cost of engineering structures such as tunnels, dams, roads,
and foundations.
• Folded strata exhibit changing dip angles, which can create instability in slopes
or excavations, especially on fold limbs or near fold hinges.
• Strongly folded and interbedded rocks may be harder to excavate, especially in
isoclinal or recumbent folds.
• Folded rocks often contain bedding planes, cleavage, and joint sets that can act
as failure surfaces. 37
• In tunnels, the changing rock orientation can cause uneven loads, leading to
overbreak or roof falls.
• Folding can enhance secondary permeability along fold-related fractures and
cleavage, leading to uncontrolled water inflow during tunneling or foundation
work.
• Synclines may act as natural aquifers, leading to excess pore water pressures.
• Folded zones are often more intensely fractured, promoting faster weathering
and reduced rock mass quality.
• Folded regions may be near active tectonic zones; fold geometry can affect
seismic wave propagation and site response. 38
Discontinuity
• General term for any mechanical discontinuity in a rock mass.
• Discontinuity refers to any break in the continuity of a rock mass that has
the potential to have zero or very low tensile strength.
• Discontinuities include all types of mechanical break or plane of weakness
in rock mass such as joints, fault, bedding plane, fractures and shear zones
that weakened the strength of rock masses.
• Understanding the discontinuities is essential for assessing the behavior
and stability of rock masses in various geological and engineering contexts.

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Joints
• Joints refer to fractures or cracks in rocks where there has been no
significant displacement or movement along the fracture surfaces.
• These are important because they influence the permeability, strength, and
weathering of rocks.

• Joints are caused by various stresses acting on the

rock, such as tectonic forces, cooling, and erosion.
• They can be important in many geological
processes, such as fluid flow, weathering, and
slope stability. 40
• Joints may be open or closed.
a. Open Joints
• Open joints are fractures where the blocks of rock have separated slightly,
creating a visible gap perpendicular to the fracture.
• These joints often form due to tensile stresses, such as cooling and
contraction of igneous rocks or the release of pressure during erosion
Characteristics:
• May gradually widen over time due to
weathering processes.
• Can develop into fissures in the rock.
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b. Closed Joints
• Closed joints are fractures where the blocks of rock remain in contact,
showing little to no separation.
• These joints can form under compressive stresses or due to the cooling of
magma without significant expansion.
Characteristics:
• No visible gap between the blocks.
• May still allow the passage of fluids
through micro fractures or along
mineral-filled seams. 42
Classification of Joints
Joints in geology can be classified by their geometry (orientation relative to
bedding) and their genesis (how they formed).

a) Geometric Classification:
• This classification is based on the
orientation and pattern of the
joints in the rock.
• Geometrical classifications includes
strike, dip, oblique, and bedding
joints. 43
• Strike Joints:
 Joints that are parallel to the strike of rocks are called Strike Joints.
• Dip Joints:
 Joints that are parallel to the dip of rocks are called Dip Joints.
• Oblique Joints:
 Joints, which are neither parallel nor perpendicular to the bedding plane
are called Oblique Joints.
• Bedding Joints:
 Joints that are parallel to the bedding planes in a sedimentary rock are
called Bedding Joints. 44
b) Genetic Classification:
• This classification is based on the origin or cause of the joint formation.
• Genetic classifications divide joints into tension, shear, and compression
types.
• Tension joints:
 Formed by tensile stresses, typically perpendicular to the direction of
stress.
• Shear joints:
 Formed by shear stresses, often at an angle to the direction of stress.
• Compression joints:
 Formed by compressive stresses, usually parallel to the direction of stress
45
Identification of Joints in Field
• Joint identification involves distinguishing fractures in rock where there's no
significant displacement of rock blocks across the fracture. This is different
from faults, where movement has occurred.
• Joints appear as planar cracks or fractures in the rock. Surfaces are often
smooth, but can also be irregular.
• Joints are characterized by features like their orientation relative to
bedding, geometry, and the mechanism of their formation.
• Joints can enhance weathering and erosion. They may be infilled with
minerals like quartz or calcite but still lacks displacement. 46
 Engineering Considerations involved in Dealing with Jointed Rocks
Engineering projects dealing with jointed rocks need to consider how joints
affect rock stability, potential for water leakage, and overall project design.
Jointed rock masses are weaker than intact rock, making them prone to
instability, collapses, and landslides, especially when joints are numerous or
inclined towards free surfaces.
• Joints reduce rock strength and can cause instability, especially in excavations
and slope cuts.
• The presence of joints can also lead to block formation and the potential for
rock falls.
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• Joints are always considered as a source of weakness of the rocks and as a
pathway for the leakage of water through the rock.
• If a rock forming the foundation of a dam or reservoir happens to be heavily
jointed and the region is one of low water table, the risk of leakage of water
from under the dam or from reservoir may be of substantial magnitude
demanding very heavy cost for treatment of rocks.
• If the roof and side rocks in the case of tunnel are much fractured, slippage of
rock along these fractures and leakage of water may cause many troubles.
• A large joint dipping into the highway cut is the site of potential landslide. The
direction and frequency of joints significantly impact rock mass behavior.
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• Jointed rocks easily get lubricated in the presence of water and start sliding or
falling from the original places of occurrence.
• Many landslides and slope failures are directly related to the jointed nature of
the rocks.
• Jointed rock masses often require artificial support systems, such as breast
walls, retaining walls, and anchors, to ensure stability and prevent failure.
• Engineering designs must account for the impact of joints on rock mass
properties. This includes considering the orientation, spacing, and persistence
of joints, as well as their influence on rock mass classification systems like RQD
(Rock Quality Designation) and RMR (Rock Mass Rating).
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Fault
• A fault can be defined as any brittle deformation-induced fracture where there
has been movement of the blocks on either side of the plane.
• A fault line is the surface trace of a fault, the line of intersection between the
fault plane and the Earth's surface.
• The two sides of a non-vertical fault are known as the hanging wall and
footwall.
• By definition, the hanging wall occurs above the fault plane and the footwall
occurs below the fault.
• Faults are generally divided into three types: Normal Fault, Reverse Fault and
Strike-Slip Fault. 50
Parts of fault:
i. Fault plane: The plane along which
the relative movement of block
takes place is called the fault plane.
ii. Hanging wall: The block that rests
above the fault plane is called
hanging wall.
iii. Foot wall: The block that rests below the fault plane is called the foot wall.
iv. Slip: The displacement that occurs during faulting is called slip.

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Causes of faulting:
• Shearing stress that causes sliding action.
• Brittle nature of rocks.
• Folding of rock strata.
• Stress induced due to shrinkage of the earth.

Normal Fault Reverse Fault52

53
a. Normal Fault:
• The fault in which the hanging wall block moves down relative to the
footwall block.
• Most faults are small with displacements size of meter or so.

• They are often associated with

tension stress and can create
structures like rift valleys.
• Typically found in areas where the
crust is being stretched, such as
divergent plate boundaries. 54
b. Reverse Fault:
• The fault in which the hanging wall block moves up relative to the
footwall block.
• Occurs due to compressional forces, which push the crust together and
can lead to the formation of mountain ranges.
• Reverse faults are typically found
in areas of plate convergence,
such as at subduction zones and
continental collision zones (e.g.,
the Himalayas).
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c. Strike Slip Fault:
• These faults are characterized by horizontal movement along the fault line.
• Result from shearing forces that push blocks horizontally in opposite
directions.
• Common at transform plate boundaries, where plates slide past each other.
• Can be classified as
 Right-lateral: Opposite block moves
to the right.
 Left-lateral: Opposite block moves
to the left. 56
Identification of Fault in Field
• Recognition of faults on the ground very often demands a through and
systematic geological and very often geophysical study of the area, often to
a considerable depth.
• Very common characteristic field evidence of a presence of a fault can be:
 Presence of slickenside. A slickenside is a smoothly polished surface,
normally striated in the direction of movement, caused by frictional
movement between rocks along the two sides of a fault.
 Similarly presence of brecciated zone and sheared fault gauge
indicate a possibility of a fault. 57
 • Normal sequence of rock strata are disturbed in the area of faulting.
• Some beds may repeat and found in more than once in certain section
and some may be omitted where it was normally expected.
• In some regions a number of springs may occur along the slope in the
almost the same line.
In Short, fault may be identified as below
 Cracks with displacement.
 Omission or repetition of strata.
 Sudden change in sedimentary faces.
 Change in physiography.
 Proofs/evidences as damp area, breccia stones, etc. 58
 Engineering Considerations involved in Dealing with Fault
Engineering considerations when dealing with faults in various fields include
understanding the nature of the fault, its potential impact on the structure or
system, and implementing strategies for mitigation or prevention.
• Faults are the region where dislocation of ground has occurred in the past
due to deformation and where such dislocation cannot be entirely ruled out
in future.
• Fault zones often have weakened and fractured rock, impacting its strength,
permeability, and stability. Engineers must assess these properties to design
structures that can withstand the potential for movement or failure.
59
• The shear of fault zone will be a easy pathway for water and cause leakage
if left untreated in dams and reservoirs.
• Fault planes with easy pathway for groundwater creates problem if
encountered along the highway or tunnel alignment.
• This requires careful consideration in the design of dams, tunnels, and
other structures.
• The fault zone once lubricated by water may slip further and prove critical
for foundation and abutments.
• Fault gauge and breccia may create additional problems and they have to
be cleared to the sound bedrock for construction in the site.
60
• Ideally, projects are to be located far from an active fault and never on the
active faults.
• If the site couldn’t be relocated the treatment of the shear zone extensive
excavation of the sheared material and back filling with cement grouting may
be a solution to the problem.
• Many major faults may be associated with earthquakes so the project site
should also be considered with respect to the seismic zoning of the country.
• Even if the evidence of the study show that the sheared zone will have no
movement during the lifespan of the project, some factor of safety should be
considered while constructing in the sheared zone. 61
Unconformity
• Unconformity refers to a gap in the geologic record caused by erosion or a
lack of deposition over a period of time.
• It's a boundary between older and younger rock layers that shows a period
when sediment was not being laid down or was being removed.
• Initially, subsidence and sediment deposition occur.
• Subsequently, uplift and tilting of the deposited layers can happen, followed
by erosion that removes the uplifted areas.
• Finally, renewed subsidence and deposition of new sediment layers on the
eroded surface can occur, creating the unconformity.
62
Process:

Stages for the development of an unconformity

 Formation of old rocks.

 Upliftment and erosion of old rocks.
 Formation of younger rocks after long period of time. 63
Types of Unconformity
Geologists recognize three kinds of unconformities in the field:
a. Angular Unconformity
This type occurs when older rock
layers are tilted or folded, eroded,
and then younger, horizontal layers
are deposited on top of them. The
resulting contact is at an angle,
showing the erosion and
deformation of the older layers.
64
b. Disconformity
This unconformity exists
between parallel layers of
sedimentary rocks. It can form
due to erosion or a lack of
deposition. The layers above
and below the unconformity
are parallel, but the
unconformity can be identified
due to the erosional surface.
65
c. Nonconformity
In this type, older igneous or
metamorphic rocks are eroded,
and younger sedimentary rocks
are deposited directly on top of
them. This signifies a large gap
in the geologic record and
indicates a significant period of
erosion or uplift.

66
Study of Rock Mass Classification
• Rock mass classification is a system of categorizing rock masses based on
their physical and mechanical properties, discontinuities, and the behavior
under stress.
• It is a crucial component of geotechnical engineering and rock mechanics,
especially for the design and analysis of tunnels, slopes, foundations, and
mining operations.
Purpose of Rock Mass Classification
• Helps to determine the stability and support requirements for
underground or surface structures. 67
• Provides a common framework for geologists and engineers to describe rock
conditions.
• Identifies potential hazards related to slope failures, tunnel collapses, or
foundation instability.
Parameters for Rock Mass Classification
The behavior of intact rock material or blocks is continuous while that of the
highly fractured rock mass is discontinuous in nature. For any engineering
design in the rock mass, the engineering properties of rock material and
discontinuities should be taken into consideration. Various parameters of
greatest and different significance have to be considered in order to describe a
rock mass satisfactorily for assuring rock mass stability. 68
The various important parameters used for description and classification of rock
mass are:
 Strength of the intact rock material (compressive strength, modulus of
elasticity)
 Rock quality designation (RQD) which is a measure of drill core quality or
intensity of fracturing
 Parameters of rock joints such as orientation, spacing, and condition
(aperture, surface roughness, infilling and weathering)
 Groundwater pressure and flow
 In situ stress
 Major geological structures (folds and faults). 69
Rock Quality Designation (RQD)
• The RQD System is a core logging method developed by Don Deere (1964) to
classify rock mass quality based on the integrity of core samples obtained
from boreholes.
• It is a measure of quality of rock core taken from a borehole and signifies the
degree of jointing or fracture in a rock mass measured in percentage.
• It is not a full classification system on its own but serves as a key input to
broader systems like RMR, Q-System, and GSI.

70
Example:

71
Types of Rock Mass Classification System
Rock mass classification systems can be broadly grouped into two categories
based on how they characterize the rock mass.
i. Qualitative (Descriptive) Systems: These systems rely on visual
assessment, engineering judgment, and geological observations, often
involving classification charts or tables instead of formulas.
i.e. GSI (Geological Strength Index), Terzaghi’s Classification (Rock Load)
i. Quantitative Systems: These systems are numerical and parameter
driven, offering a systematic way to compute rock mass quality based
on measurable physical properties. i.e. RMR, Q-system (NGI System)
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 In Summary, different types of rock mass classification system are:
 Terzaghi’s Classification
 Geological Strength Index (GSI)
 Rock Mass Rating (RMR) or Bieniawski’s Geomechanics Classification
 Q-system (Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI) system)
• Classification systems can also be classified on the basis of the aim of the
rating systems: for stability assessment, Q and RMR systems are used; Q gives
no support limit while RMR system is meant to calculate stand-up time.
• To calculate the ground support design (liner thickness, bolt spacing etc.) Q
system is used.
• To determine the engineering design parameters only, GSI is used. 73
1. Terzaghi’s Rock Mass Classification System (Rock Load Method)

• Developed by Karl Terzaghi in 1946, this is one of the earliest rock mass
classification systems, specifically created for tunnel construction.
• It is a qualitative and empirical system based on engineering judgment and
field observations rather than numerical analysis to predict rock loads.
• Terzaghi classified rock into seven categories based on:
 Degree of jointing and fracturing
 Block size and shape
 Potential for movement or deformation
 Behavior under load (especially tunnel conditions) 74
• Each rock class corresponds to an estimated rock load (expressed as a percentage of
tunnel width) that would potentially act on the tunnel support system.
Class Estimated Rock Load
Rock Type Description
No. (as % of tunnel width)
1 Intact Rock Unjointed, solid rock. No support needed. 0%
Horizontally layered or slightly separated.
2 Stratified Rock 0–25%
May slide but stable.
Moderately Jointed Some joints present; blocks may fall when
3 25–50%
Rock disturbed.
Heavily jointed and seamed rock; irregular
4 Blocky and Seamy Rock 50–100%
block shapes.
Completely broken, crushed, loose material;
5 Crushed Rock 100–250%
requires full support.
Weak plastic rock (e.g., clay stone) under
6 Squeezing Rock 250–500%
pressure; slowly flows into tunnel.
Swells upon contact with air/water; expands
7 Swelling Rock 250–500% or more
and pressures tunnel supports. 75
2. Geological Strength Index (GSI)
• The Geological Strength Index (GSI) is a qualitative–empirical classification
system developed by Evert Hoek and E. Marinos in the mid-1990s.
• It is widely used in rock engineering and numerical modeling to estimate
the strength and deformation properties of jointed rock masses by
considering the rock structure and block surface condition.
• It helps engineers design tunnels, slopes, and foundations by providing
input data for rock mass properties.
• It provides a visual and descriptive method for classifying jointed rock
masses. 76
GSI Value Rock Mass Quality

10–25 Very poor

25–35 Poor

35–45 Fair

45–60 Good

60–80 Very good

80–100 Excellent / Intact

77
3. Rock Mass Rating (RMR)

• The RMR system or the Geomechanics Classification is a quantitative rock

mass classification system was developed by Bieniawski (1976).
• It is used to evaluate rock mass quality for tunnels, foundations, slopes etc.
• The advantage of this system is that only a few basic parameters relating to
the geometry and mechanical conditions of the rock mass are used.
• The output from the RMR classification method tends to be rather
conservative, which can lead to overdesign of support systems.
• This system assigns a numerical value to a rock mass based on six
geotechnical parameters and these parameters are: 78
 RMR Range Rock Quality Description
 Uniaxial compressive strength
Very Good
81–100 Self-supporting
 Rock quality designation (RQD) Rock
Minor support
 Discontinuity spacing 61–80 Good Rock
required
 Discontinuity condition 41–60 Fair Rock
Systematic support
needed
 Discontinuity orientation, and Reinforced support
21–40 Poor Rock
 Groundwater conditions. required
Heavy support
• In summary, the RMR is a sum < 20 Very Poor Rock
required

of these six parameters, each with its own rating, providing a comprehensive
assessment of the rock mass quality for various engineering applications,
particularly in tunneling and underground construction. 79
The formula is: RMR = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5 + R6, where R1 to R6 are the
ratings for each parameter.

Parameter Description
R1 Uniaxial compressive strength of the rock material
R2 Rock Quality Designation (RQD)
R3 Spacing of discontinuities
Condition of discontinuities (roughness, separation,
R4
weathering, etc.)
R5 Groundwater conditions
Orientation of discontinuities (adjustment factor depending
R6
on application like tunnel, slope, etc.)
80
81
82
Example: Calculate the Rock Mass Rating (RMR) and evaluate the rock mass
quality based on the given data.
Parameter Field Value
Uniaxial compressive
110 MPa
strength
RQD (Rock Quality
55%
Designation)
Discontinuity spacing 0.3 m
Slightly rough, slightly weathered, separation < 1
Discontinuity condition
mm
Groundwater conditions Damp
Fairly favorable for a tunnel (horizontal bedding,
Discontinuity orientation
tunnel axis perpendicular) 83
Solution: Assigning Ratings (Based on Bieniawski’s RMR system)
Parameter Description Rating
R1 UCS 110 MPa 12
R2 RQD 55% 13
R3 Spacing 0.3 m 10
R4 Slightly rough, separation < 1 mm, slightly weathered 25
R5 Damp conditions 10
R6 Fairly favorable tunnel orientation -5
RMR Calculation RMR = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5 + R6
RMR = 12 +13 + 10 +25 + 10 + (−5) = 65
According to Bieniawski’s classification: for RMR = 65, the given rock mass has
Class Number: II and Rock Quality: Good 84
4. Q-system (Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI) system)
• The Q-system for rock mass classification is a quantitative classification
system which was developed at the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI)
• This is also called as Tunneling Quality Index.
• On the basis of large case studies NGI has developed the Q-System for
determining the following two objectives:
 Rock mass characteristics and
 Tunnel Support Requirements
• As per different Q ratings, rock classes have been divided into following
groups as shown in the table below:
85
 Q-system rock mass classification description (Barton et al, 1974)

Q Value Rock Quality Tunnel Support Need

< 0.1 Exceptionally poor Heavy support (steel ribs, shotcrete)
0.1 – 1.0 Very poor Shotcrete, rock bolts, mesh
1–4 Poor Light to moderate support
4 – 10 Fair Spot bolting, possible shotcrete
10 – 40 Good Minimal support
> 40 Excellent Self-supporting rock
 A higher Q-value generally indicates a more stable and higher-quality rock mass.
 A lower Q-value may suggest areas that require additional support or design
adjustments to ensure stability. 86
The Q-system is a numerical rating system that assigns a "Q-value" to a rock
mass based on several key factors. These factors include:
• Rock Quality Designation (RQD)
• Number of joint sets (Jn)
• Roughness of the most unfavorable joint (Jr)
• Degree of alteration or filling along the weakest joint (Ja)
• Water inflow (Jw)
• Stress reduction factor (SRF)

The Q system has been defined by the formula:

87
Parameter Typical Range Interpretation
RQD 10 – 100 Fracturing of rock
Jn 1 – 20+ Number of joint sets
Jr 0.5 – 4.0 Joint surface quality
Ja 0.75 – 5+ Joint weathering or clay filling
Jw 0.05 – 1.0 Water conditions in joints
SRF 0.5 – 20+ Stress/weak zone effects 88
SLOPE FAILURE
• Slope failures are major natural hazards that occur in many areas
throughout the world.
• Slopes expose two or more free surfaces because of geometry.
• Plane, wedge, toppling, rock fall and rotational (circular/non-circular) types
of failure are common in slopes.

89
• The first four are more predominant in rock slopes and are primarily
controlled by the orientation and the spacing of discontinuities planes with
respect to the slope face.
• The pattern of the discontinuities may be comprised of a single discontinuity,
or a pair of discontinuities that intersect each other, or a combination of
multiple discontinuities that are linked together to form a failure mode.
• Circular and non circular failure occurs in soil, heavily jointed or fractured
rock mass and very weak rock.
• The types of slope failure are primarily controlled by material properties,
water content and foundation strength.
90
a. Plane Failure
A rock slope undergoes this mode of failure when combinations of
discontinuities in the rock mass form blocks or wedges within the rock which
are free to move. The pattern of the discontinuities may be comprised of a
single discontinuity or a pair of discontinuities that intersect each other, or a
combination of multiple discontinuities that are linked together to form a
failure mode. A planar failure of rock slope occurs when a mass of rock in a
slope slides down along a relatively planar failure surface. The failure surfaces
are usually structural discontinuities such as bedding planes, faults, joints or
the interface between bedrock and an overlying layer of weathered rock.
91
b. Wedge Failure:
Wedge failure of rock slope results when rock mass slides along two
intersecting discontinuities, both of which dip out of the cut slope at an
oblique angle to the cut face, thus forming a wedge-shaped block. It can occur
in rock mass with two or more sets of discontinuities whose lines of
intersection are approximately perpendicular to the strike of the slope and dip
towards the plane of the slope. This mode of failure requires that the dip angle
of at least one joint intersect is greater than the friction angle of the joint
surfaces and that the line of joint intersection intersects the plane of the slope.
Depending upon the ratio between peak and residual shear strength, wedge
92
failure can occur rapidly, within seconds or minutes, or over a much longer time
frame in the order of several months. The size of a wedge failure can range from
a few cubic meters to very large slides from which the potential for destruction
can be enormous. The formation and occurrence of wedge failures are
dependent primarily on lithology and structure of the rock mass

93
c. Toppling Failure:
Toppling failures occur when columns of rock, formed by steeply dipping
discontinuities in the rock rotates about an essentially fixed point at or near the
base of the slope followed by slippage between the layers. The center of gravity
of the column or slab must fall outside the dimension of its base in toppling
failure. Jointed rock mass closely spaced and steeply dipping discontinuity sets
that dip away from the slope surface are necessary prerequisites for toppling
failure. The removal of overburden and the confining rock, as is the case in
mining excavations, can result in a partial relief of the constraining stresses
within the rock structure, resulting in a toppling failure.
94
 Typical view of Block Toppling Failure

This type of slope failure may be further categorized depend on the mode
such as flexural toppling, block toppling, and block flexural toppling.
95
d. Rockfalls:
In rockfalls, a rock mass of any size is detached from a steep slope or cliff along
a surface on which little or no shear displacement takes place, and descends
mostly through the air either by free fall, leaping, bouncing, or rolling. It is
generally initiated by some climatic or biological event that causes a change in
the forces acting on a rock. These events may include pore pressure increase
due to rainfall infiltration, erosion of surrounding material during heavy rain
storms, freeze-thaw processes in cold climates, chemical degradation or
weathering of the rock, root growth or leverage by roots moving in high winds
etc.
96
Rock fall may involve a single rock or a mass of rocks, and the falling rocks can
dislodge other rocks as they collide with the cliff. Rockfalls are a major hazard in
rock cuts for highways and railways in mountainous terrain.

97
 Kinematic Analysis of Discontinuity
• Kinematic analysis is a method used to assess the stability of rock slopes by
examining the geometry of natural fractures or discontinuities (like joints,
faults, and bedding planes) and their relationship with the slope's
orientation.
• It helps to determine whether certain failure modes, such as planar, wedge,
or toppling failures, are possible based on the geometric conditions.
• Understanding the potential failure modes is crucial for designing safe
structures, roads, and tunnels in mountainous or hilly regions.
• Kinematic analysis provides a quick and cost-effective way to identify areas at
98
risk of failure, allowing engineers to take preventive measures.
Stereographic Projection (Stereonet)
• Stereographic projection, also known as a Stereonet, is a method used in
structural geology to represent three-dimensional orientation data in two
dimensions.
• It provides a quick and reliable picture of the discontinuities and their
intersections.
• It is also used for estimation of cut slope angle, statistical analysis of joints,
for the preparation of hazard maps and estimation of safety factors.
• An important limitation of stereographic projections is that they consider
only angular relationships between lines and planes, and do not represent
the position or size of the feature. 99
Use of a Stereonet for Kinematic Analysis
i. Plotting Planes:
• Determine the Strike and Dip: Identify the strike (the compass direction
of the line formed by the intersection of the plane with the horizontal
surface) and dip (the angle at which the plane inclines). 100
• Plot the Pole: The pole to a plane is a line perpendicular to that plane. To
plot it:
 Identify the strike direction on the Stereonet.
 Move along the great circle corresponding to the dip angle.
 The point where this path intersects the Stereonet represents the
pole to the plane.
ii. Analyzing Failure Modes:
• Planar Failure: Occurs when a rock mass slides along a single planar
discontinuity.
• Wedge Failure: Involves the sliding of a rock mass along the
101
intersection of two discontinuities.
• Toppling Failure: Happens when rock blocks rotate forward and fall due to
gravity.
Plotting the orientations of discontinuities and analyzing their relationships
on the Stereonet, helps to assess the likelihood of these failure modes.

102
Hoek-Brown Failure Criterion
• The Hoek-Brown failure criterion is an empirical stress surface that is used
in rock mechanics to predict the failure of rock.
• It is particularly useful for modeling the strength of rock masses that exhibit
nonlinear behavior, which is common in natural rock slopes.
• The general form of the Hoek–Brown failure criterion is:

Where,
• σ1 and σ3 are the major and minor principal effective stresses at failure, resp.
• A and B are material constants related to the uniaxial compressive strength.
103
End of Chapter 5….

ANY

QUESTIONS ?

104