UNIT III ACTUATORS FOR TOOL AUTOMATION 9

A.C.-D.C. Motors, Stepper motor, Solenoid actuators, Piezoelectric motors, Electric

drives, Hydraulic and Pneumatic actuator,Telemetry: Wireless communication modules
and topology, Zig-bee, Bluetooth, LORA, Zero power devices, Energy Harvesting
technology.

A.C Motors

What is an AC Motor?

An AC motor is a motor that converts alternating current into mechanical power. The stator
and the rotor are important parts of AC motors. The stator is the stationary part of the motor,
and the rotor is the rotating part of the motor. The AC motor may be single-phase or three-
phase. Nikola Tesla invented the first AC induction motor in 1887.

Construction of an AC motor

An alternating current drives an AC motor. The stationary stator and the rotating rotor are
important parts of AC motors. In this section, let us study the different parts of an AC motor.

AC Motor Diagram

Following are the different parts of an AC motor:

Stator

The stator is the stationary part of the motor that delivers a rotating magnetic field to interact
with the rotor.
Stator Core

The stator core is made of thin metal sheets known as laminations. Laminations are used to
reduce energy loss.

Stator Windings

Stator windings are stacked together, forming a hollow cylinder. The slots of the stator core
coils of insulated wires are insulated.

When the assembled motor operates, the stator windings are connected to a power source.
Each group of coils, along with the steel core, becomes an electromagnet when the current is
applied.

Rotor

A rotor is a central component of a motor that is fixed to the shaft. The most common type of
rotor used in an AC motor is the squirrel cage rotor. A squirrel-cage rotor is cylindrical and is
made by stacking thin steel laminations.
Instead of inserting wire coils between the slots, conductor bars are die-cast into the evenly
spaced slots around the cylinder. Once the conductor bars are die-casted, they are electrically
and mechanically connected to the end rings.

Motor Shaft

The rotor is pressed onto a steel shaft to form a rotor assembly. The shaft extends outside the
motor casing allowing connection to an external system to transmit the rotational power.

Bearings

Bearings hold the motor shaft in place. The bearings minimize the shaft’s friction connected
to the casing, which increases the motor’s efficiency.

Enclosure

The enclosure protects the internal parts of the motor from water and other environmental
elements. The enclosure consists of a frame and two end brackets.

Classification of AC Motor

Below, we have discussed the different types of AC motors in detail.

Based on the principle of operation, AC motors are classified as:

 Synchronous Motor

 Induction Motor
Synchronous Motor

The motor that runs at synchronous speed is known as the synchronous motor. The constant
speed at which the motor generates the electromotive force is known as synchronous speed.
An electromagnet in the rotating magnetic field magnetically locks itself with the rotating
magnetic field and rotates simultaneously with the rotating field. This is where the name
synchronous motor comes from. This also means that synchronous motors have fixed speeds.
The synchronous speed can be calculated using the following formula:

AC Motor Synchronous Speed Formula

ns=120fp
where ns is the synchronous speed, f is the line voltage frequency in Hz, and P is the number
of poles.

Working Principle of a Synchronous Motor

 The synchronous motor works with two electrical inputs provided to it.

 The stator is equipped with a 3-phase AC supply, while the rotor is provided with the
DC supply.

 The stator winding supplied with 3 phase AC supply generates 3 phase rotating
magnetic flux. The rotor carrying DC supply produces a constant flux.

 At a particular instant, the rotor and the stator poles might be of the same polarity (N-
N or S-S), causing a repulsive force and the very next second, it will be N-S causing
an attractive force.
  Due to this attractive and repulsive force, the motor cannot rotate in any direction and
remains in a standstill position.

 To overcome this resistance to motion, the rotor is initially fed mechanical input that
rotates it in the same direction as the magnetic field. After some time, magnetic
locking occurs, and the synchronous motor rotates in synchronism.

Induction Motor

Induction motors are the most commonly used motors. Induction motors are also known as
asynchronous motors because they always run slower than synchronous speed.

Based on the type of rotor construction, they are divided into two types as follows:

 Squirrel Cage Motor

 Slip Ring Motor

Working Principle of Induction Motors

 In an induction motor, the stator winding is fed with an AC supply. This causes the
stator winding to develop an alternating flux. We call this rotating flux “Rotating
Magnetic Field (RMF).”

 According to Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction, the relative speed between

the stator RMF and the rotor RMF causes an induced emf in the rotor conductors.
Rotor conductors are short-circuited, and a rotor current is produced due to induced
emf.

 This induced current produces alternating flux around it. It should be noted that the
stator flux lags behind the rotor flux.

 Due to the relative velocity between the rotating stator flux and the rotor, the rotor
rotates in the same direction as that of the stator flux to minimize the relative velocity.
This is the basic working principle of the induction motor.

 The difference between the synchronous speed (Ns) and the actual speed (N) of the
rotor is known as the slip.

 The main components of an AC motor are the stator, stationary outer drum, and the
rotor, the rotating inner portion attached to the motor shaft. The stator and the rotor
 produce rotating magnetic fields. The winding of the stator that creates the rotating
field is created by alternating current.
 In an AC motor the winding serves as the armature and field winding. When the
stator is connected to an AC supply flux an air gap is formed rotating the flux at a
fixed synchronous speed, which produces voltages in the stator and rotor winding.

DC Motor

A DC motor is defined as a class of electrical motors that convert direct current electrical
energy into mechanical energy.

From the above definition, we can conclude that any electric motor that is operated using
direct current or DC is called a DC motor. We will understand the DC motor construction and
how a DC motor converts the supplied DC electrical energy into mechanical energy in the
next few sections.

DC Motor Diagram
Different Parts of a DC Motor

A DC motor is composed of the following main parts::

Armature or Rotor

The armature of a DC motor is a cylinder of magnetic laminations that are insulated from one
another. The armature is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. The armature is a rotating
part that rotates on its axis and is separated from the field coil by an air gap.

Field Coil or Stator

A DC motor field coil is a non-moving part on which winding is wound to produce

a magnetic field. This electro-magnet has a cylindrical cavity between its poles.

Commutator and Brushes

Commutator

The commutator of a DC motor is a cylindrical structure that is made of copper segments

stacked together but insulated from each other using mica. The primary function of a
commutator is to supply electrical current to the armature winding.

Brushes

The brushes of a DC motor are made with graphite and carbon structure. These brushes
conduct electric current from the external circuit to the rotating commutator. Hence, we come
to understand that the commutator and the brush unit are concerned with transmitting
the power from the static electrical circuit to the mechanically rotating region or the
rotor.

DC Motor Working

In the previous section, we discussed the various components of a DC motor. Now, using this
knowledge let us understand the working of DC motors.

A magnetic field arises in the air gap when the field coil of the DC motor is energised. The
created magnetic field is in the direction of the radii of the armature. The magnetic field
enters the armature from the North pole side of the field coil and “exits” the armature from
the field coil’s South pole side.

The conductors located on the other pole are subjected to a force of the same intensity but in
the opposite direction. These two opposing forces create a torque that causes the motor
armature to rotate.

Types of DC motor

DC motors have a wide range of applications ranging from electric shavers to automobiles.
To cater to this wide range of applications, they are classified into different types based on
the field winding connections to the armature as:

 Self Excited DC Motor

 Separately Excited DC Motor

Applications of DC Motor

The applications of different types of DC motors are listed below:

 1. Centrifugal and reciprocating pumps
2. Lathe machines
3. Blowers and Fans
4. Drilling machines
5. Milling machines
6. Machine tools

Solenoid

Electromagnets

Electromagnets are the kind of magnet where the wire is wrapped around an iron core. Upon
the supply of electric current, a magnetic field is created around the iron core. The magnetic
field vanishes when the electric supply is cut off. The core of the magnet that is wound by
wires is a ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic in nature. Iron is the most commonly used material
in the core.

The magnetic field established is controlled by the supply of electricity. A permanent magnet
does not need the supply of power and the magnetic field cannot be
controlled. Electromagnets are used in making solenoids, MRI machines, hard disks, relays,
motors, loudspeakers, and generators. Watch the video below to understand
electromagnetism.

1,84,047
Now that we have understood electromagnets, let us learn about solenoids.

The solenoid is a type of electromagnet, the purpose of which is to generate a controlled

magnetic field through a coil wound into a tightly packed helix. The solenoid is as shown in
the figure below. The solenoid is a coil of wire, and the plunger is made of soft iron. The
magnetic field is formed around the coil when an electric current passes through it and draws
the plunger in. We can say that the solenoid is responsible for converting electrical energy
into mechanical work.

Solenoids were the results of the development of an efficient and greater strength offering
magnets. In the year 1823, a French Physicist and a mathematician, Andre-Marie Ampere
coined the term solenoid to designate a helical coil.

Note: Electromagnet with the fixed core is not considered a solenoid.

Working of Solenoids

After understanding the definition of solenoid and its parts, let us learn how solenoids work.
Solenoid works on the principle of electromagnetism. When the electric current passes
through the coil, the magnetic field is generated. When a metal core is placed inside the coil,
the magnetic lines of flux are concentrated on the core. This increases the induction of the
coil as compared to the air core. This concept is known as electromagnetic induction.

As we know, coils are made of numerous turns of copper wire wound tightly around it. A
strong magnetic flux is developed when the current passes through the wire. The
concentration of flux is high on the core, while some of the flux appears at the ends of the
coil and outside the coil too. By increasing the flow of electric current or by increasing the
density of the turns, the magnetic strength of the solenoid can be increased.

The housing is made of iron or steel. Housing is surrounded by the magnetic field created due
to the coil. The plunger lets the mechanical force do work. Solenoids too feature positive and
negative poles, through which an object can be attracted or repelled.

Consider a solenoid whose length is more than the radius. Enameled and insulated wire is
wrapped with a wire in the form of a helix with a small gap between the turns. The amount of
vector force provided by each turn, and the total magnetic field created by the solenoid are
equal to that formed by a circular loop. This gives the total magnetic field of the solenoid.
The lines of magnetic fields produced within a finite solenoid are as shown below.

Image below shows the depiction of a solenoid.

The field at any point beyond the solenoid is very thin. The field inside the solenoid is
parallel to its axis at all times. The magnetic force produced by a solenoid can be defined
using the Law of the Ampere:

F=μ0nI
Where n is the number of turns of the wire per unit length, I is the current flowing through the
wire, and the direction is given using the right-hand thumb rule.

Types of Solenoid

Different types of solenoids are as follows:

 AC-Laminated Solenoid

 DC-C Frame Solenoid

 DC-D Frame Solenoid

 Linear Solenoid

 Rotary Solenoid

Let us know about each type of solenoid.

AC-Laminated Solenoid

The AC-laminated solenoid is known for the amount of force that can occur in its first stroke.
The AC-laminated solenoid features a metal core and a coil of wire. The core of the solenoid
is made with a laminated metal to reduce the stray current. AC-laminated solenoids are
capable of using more strokes than DC laminated solenoids. This type of solenoid produces a
clean buzzing sound when they operate.

DC C-Frame Solenoid

The DC C-Frame solenoid has one frame in C-shape covered around the coil. The DC C-
frame solenoid is said to be DC configuration, and can be used in equipment designed for AC
power.

DC-D Frame Solenoid

DC-D frame solenoid is a two-piece frame covering the coil. It has a controlled stroke
operation and can be used with AC power too.

Linear Solenoid

Linear solenoid features a coil of wire wrapped around movable metalcore. It aids in applying
pulling or pushing force to a mechanical device. The linear solenoid is used in starting
devices. This mechanism aids in completing a circuit and letting current flow through.

Rotary Solenoid

The rotary solenoid is used in the automatic control process. This solenoid also features a coil
and a core, but it has a different operation.
Applications of Solenoid

1. They are used in construction, agricultural vehicles, speciality vehicles, and industrial
equipment.
2. Linear solenoids are used in highly secured door mechanisms
3. They are used in starter motors of bikes and cars.
4. It is used in gaming machines, scanners, printers, circuit breakers, and photographic
shutters.

What is the Piezoelectric Effect?

Piezoelectric Effect is the ability of certain materials to generate an electric charge in

response to applied mechanical stress. The word Piezoelectric is derived from the Greek
piezein, which means to squeeze or press, and piezo,

One of the unique characteristics of the piezoelectric effect is that it is reversible, meaning
that materials exhibiting the direct piezoelectric effect (the generation of electricity when
stress is applied) also exhibit the converse piezoelectric effect (the generation of stress when
an electric field is applied).

When piezoelectric material is placed under mechanical stress, a shifting of the positive and
negative charge centers in the material takes place, which then results in an external electrical
field. When reversed, an outer electrical field either stretches or compresses the piezoelectric
material.

The piezoelectric effect is very useful within many applications that involve the production
and detection of sound, generation of high voltages, electronic frequency generation,
microbalances, and ultra fine focusing of optical assemblies. It is also the basis of a number
of scientific instrumental techniques with atomic resolution, such as scanning probe
microscopes (STM, AFM, etc). The piezoelectric effect also has its use in more mundane
applications as well, such as acting as the ignition source for cigarette lighters.

The History of the Piezoelectric Effect

The direct piezoelectric effect was first seen in 1880, and was initiated by the brothers Pierre
and Jacques Curie. By combining their knowledge of pyroelectricity with their understanding
of crystal structures and behavior, the Curie brothers demonstrated the first piezoelectric
effect by using crystals of tourmaline, quartz, topaz, cane sugar, and Rochelle salt. Their
initial demonstration showed that quartz and Rochelle salt exhibited the most piezoelectricity
ability at the time.

Over the next few decades, piezoelectricity remained in the laboratory, something to be
experimented on as more work was undertaken to explore the great potential of the
piezoelectric effect. The breakout of World War I marked the introduction of the first
practical application for piezoelectric devices, which was the sonar device. This initial use of
piezoelectricity in sonar created intense international developmental interest in piezoelectric
devices. Over the next few decades, new piezoelectric materials and new applications for
those materials were explored and developed.

During World War II, research groups in the US, Russia and Japan discovered a new class of
man-made materials, called ferroelectrics, which exhibited piezoelectric constants many
times higher than natural piezoelectric materials. Although quartz crystals were the first
commercially exploited piezoelectric material and still used in sonar detection applications,
scientists kept searching for higher performance materials. This intense research resulted in
the development of barium titanate and lead zirconate titanate, two materials that had very
specific properties suitable for particular applications.

Piezoelectric Materials

There are many materials, both natural and man-made, that exhibit a range of piezoelectric
effects. Some naturally piezoelectric occurring materials include Berlinite (structurally
identical to quartz), cane sugar, quartz, Rochelle salt, topaz, tourmaline, and bone (dry bone
exhibits some piezoelectric properties due to the apatite crystals, and the piezoelectric effect
is generally thought to act as a biological force sensor). An example of man-made
piezoelectric materials includes barium titanate and lead zirconate titanate.

In recent years, due to the growing environmental concern regarding toxicity in lead-
containing devices and the RoHS directive followed within the European Union, there has
been a push to develop lead free piezoelectric materials. To date, this initiative to develop
new lead-free piezoelectric materials has resulted in a variety of new piezoelectric materials
which are more environmentally safe.
Applications Best Suited for the Piezoelectric Effect

Due to the intrinsic characteristics of piezoelectric materials, there are numerous applications
that benefit from their use:

High Voltage and Power Sources

An example of applications in this area is the electric cigarette lighter, where pressing a
button causes a spring-loaded hammer to hit a piezoelectric crystal, thereby producing a
sufficiently high voltage that electric current flows across a small spark gap, heating and
igniting the gas. Most types of gas burners and ranges have a built-in piezo based injection
systems.

Sensors

The principle of operation of a piezoelectric sensor is that a physical dimension, transformed

into a force, acts on two opposing faces of the sensing element. The detection of pressure
variations in the form of sound is the most common sensor application, which is seen in
piezoelectric microphones and piezoelectric pickups for electrically amplified guitars.
Piezoelectric sensors in particular are used with high frequency sound in ultrasonic
transducers for medical imaging and industrial nondestructive testing.

Piezoelectric Motors

Because very high voltages correspond to only tiny changes in the width of the crystal, this
crystal width can be manipulated with better-than-micrometer precision, making piezo
crystals an important tool for positioning objects with extreme accuracy, making them perfect
for use in motors, such as the various motor series offered by Nanomotion.

Regarding piezoelectric motors, the piezoelectric element receives an electrical pulse, and
then applies directional force to an opposing ceramic plate, causing it to move in the desired
direction. Motion is generated when the piezoelectric element moves against a static platform
(such as ceramic strips).

The characteristics of piezoelectric materials provided the perfect technology upon which
Nanomotion developed our various lines of unique piezoelectric motors. Using patented
piezoelectric technology, Nanomotion has designed various series of motors ranging in size
from a single element (providing 0.4Kg of force) to an eight element motor (providing 3.2Kg
of force). Nanomotion motors are capable of driving both linear and rotary stages, and have a
wide dynamic range of speed, from several microns per second to 250mm/sec and can easily
mount to traditional low friction stages or other devices. The operating characteristics of
Nanomotion’s motors provide inherent braking and the ability to eliminate servo dither when
in a static position.

Electrical Drive

Definition: The system which is used for controlling the motion of an electrical machine,
such type of system is called an electrical drive. In other words, the drive which uses the
electric motor is called electrical drive. The electrical drive uses any of the prime movers like
diesel or a petrol engine, gas or steam turbines, steam engines, hydraulic motors and
electrical motors as a primary source of energy. This prime mover supplies the mechanical
energy to the drive for motion control.

The block diagram of the electrical drive is shown in the figure below. The electrical load
like fans, pumps, trains, etc., consists the electrical motor. The requirement of an electrical
load is determined regarding speed and torque. The motor which suited the capabilities of the
load is chosen for the load drive.

Parts of Electrical Drive

The main parts of the electrical drives are power modulator, motor, controlling unit and
sensing [Link] parts are explained below in details.
Power Modulator – The power modulator regulates the output power of the source. It
controls the power from the source to the motor in such a manner that motor transmits the
speed-torque characteristic required by the load. During the transient operations like starting,
braking and speed reversing the excessive current drawn from the source. This excessive
current drawn from the source may overload it or may cause a voltage drop. Hence the power
modulator restricts the source and motor current.

The power modulator converts the energy according to the requirement of the motor e.g. if
the source is DC and an induction motor is used then power modulator convert DC into AC.
It also selects the mode of operation of the motor, i.e., motoring or braking.

Control Unit – The control unit controls the power modulator which operates at small
voltage and power levels. The control unit also operates the power modulator as desired. It
also generates the commands for the protection of power modulator and motor. An input
command signal which adjusts the operating point of the drive, from an input to the control
unit.

Sensing Unit – It senses the certain drive parameter like motor current and speed. It mainly
required either for protection or for closed loop operation.

Advantages of Electrical Drive

The following are the advantages of electrical drive.

 The electric drive has very large range of torque, speed and power.

 Their working is independent of the environmental condition.

 The electric drives are free from pollution.

 The electric drives operate on all the quadrants of speed torque plane.

 The drive can easily be started and it does not require any refuelling.

 The efficiency of the drives is high because fewer losses occur on it.

The electric drives have many advantages shown above. The only disadvantage of the drive is
that sometimes the mechanical energy produced by the prime mover is first converted into
electrical energy and then into a mechanical work by the help of the motor. This can be done
by the help of the electrical link which is associated with the prime mover and the load.
Because of the following advantages, the mechanical energy already available from a non-
electrical prime mover is sometimes first converted into electrical energy by a generator and
back to a mechanical energy of an electrical motor. Electrical link thus provides between the
non-electrical prime mover and the load impact to the drive flexible control characteristic.

For example – The diesel locomotive produces the diesel energy by the help of the diesel
engine. The mechanical energy is converted into an electrical energy by the help of the
generator. This electrical energy is used for driving the other locomotive.

Disadvantages of Electrical Drive

The power failure completely disabled the whole of the system.

1. The application of the drive is limited because it cannot use in a place where the power
supply is not available.

2. It can cause noise pollution.

3. The initial cost of the system is high.

4. It has a poor dynamic response.

5. The output power obtained from the drive is low.

6. During the breakdown of conductors or short circuit, the system may get damaged due
to which several problems occur.

Application of Electric Drive

It is used in a large number of industrial and domestic applications like transportation

systems, rolling mills, paper machines, textile mills, machine tools, fans, pumps, robots and
washing, etc.

An actuator is an electric component within a machine, used to move and control a system.
An actuator works by using a source of energy and a control signal. Here the control signal is
current or voltage, human power, hydraulic liquid force, or pneumatic whereas the source of
energy is hydraulic force, electric current, or pneumatic force. The main function of an
actuator is to change the energy of the source to mechanical motion once it gets a control
signal. There are different types of electric actuators available like soft, electric, pneumatic,
thermal, mechanical, and hydraulic actuators. This article discusses one of the types namely
hydraulic actuator and its working with applications.

What is a Hydraulic Actuator?

Hydraulic actuator definition is, a device that is used to change the fluid’s pressure energy
into mechanical is known as a hydraulic actuator. The hydraulic actuator includes a cylinder
or a fluid motor that works through hydraulic power for mechanical operation. The
mechanical motion provides an output in the form of rotary, linear otherwise oscillatory
motion. When liquids are almost unfeasible to compress, then a hydraulic actuator uses a
large force.

Hydr aulic Actuator

The Hydraulic actuator working principle is, it uses liquid pressure to work instead of
instrument air pressure to provide a force on the diaphragm to move the valve actuator, then
to the stem of the position valve. Almost all types of hydraulic actuators use a piston instead
of a diaphragm for changing liquid pressure into mechanical power.
Types of Hydraulic Actuator

Hydraulic actuators are classified into three types based on actuation like linear actuator,
rotary actuator, and semi-rotary actuator.
 A linear actuator is used for linear actuation. They provide the force or motion within a
straight line, such hydraulic actuators are called a hydraulic cylinders.
 A rotary actuator is used for rotary actuation. They provide the torque or rotational
motion; such hydraulic actuators are called hydraulic motors. By using these actuators,
constant angular movement can be achieved.
 The semi-rotary actuator is used for the partial angle of actuation. These are capable of
partial angular movements that can be numerous complete revolutions although 360
degrees or below is more usual.
Specifications

The specifications of hydraulic actuator include the following.

 Its supply voltage is full bridge supply like 24 V ± 10 %
 Battery voltage supply ranges from 20V to 36 V
 Input power is 40 VA max
 Controlled current outputs range from 0 to 1.6 A
 Pulse width modulated signal is 160 Hz
 Primary current is + 0.2 to 1.1 A
 The maximum current is 1.6 A
 Differential inlet is 0 to ± 10 V (or) 0 to ± 20 mA
 Ramp time changes approximately from 1 to 10 seconds @ 100 % of nominal value
 Acceptable ambient temperature ranges from – 10 °C – 70 °C
 Connections are Plug connector, 64-pole & DIN 41612
Hydraulic Actuator System & Its Working

The schematic diagram of the hydraulic actuator system is shown below.

 Hydraul
ic Actuator Working
This system mainly uses Pascal’s Law, which states that when the pressure is applied at a
particular point to a limited fluid within a container then it transmits evenly in all the ways
within the liquid & the container’s walls without any loss.

If pressure (P) is applied to an area (A), then the output force because of an applied force will
be:

F=P*A
If a specific force like ‘F’ is applied within a smaller region to include pressure ‘P’ in a
limited fluid, then the generated force on a larger area can be somewhat larger as compared to
the force formed through the pressure.

In this method, the pressure which is applied at a particular point is used for generating
extremely large forces. So this principle is used by several hydraulic systems. The major
components of the hydraulic actuator mainly include a spool valve or pilot valve & main
cylinder or power cylinder.

The operating of this hydraulic actuator can be done like this. When the difference within
pressure is created at the two areas of the main cylinder then the translational movement of
the piston occurs.
The main cylinder includes two regions and two chambers which are acquired by separating
the main cylinder through the main piston.
In the cylinder, the rate of fluid supply within the cylinder can be controlled through the
spool valve. This valve includes four ports where each port can be connected to a dissimilar
part of the system. The first two separate ports are connected to the drain region & fluid
supply respectively whereas the other two ports are connected separately toward the two
chambers within the main cylinder.

At first, the spool valve is present at the neutral point, thus there is no flow of fluid within the
main cylinder. In the hydraulic actuator, the fluid flows then the load will move accordingly.
So, when input displacement is ‘0’ then the output displacement will be 0.

Once input displacement is given, the spool valve moves in the direction of the right which
causes the fluid to move from the high-pressure source to the left side chamber in the main
cylinder. So, the force on the left chamber in the cylinder increases than the right side
chamber, then accelerating force can be generated which causes to move of the load.

Here, the load moves in the direction of the fluid which flows. This works like power
amplification because the force supplied to move the valve is fairly very small as compared
to the generated force that moves the load. Thus, hydraulic actuators will operate in this way.

Hydraulic Actuator Advantages & Disadvantages

The advantages of a hydraulic actuator include the following.

 Design is simple
 Inexpensive
 Strong construction
 High force capabilities
 Protection of the engine from overloads
 The rotating parts provide a quick change of operating modes.
 Transformation is simple from rotating movement to reciprocating one
 These actuators generate 25 times greater forces as compared to pneumatic cylinders of
equivalent size.
 They also operate up to 4,000 psi.
 They can hold pressure & torque stable
 The pumps & motors within the actuator can be arranged at a considerable distance
through a small amount of power loss.
The disadvantages of a hydraulic actuator include the following.
 Inflexibility
 High maintenance
 Sensitive to temperature
 Partial motion control capabilities
 Insufficient data collection capabilities
 Operating efficiency is low
 Its efficiency is low as compared to others
 Its operation conditions will influence its main characteristics
 They need several complementary parts like a liquid reservoir, pump, motor, heat
exchangers, and release valves through noise decrease equipment.
 Loss of liquid can lead to less efficiency and hygiene problems resulting in potential
damage to surrounding components and areas.
Applications

The applications of hydraulic actuators include the following.

 These are used in high force-based applications.
 These are used for various applications like crane drives, winches, self-driven cranes,
excavators, wheel motors in military vehicles, feeder drives, agitator drives
 & mixer, roll mills, trammels & kilns, drum drives for digesters, shredders for cars, tires,
drilling rigs, high-powered lawn trimmers & trench cutters.
 Hydraulic jack
 Highly precise positioning for heavy loads
 Hydraulic brake
 Controlling oh close-loop velocity
 Hydraulic ram
 It can be used as a sensor
Thus, this is all about an overview of a hydraulic actuator and its working with applications.
These are mainly used to change the energy from the pressure of the fluid to mechanical. The
pressure of the running fluid works on the piston & creates energy to cause the piston
assembly to move. Thus, the piston rod can perform useful work. Here is a question for you,
what does a hydraulic actuator do
Pneumatic Actuators :

A simplified diagram of a pneumatic actuator is shown in Figure 1. It operates by a

combination of force created by air and spring force. The actuator positions a control valve
by transmitting its motion through the stem.

A rubber diaphragm separates the actuator housing into two air chambers. The upper chamber
receives supply air through an opening in the top of the housing.

Figure 1 : Pneumatic Actuator: Air-to-Close/Spring-to-Open

The bottom chamber contains a spring that forces the diaphragm against mechanical stops in
the upper chamber. Finally, a local indicator is connected to the stem to indicate the position
of the valve.

The position of the valve is controlled by varying supply air pressure in the upper chamber.
This results in a varying force on the top of the diaphragm. Initially, with no supply air, the
spring forces the diaphragm upward against the mechanical stops and holds the valve fully
open.
As supply air pressure is increased from zero, its force on top of the diaphragm begins to
overcome the opposing force of the spring. This causes the diaphragm to move downward
and the control valve to close. With increasing supply air pressure, the diaphragm will
continue to move downward and compress the spring until the control valve is fully closed.

Conversely, if supply air pressure is decreased, the spring will begin to force the diaphragm
upward and open the control valve. Additionally, if supply pressure is held constant at some
value between zero and maximum, the valve will position at an intermediate position.
Therefore, the valve can be positioned anywhere between fully open and fully closed in
response to changes in supply air pressure.

A positioner is a device that regulates the supply air pressure to a pneumatic actuator. It does
this by comparing the actuator’s demanded position with the control valve’s actual position.

The demanded position is transmitted by a pneumatic or electrical control signal from a

controller to the positioner. The pneumatic actuator in Figure 1 is shown in Figure 2 with
a controller and positioner added.
Types of actuators by their motion
Pneumatic actuators are categorized by their type of motion. They are either Linear or Rotary.

A linear pneumatic actuator can move something in a straight line. For example, a rod is
moved in and out of a cylinder in a linear motion by a pneumatic energy source.

A rotary pneumatic actuator can make something move in a circular motion. For example, a
rod in a rack and pinion drive system is used to produce rotary motion.

Let’s look at some examples of how Rotary and Linear pneumatic actuators are operated as
there are many different types of each.
1) Rotary pneumatic actuator

In the Rotary pneumatic actuator category, the Vane style and the Rack and Pinion style
are very common.
1-1) Vane Actuator

Vane Actuators have a cylindrical chamber in which a movable vane is mounted on a shaft.
Pneumatic air under pressure applied on one side of the vane causes it to rotate through its
stroke.

1-2) Rack and pinion

Rack and Pinion actuators use a piston attached to rack gear. When pneumatic pressure is
applied, the piston and rack move linearly rotating the pinion gear and driveshaft.

2) Linear pneumatic actuator

In the Linear pneumatic actuator category, the spring/diaphragm style and the piston style are
very common.
2-1) Piston
The piston-style pneumatic actuator utilizes a piston inside a cylinder. The movement of the
piston is caused by applying pneumatic pressure thereby moving the piston upwards.
Removing the pneumatic pressure causes the piston to move downward due to the pressure of
the spring. This motion is referred to as Air-to-Retract.
An Air-to-Extend motion can be also be achieved by rearranging the spring, piston, and
pneumatic supply.

2-2) Spring/diaphragm
The spring/diaphragm pneumatic actuator is probably the most common actuator used to
operate industrial process control valves. So, let’s have a closer look.

The spring/diaphragm pneumatic actuator consists of a diaphragm and plate that

are connected to an actuator stem. A flexible diaphragm is enclosed in pressure-tight housing.
Pneumatic pressure enters this housing applying pressure to the diaphragm. As the air
pressure increases to the diaphragm the force exerted against the spring increases causing the
actuator stem to move.
Reducing the pneumatic pressure will cause the spring to retract the diaphragm.
The actuator stem will move a valve in or out of a valve body.
In an air-to-open operating condition, the spring forces the valve closed.
The air pressure on the diaphragm creates a force that overcomes the force of the spring and
opens the valve.
By rearranging the spring pneumatic supply, this type of actuator can fail-open or fail-
closed when air pressure is lost.

Pneumatic actuator in action

Let’s look at a typical spring/diaphragm pneumatic actuator connected to a flow control valve
in action!
The PLC analog output card produces a 4 to 20 mA current to move the valve from fully
open to fully closed.
A signal conditioner called a current-to-pressure transducer or I/P will change the 4 to 20 mA
into 3 to 15 psi.

Wireless communication module

Wireless communication modules are widely used in vehicle monitoring, remote control,
telemetry, small wireless networks, wireless meter reading, access control systems,
community paging, industrial data acquisition systems, wireless tags, identification, non-
contact RF smart cards, small wireless data terminals, security Fire protection system,
wireless remote control system, biological signal acquisition, hydrometeorological
monitoring, robot control, wireless 232 data communication, wireless 485/422 data
communication, digital audio, digital image transmission, and other fields.

Types of wireless communication modules

 Wireless data transmission module. The manufacturer of this module has made a single-
chip microcomputer and has written the wireless communication part of the program. It
can directly send and receive data through the serial port. It is simple to use and relatively
expensive.
 The wireless transceiver module is generally controlled by a single-chip microcomputer to
wirelessly send and receive data, usually in FSK and GFSK modulation modes.
 ASK superheterodyne module, mainly used for simple remote control and data
transmission.
The common wireless communication module
1. Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a wireless communication module that we often come into contact with every
day. This technology was invented by the then telecommunications giant Ericsson in 1994. It
is a wireless technology standard that can realize fixed terminal equipment, mobile terminal
equipment, and personal area networks. For short-distance data exchange, use UHF radio
waves in the 2.4~2.485GHZ ISM band.
The complexity of Bluetooth wireless technology is relatively high; the device networking
speed is fast, only 10 seconds; the integration and reliability are very high; the transmission
rate is generally 1Mbps; the cost is low, and the installation is relatively simple. It is a
suitable short-range wireless communication technology.
2. Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi wireless technology is very attributed to everyone, and it is the most wireless
communication technology we come into contact with daily. It is a wireless LAN technology
created with the IEEE802.11 standard. This technology converts all wired network signals
into radio wave signals, and other terminal devices connect to wifi through a wireless
communication module to realize wireless network communication.
The coverage of Wi-Fi technology is generally within 100 meters, the technology is more
complicated, the transmission rate can reach 54Mbps, the working frequency band is
2.4GHZ, and the transmission power is less than 100mw. Compared with Bluetooth wireless
communication, data security performance is poor. However, the invention of wifi is in line
with modern personal and social needs, and its development prospects are very huge.
3. ZigBee
ZigBee wireless communication technology is a low-power local area network protocol based
on the IEEE802.15.4 standard. It was formally established in August 2001. At the beginning
of its establishment, due to the hasty release of the version, there were certain errors, and the
subsequent development continued to improve.
ZigBee wireless communication technology is similar to Bluetooth wireless communication
technology, both are short-range wireless communication technologies, but Bluetooth
wireless communication technology has many shortcomings, such as high power
consumption, high complexity, short communication distance, etc., which is only suitable for
family and personal use. The development of ZigBee technology is to meet the needs of
industrial automation. It has a simple layout, anti-interference, reliable transmission,
convenient use, and low cost. The communication distance ranges from 10 meters in
Bluetooth to hundreds of meters in open spaces and about 50 meters indoors.
4. Traditional digital radio
Digital radio station refers to a high-performance professional data transmission radio station
with the help of DSP digital signal processing technology and software wireless point
technology. Digital radio can be understood as a communication medium, which has a certain
range of use like optical fiber and microwave. The transmission distance of the digital radio
station is very long, suitable for various complicated environments, and the transmission rate
is 19.2Kbps, but the terminal equipment is more expensive, the use cost is also high, and the
installation is more complicated.

Tag: Wireless，RF，ZigBee，Wi-Fi
Wireless Topologies

Important components of a wireless network usually include [but not limited to];
network interface card (NIC) and a wireless access point (WAP). A traditional NIC does not
support connecting to a wireless network. Therefore, a special kind of NIC is needed which
Weaver, Weaver and Farwood (2014) called Wireless NIC (WNIC) (p. 232). A WAP on the
other hand can be either a “Wi-Fi” capable router or a special kind of device that is meant to
add wireless capability to an existing wire-based network. IEEE introduced 802.11 standard
is the most commonly used protocol for wireless networks.

Three kinds of wireless network topologies are (i) Point-to-Point, (ii) Multipoint-to-
Point, and (iii) Point-to-Multipoint.

Point-to-Point (p2p) Topology

p2p is the most preferred way of communication when two wireless devices need to
exchange data. The most common application of a p2p connection is how remote controls
communicate with the controlled devices. The communication takes place using infrared (IR)
waves.

Another scenario where p2p communication can be used is internet-of-things (IoT),

where very often two devices need to communicate with each other directly without any
third-party involved. Bluetooth, which is a radio waves based wireless communication, can
be used to establish p2p connection.

p2p networks are usually slow and only one device can send data at a time (half
duplex mode). Another disadvantage of using a p2p topology is security, where a source
device can push malicious things into the target device without the target device knowing it.
Multipoint-to-Point (mp2p) Topology

This is the most common topology for wireless local area network (WLAN). In this
topology, several user devices compete with each other to communication with a WAP over a
shared frequency band (See Figure 1). The topology used frequency division multiplexing
(FDM). Sivabalan (2019) defined FDM as a way to effectively manage bandwidth through
non-overlapping frequency bands.

The wireless LAN standard name for this kind of setup is Basic Service Set (BSS).

This is the most preferred topology when setting up a wireless network in an area of
less than 2500 square feet, such as in a house or small building.

Securing this kind of networks is a challenge. Although several schemes for

encryption and security exist but almost all of them are “hack-able”.

Figure 1. A single-cell wireless LAN configuration (White, 2016, p. 210).

Point-to-Multipoint (p2mp) Topology

In many cases, an organization likes their wireless network to cover a significant area.
Therefore, in order to maintain coverage multiple WAPs are strategically placed, where each
WAP serves a certain area (See figure 2). This kind of setup is referred to as Extended
Service Set (ESS).

Figure 2. A multiple-cell wireless LAN configuration (White, 2016, p. 210).

All cellular networks use this topology, as they want their consumers to access their services
without interruption when they are moving.

This kind of networks is expensive to setup and maintain. Security is also a concern,
especially for the networks that use the IEEE 802.11 standard.

ZigBee is a Personal Area Network task group with low rate task group 4. It is a technology
of home networking. ZigBee is a technological standard created for controlling and sensing
the network. As we know that ZigBee is the Personal Area network of task group 4 so it is
based on IEEE 802.15.4 and is created by Zigbee Alliance.

ZigBee is a standard that addresses the need for very low-cost implementation of Low
power devices with Low data rates for short-range wireless communications.

Why another short-range communication standard??

Types of ZigBee Devices:

 Zigbee Coordinator Device: It communicates with routers. This device is used for
connecting the devices.
 Zigbee Router: It is used for passing the data between devices.
 Zigbee End Device: It is the device that is going to be controlled.

General Characteristics of Zigbee Standard:

 Low Power Consumption

 Low Data Rate (20- 250 kbps)
 Short-Range (75-100 meters)
 Network Join Time (~ 30 msec)
 Support Small and Large Networks (up to 65000 devices (Theory); 240 devices
(Practically))
 Low Cost of Products and Cheap Implementation (Open Source Protocol)
 Extremely low duty cycle.
 3 frequency bands with 27 channels.
Operating Frequency Bands (Only one channel will be selected for use in a network):
1. Channel 0: 868 MHz (Europe)
2. Channel 1-10: 915 MHz (the US and Australia)
3. Channel 11-26: 2.4 GHz (Across the World)

Zigbee Network Topologies:

 Star Topology (ZigBee Smart Energy): Consists of a coordinator and several end
devices, end devices communicate only with the coordinator.
 Mesh Topology (Self Healing Process): Mesh topology consists of one coordinator,
several routers, and end devices.
 Tree Topology: In this topology, the network consists of a central node which is a
coordinator, several routers, and end devices. the function of the router is to extend the
network coverage.

Architecture of Zigbee:

Zigbee architecture is a combination of 6 layers.

1. Application Layer
2. Application Interface Layer
3. Security Layer
4. Network Layer
5. Medium Access Control Layer
6. Physical Layer
 Physical layer: The lowest two layers i.e the physical and the MAC (Medium Access
Control) Layer are defined by the IEEE 802.15.4 specifications. The Physical layer is
closest to the hardware and directly controls and communicates with the Zigbee radio.
The physical layer translates the data packets in the over-the-air bits for transmission
and vice-versa during the reception.
 Medium Access Control layer (MAC layer): The layer is responsible for the interface
between the physical and network layer. The MAC layer is also responsible for
providing PAN ID and also network discovery through beacon requests.
 Network layer: This layer acts as an interface between the MAC layer and the
application layer. It is responsible for mesh networking.
 Application layer: The application layer in the Zigbee stack is the highest protocol
layer and it consists of the application support sub-layer and Zigbee device object. It
contains manufacturer-defined applications.
Channel Access:
1. Contention Based Method (Carrier-Sense Multiple Access With Collision Avoidance
Mechanism)
2. Contention Free Method (Coordinator dedicates a specific time slot to each device
(Guaranteed Time Slot (GTS)))

Zigbee Applications:

1. Home Automation
2. Medical Data Collection
3. Industrial Control Systems
4. meter reading system
5. light control system

Energy harvesting techniques

This page covers types and basics of energy harvesting techniques and energy harvesting
materials. The energy harvesting techniques include thermoelectric energy harvesting,
photovoltaic energy harvesting, piezoelectric energy harvesting, pyroelectric energy
harvesting, rf or wireless or electromagnetic energy harvesting, wind energy harvesting,
vibration energy harvesting etc.

Definition: The method of powering an embedded system by harvesting energy from

environmental sources such as solar, wind, thermal and electomagnetic waves is known
as energy harvesting. The purpose of energy harvesting is to increase lifetime of field nodes
and devices. It helps in on-site charging of rechargeable batteries, traditional and super
capacitors.
Common energy harvesting systems include car tire pressure monitors, wireless weather
stations, implantable medical devices, traffic alert signs, Mars rover, WSN (Wireless Sensor
Network) nodes, IoT (Internet of Things) devices etc.

There are two design goal in energy harvesting device.

• Select very low power electronics
• Harvest energy and store energy efficiently
Following are the three main elements in energy harvesting device.
• Energy Source: There are various energy sources. Any one can be used for energy
harvesting system. The sources such as wind energy, solar energy, electromagnetic waves,
thermal energy etc. are used.
• Energy Harvesting IC: This IC converts ambient energy into some of energy which can be
stored in energy storage devices. For example mechanical stress into electrical signal,
temperature difference into electric voltage etc.
• Energy Storage: There are different ways energy can be stored which include rechargeable
batteries, traditional capacitors, super capacitors etc. Super capacitors have characteristics
viz. smaller size, higher efficiency, higher capacity etc.
• The other components are memory, actuators, communication interface, sensors, processing
and control device such as microcontroller etc.
Thermoelectric energy harvesting | Photovoltaic energy harvesting

➨Function: It uses ambient sun energy to convert temperature differences across the material
into equivalent electric voltage or electric current. The temperature difference on two sides of
crystal (i.e. one warmer and the other cooler) causes voltage across crystal device. Steady
voltage is available when difference in temperature remains unchanged.

Any light source can also be used to generate energy at small invisible amounts. For example,
artificial lights produce 60Hz signal along with photons. Sun generates energy due to solar
radiations.

Photovoltaic devices usually are made using silicon. They convert solar radiation into electric
current.

Example of thermoelectric energy harvesting/harvester:

• Cars, trucks and Lorries which are equipped with such energy harvesting systems will have
good amount of fuel savings.
Piezoelectric energy harvesting

➨Function: Convert mechanical stress into electrical Signal.

The charge gets accumulated in solid materials due to application of mechanical strain. The
reverse of this i.e. mechanical strain gets induced due to subject of electric field on such solid
materials will also occur. The common sources which can be exploited in piezoelectric
energy harvesting are low frequency vibrations, acoustic noise, human motion etc. These
sources can be harvested by piezoelectric materials.
Example of thermoelectric energy harvesting/harvester:
• Piezoelectric floor tiles
• Car tyre pressure sensors or monitors
• Battery less remote control
Pyroelectric energy harvesting

➨Function: Convert change in temperature into equivalent electric charge.

When the temperature of crystal material changes it induces electric charge. No charge is
generated when temperature remains constant. This method is used in certain sensors.
RF/Wireless/Electromagnetic energy harvesting

➨Function: Convert energy available in electromagnetic waves transmitted from various

radiating sources (e.g. TV, radio, cellular towers) into equivalent electric current. This
method utlizes ambient EM waves available due to radiations from cellular base stations,
satellites, TV and radio broadcasting stations. This RF harvesters converts RF energy into DC
energy for storage. It does this using matching and rectifier circuits.
Refer RF Energy Harvesting System for more information.
Wind energy harvesting | Vibration energy harvesting
➨Function: Convert vibration energy into electric signal. It can include wind power energy
also. Energy of vibration depends on amplitude and frequency. Mass of harvesting device is
equivalent to vibrating mass.
We know that vibration is typically made up of number of fundamental frequencies and their
harmonics. This phenomenon is utilized in different ways to convert vibration energy into
electrical form. The methods include piezoelectric conversion (commonly used materials are
PZT, BaTiO3, PVDF etc.) , electrostatic conversion (using parallel plate capacitor) and
electromagnetic conversion (using magnetic fields an