Chair of Structural Mechanics

TUM School of Engineering and Design

Technical University of Munich

Continuum Mechanics - Tutorial

Jonas Hillenbrand [Link].

Winter Term 2025/2026

Copyright © Prof. Dr. Ing. Gerhard Müller

Published by the Chair of Structural Mechanics, Technical University of Munich

For academic use only. Reproduction and distribution are not permitted without the permis-
sion of the author.

Munich, August 28, 2025.

Contents
1 Definitions and calculation rules 1
1.1 Tensor calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 What is a Tensor? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Coordinate systems - Basis vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.3 Formulation of a vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.4 Summation convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.5 Kronecker-Delta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.6 Orthonormal basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.7 Permutation symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.8 Product of three matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Covariant-contravariant basis vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.1 Metric tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.2 Scalar product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.3 Vector product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.4 Example: Skew reference frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3 Transformation to a new coordinate system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.1 Derivation of Transformation matrices for Skew reference frame . . . 14
1.3.2 Derivation of Transformation matrices for Curvilinear reference frame 15
1.3.3 Transformation of Basis vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3.4 Transformation rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3.5 Di!erential line, surface and volume element . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.4.1 Example: Skew angled reference frame (2D) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.4.2 Example: Curvilinear reference frames (3D) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2 Stress tensor, stress vector 29

2.1 Stress tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2 Stress vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3 Splitting stresses into physical normal and shear stresses . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.4 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.4.1 Example: Cantilever beam with single loading force . . . . . . . . . 31
2.4.2 Example: Single load on a halfspace (Solution of Boussinesque) . . . 34

3 Principal stresses, orientation of principal stresses 40

3.1 General remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

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 3.2 Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.2.1 Values of the principal stresses (Eigenvalues) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.2.2 Orientation of the principal stresses (Eigenvectors) . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.3 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.3.1 Example: Continuation of example ’cantilever beam’ . . . . . . . . . 41
3.3.2 Example: Skew angled plate, clamped . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

4 Derivatives of tensor functions 46

4.1 Deriving a tensor field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.1.1 Deriving a general tensor field in general (curvilinear) coordinates . 46
4.1.2 Deriving a vector field in linear (skew) coordinates . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.1.3 Deriving a scalar field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.2 Christo!el Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.2.1 Explanation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.2.2 Christo!el Symbols 1st kind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.2.3 Christo!el Symbols 2nd kind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.2.4 Example: Quarter of a circular plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

5 Equilibrium at an element 55
5.1 Equilibrium inside a body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.2 Equilibrium along the edges of a body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

6 Strain tensor 56
6.1 General remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.1.1 Strain tensor ωij . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.2.1 Example: Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.2.2 Example: Dilatation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6.2.3 Example: Shearing strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.2.4 Example: Skew angled plate, clamped . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

7 Tensor of elastic constants 66

7.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
7.2 Example: Material with Poisson’s ratio = 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

8 Approximate solutions using energy principles - rigid bodies 68

8.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
8.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
8.2.1 Example: Coupled spring system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
8.2.2 Example: Rigid plate supported on springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

9 Approximate solutions using energy principles - elastic systems 73

9.1 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

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 9.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
9.2.1 Example: Rod - isoparametric approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
9.2.2 Example: CST-Element - isoparametric approach . . . . . . . . . . 78
9.2.3 Example: Skew angled plate, clamped (Continuation of 3.3.2 and 6.2.4) 81
9.2.4 Example: Elastically supported beam - Ritz method and Principle of
Virtual Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
9.2.5 Example: Elastically supported beam - Galerkin method . . . . . . 87
9.2.6 Example: Derivation of the di!erential equation . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Bibliography 92

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List of Figures
1.1 Cartesian and skew angled coordinate system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2 Force F in di!erent reference frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.3 Curvilinear reference frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2.1 Cylinder Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

εg1
4.1 Christo!el Coe"cients for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
εϑ1

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1 Definitions and calculation rules

1.1 Tensor calculus

1.1.1 What is a Tensor?

• Zeroth-order tensor = scalar (number), e.g. temperature T

 
Fx
• First-order tensor = vector, e.g. force F = 
Fy 


Fz
' (
ϖ ϖ
• Second-order tensor = dyad, e.g. stress tensor ϖij = 11 12
ϖ21 ϖ22

1.1.2 Coordinate systems - Basis vectors

• Particular choice depending on the considered problem

• Axes are denoted by i = 1,2,3 (1=x,
) 2=y,
) 3=z),
) coordinates by xi or ϑi resp.
• The set of basis vectors gi in a given coordinate system constitutes a basis for the system.

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 y !2
y !2
g1 2
const
g2 g2
g2

g2 g1

1
g1 x !1 g1 x !1 const
orthogonal non-rectangular curvilinear
e.g. rectangular plate e.g. non-rectangular plate e.g. circular plate

1.1.3 Formulation of a vector

a = x1 e1 + x2 e2 + x3 e3

1.1.4 Summation convention

3
*
xi g i = xi g i =
i=1

 1
+ , g
g 
 2
Expressed by matrices: xi = x1 x2 x3 , gi =
g3
Further example:

3
*
x yi =
ki
xki yi =
i=1

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Tasks:
1. Rewrite in using the summation convention

a1 x 1 x 3 + a2 x 2 x 3 + a3 x 3 x 3

x1 y1 + x2 y2

121
B11 + B12
122
+ B21
221
+ B22
222

2. Expand

Apq Aqr

Aω B ω Aε C ϑ

ϖ12 = C12rs ωrs

1.1.5 Kronecker-Delta

' ( ' (
ϱ1 ϱ2 1 0
e.g.: 2D ϱωε = 11 12 =
ϱ2 ϱ2 0 1

1.1.6 Orthonormal basis

• orthogonal:

• normal:

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In this case the basis vectors are rectangular unit vectors and are denoted by ei .

ei → ej = ϱij

1.1.7 Permutation symbol

even odd

2 3

 
0, two or more are the same

 

emns = e mns
= 1, if m, n, s 
even permutation of 1, 2, 3

 

↑1 odd permutation of 1, 2, 3

Tasks:
1. Evaluate or simplify

ϱii ϱωω

ϱω1 ϱϑω ϱ1ϑ

eωε ϱ1ω ϱ2ε

aωε ϱµω ϱϖε ↑ xµϖ

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1.1.8 Product of three matrices

dij = ai→i bj →j ci j
→ →

= ai→i ci j bj →j
→ →

+ , + ,T + ,+ ,
dij = ai→i
→ →
ci j bj →j

Example
' (
+ , + , 1 2
[aωω→ ] = bεε→ = c ω→ ε →
=
3 4

Using Falk’s scheme:

' ( ' (
1 2 1 2
3 4 3 4
' ( ' ( ' (
1 3 10 14 52 76
2 4 14 20 74 108

Expanded one obtains:

d12 = = a11 b12 c11 + a11 b22 c12 + a21 b12 c21 + a21 b22 c22

= 1 · 2 · 1 + 1 · 4 · 2 + 3 · 2 · 3 + 3 · 4 · 4 = 76

Tasks:
1. Give specifications in matrix notation to calculate the right hand sides

bp→ = ςp→p ap

Bpq = ςpr ςq s Ars

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1.2 Covariant-contravariant basis vectors

gi is the covariant basis,

gj is the contravariant basis.

F = F i gi = Fi gi

covariant metric coe"cients: gij

contravariant metric coe"cients: g ij

g1 ! g 2
g2
g2 g 2 ! g1
g1
1

g1

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 scalar product: gi → gj = ϱji
basis vectors: gk = g ik gi
gk = gik gi

coordinates: F k = g ik Fi
Fk = gik F i

+ ,→1
metric coe"cients: [gik ] = g ik

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1.2.1 Metric tensor

Scalar product: gij = gi → gj covariant metric coe"cients

g =g →g
ij i j
contravariant metric coe"cients

1 for i = j
gij = gi → gj
0 for i =
↓ j

e.g.: two dimensions ↔ metric tensor = second-order tensor

' ( ' (
g → g1 g1 → g2 g g
[gωε ] = 1 = 11 12
g2 → g1 g2 → g2 g21 g22

Determinant g of the covariant metric tensor:

+ + ,,2 + + ,,2
det ([gij ]) = det xi,j = det ςj i =g
+ , 1
det g ij =
g

Length of vector x:

d2 = x → x

x → x = xi xj g i → g j
= xi xj gij


Using mixed-variant coordinates |x| = xi xi

Using covariant coordinates |x| = xi xj g ij

Using contravariant coordinates |x| = xi xj gij

The length of vector x depends not only on the coordinates xi but also on the metric coe"-
cients gij .

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1.2.2 Scalar product

x = xi g i
y = y j gj

x → y = xi g i → y j g j = xi y j g i → g j =
= xi yj gi → gj = xi yj ϱij = xi yi =
= x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3

x→y
x → y = |x||y| cos φ ↔ φ = arccos
|x||y|

1.2.3 Vector product

s ↗ F =↘ikl si F k gl , e.g. M = s ↗ F

≃
with: ↘123 =↘231 =↘312 = g
≃
↘321 =↘213 =↘132 = ↑ g
remaining: ↘ijk = 0

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1.2.4 Example: Skew reference frames

e3 g2

e2
g3 y

e1 g1

Figure 1.1: Cartesian and skew angled coordinate system

Given:

g1 = 1e1 + 2e2 + 0e3

g2 = 0e1 + 1e2 + 1e3
g3 = 2e1 ↑ 1e2 + 1e3
a = 1g1 ↑ 1g2 + 0g3
b = 1g1 ↑ 2g2 + 0g3

Please evaluate:
1. Metric coe"cients gij and g ij of the skew angled bases gi and gk
2. a and b in the contravariant basis gi
3. Length of a and b and the angle ↼ between them

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1. Metric coefficients gij and g ij of the skew angled bases gi and gk , respectively

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2. a and b in the contravariant basis gi

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3. Length of a and b and the angle ↼ between them

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1.3 Transformation to a new coordinate system

1.3.1 Derivation of Transformation matrices for Skew reference frame

Transformation of Coordinates:

0 0 0
R(x1 ,x2 ) = xj gj = xi ei0 = R(x1 ,x2 ) (Linear relation)
0
gj = ςj i ei0 (Transformation of basis vectors)

R = x1 g 1 + x2 g 2 =

Substitute:

xj g j =

Comparison:
0 0
xi = xj ςj i

Matrix notation:

Alternatively:

ei0 = ςi0j gj (Transformation of basis vectors)

0 0
R = x1 ei0 + x2 ei0 =

Comparison:
0
xj = xi ςi0j

Matrix notation:

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1.3.2 Derivation of Transformation matrices for Curvilinear reference
frame

Curvilinear Coordinate System:

R(ϑ1 ,ϑ2 ) ↓= ϑ1 g1 + ϑ2 g2 ↔ non-linear relation

Linear relation only holds for a di!erential change:

dR =

= g1 dϑ1 + g2 dϑ2

= dϑk gk

εR
where: gk =
εϑk

Example: Polar Coordinates

R(ϑ1 ,ϑ2 ) =

dR =

' (
εR cos ϑ2
g1 = 1 =
εϑ sin ϑ2
' (
εR ↑ϑ1 sin ϑ2
g2 = 2 =
εϑ ϑ1 cos ϑ2

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1.3.3 Transformation of Basis vectors

Transformation (covariant basis vectors):

Two descriptions R(ϑ1 , ϑ2 ) = R(ϑ1 , ϑ2 )

→ →

dR = dϑk gk = dϑi gi→

→

gi→ =

 
εϑk
Matrix notation [gi→ ] = [g ]
εϑi→ k

Example: Cartesian to Curvilinear Coordinate System

R(x1 ,x2 ) = R(ϑ1 ,ϑ2 )

R(x1 ,x2 ) = x1 e1 + x2 e2 =

0
R(xi ) =

εR
gj = =
εϑj

Matrix notation:

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1.3.4 Transformation rules

Vector:

F = F i gi = F i gi→ = Fi→ gi = Fi gi
→ →

From an initial system gi to a new system gi→ :

 
εϑk
gi→ = g = ςik→ gk = ςi→ k gk covariant basis vectors
εϑi→ k
→  T
εϑi k
g i→
= g = ↽ki gk = gk contravariant basis vectors
→ →

k
ςki
εϑ
 
εϑk
Fi→ = Fk = ςik→ Fk = ςi→ k
Fk covariant coordinates
εϑi→
→  T
εϑi k
i→
= F = ↽ki F k = contravariant coordinates
→ i→
F k
ςk Fk
εϑ

Second-order tensor:
e.g.: tensor tlk to a new coordinate system:

→
εϑk εϑj l
ti→ j→
= i→ tk = ςi→
k
ςl
j→ l
tk ⇐
εϑ εϑl

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 23

Carlesian
rector G
Cartesian
O basis rectors
↑
cofficients definition of the
unprimed covariant
basis

[Bi]
1
- -
[B] [B:i 05
=

-Tit
[x) =
[Bia]"[xi]

·
vector
:
cofficients ?
(contravariant)
[i] =
[BaJIXh's
definition 8
covariant metric of the primed covariant basis
cofficients
--
[Bai] >
-

[Bia) [Bail]
=

#
unprimed
i primed
- -...

....
covariant
gij Gigi
=

basis
covariant

Igij) =
[B: [ pios i basis

[i) Tgi] [x ]
↓
=
:

[x]
[gi] [x ]
=

igin =

Egii)cosponding ge
basis
rector
cofficients =
(covariant)

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1.3.5 Differential line, surface and volume element

Line element
→
g1 : ds1 = g11 dω1

Surface element

g1 , g2 : dA =
→
= g dω1 dω2 g3
→ ! g3
= g dω1 dω2 g 33 → 33
g
→ !
= g dω1 dω2 g 33 g3
→

Physical value of the surface element g1 , g2 :

→ !
1 2
dÃ(3) = g dω dω g 33

Di!erential volume
→
dV = g dω1 dω2 dω3

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1.4 Examples

1.4.1 Example: Skew angled reference frame (2D)

x2
!2
Given:

• Non-rectangular coordinate system ω1 , ω2 F

" #
3 e2
• Force F = → (in Cartesian coordinates)
3 # " 60!
! 1 , x1
e1
Wanted:
1. Covariant basis vectors g1 , g2
2. Metric tensor
3. Contravariant basis g1 , g2
4. Force F in co-/contravariant coordinates

1. Covariant basis vectors g1 , g2

orientation vector: r = x1 e1 + x2 e2

with: x1 (ω1 , ω2 ) = ω1 + ω2 cos 60→

x2 (ω1 , ω2 ) = +ω2 sin 60→

" # " #
$
ε0
% $ 0
% x1 x2,1 1 0
εω = x,ωε = ,1 =
1 2
x,2 x,2 cos 60 sin 60→
→

0 0
gω = x,ωε eε 0 = εωε eε 0
" #
ϑ(ω1 + ω2 cos 60→ ) ϑ(ω2 sin 60→ ) 1
g1 = e 1 + e2 = e1 =
ϑω 1 ϑω 1 0
" #
ϑ(ω1 + ω2 cos 60→ ) ϑ(ω2 sin 60→ ) cos 60→
g2 = e 1 + e 2 = cos 60→
e 1 + sin 60→
e 2 =
ϑω2 ϑω2 sin 60→

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Length of basis vectors:

→ →
|g1 | = g1 ↑ g1 = e1 ↑ e1 = 1
→ !
|g2 | = g2 ↑ g2 = (cos 60→ )2 + (sin 60→ )2 = 1

2. Metric tensor (second-order tensor)

Metric (covariant): gωε = gω ↑ gε

" #
1
g11 = g1 ↑ g1 = [1 0] =1
0
" #
0.5
g12 = g1 ↑ g2 = [1 0] = 0.5
0.866
" #
0.5
g22 = g2 ↑ g2 = [0.5 0.866] =1
0.866
" # " #
g g 1 0.5
[gωε ] = 11 12 =
g21 g22 0.5 1

$ %
Metric (contravariant): g ωε = [gωε ]↑1

1
Determinant: det ([gωε ]) = 0.75 =
det ([g ωε ])

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3. Contravariant basis g1 , g2

gω = g ωε gε

g1 = g 11 g1 + g 12 g2 = 1.33 e1 ↓ 0.667 (0.5 e1 + 0.866 e2 ) = e1 ↓ 0.577 e2

g2 = g 21 g1 + g 22 g2 = 1.155 e2

4. Force F in co-/contravariant coordinates

in Cartesian coordinates:
0 →
F = F ω eω = F 1 e1 + F 2 e2 = 3 e1 + 3 e2
→
= Fω0 eω = F1 e1 + F2 e2 = 3 e1 + 3 e2
0
eω = eω Fω0 = F ω

non-rectangular, covariant basis: contravariant coordinates

F = F 1 g1 + F 2 g2 F 1, F 2?
ϑωω ε 0 ϑωω $ % $ %
ε 0 ↑T ε 0 ↑T
Fω = F = ε ω
0 = ε = x
ϑxε 0 ϑxε 0 ε ω ,ω

Better solution: first calculate the covariant coordinates!

non-rectangular, contravariant basis: covariant coordinates

0
ϑxε
Fω = Fε 0
ϑωω

ϑx1 ϑx2
F1 = F1 0 + F20 = 3
ϑω1 ϑω1
ϑx1 ϑx2
F2 = 2 F10 + 2 F20 = 3
ϑω ϑω

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back to contravariant coordinates:

F ε = g εω Fω

F 1 = g 11 F1 + g 12 F2 = 1.33 · 3 ↓ 0.67 · 3 = 2
F 2 = g 21 F1 + g 22 F2 = ↓0.67 · 3 + 1.33 · 3 = 2

x2

e2
x1
e1
(a) Cartesian basis (b) non-rectangular
covariant basis

(c) non-rectangular
contravariant basis

Figure 1.2: Force F in different reference frames

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Winter Term 2025/2026 23
1.4.2 Example: Curvilinear reference frames (3D)

Given: Spherical coordinates

$ 3 # line
e1 x1e1
e2 ! x
"
e3 r
2
x e2 $ 2 # line

y R
x 3e 3

g2 $ 2 # line

z g1
g3
$ 1 # line

Figure 1.3: Curvilinear reference frame

Notation:

R = ω1
ϖ = ω2
ϱ = ω3

Please determine:
1. Coe"cients of the Jacobian [J] and of its inverse [J]↑1
2. Covariant basis gj ↑ in the spherical reference frame
3. Co- and contravariant metric coe"cients
4. Contravariant basis gj
↑

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1. Coefficients of the Jacobian [J] and of its inverse [J]
↑1

Starting with the position vector R:

R = xi ei

x1 =

x2 =

x3 =

Calculate the Jacobian

 
ϑx1 ϑx2 ϑx3
 1 
 ϑω
 1
ϑω1 ϑω1 

ϑxi $ %  ϑx ϑx2 ϑx3 
[J] = j ↑ = εj ↑ = 
i
 2


ϑω  ϑω
 1
ϑω2 2
ϑω 
 ϑx ϑx2 ϑx3 
ϑω3 ϑω3 ϑω3

$ %
[J] = εj ↑ i =

 
sin(ω2 ) cos(ω2 ) sin(ω3 )
cos(ω ) cos(ω ) ↓ 1
3 2
↓ 


ω cos(ω3 ) ω1 

$ ↑%  cos(ω )
2
sin(ω ) sin(ω ) 
2 3 
[J]↑1 = εi j
=  cos(ω ) sin(ω )
 3 2
↓ 


ω1 cos(ω3 ) ω1 

 cos(ω )
3 
sin(ω )
3
0
ω1

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2. Covariant basis gj ↑

from above:  
cos(ω3 ) cos(ω2 ) cos(ω3 ) sin(ω2 ) sin(ω3 )
$ %  
 
↓ω cos(ω ) sin(ω )
[J] = εj ↑ i =  ω1 cos(ω3 ) cos(ω2 ) 0
ϑxi 1 3 2 
gj ↑ = j ↑ ei = εj ↑ i ei 


ϑω
↓ω1 sin(ω3 ) cos(ω2 ) ↓ω1 sin(ω3 ) sin(ω2 ) ω1 cos(ω3 )

 
cos(ω3 ) cos(ω2 )
 
g1 = =  cos(ω3 ) sin(ω2 ) 
sin(ω3 )

 
↓ω1 cos(ω3 ) sin(ω2 )
 1 
g2 =  ω cos(ω3 ) cos(ω2 ) 
0
 
↓ω1 sin(ω3 ) cos(ω2 )
g3 =  ↓ω1 sin(ω3 ) sin(ω2 ) 


ω1 cos(ω3 )

3. Co- and contravariant metric coefficients

g11 =

g12 =

 
1 0 0
 2
[gi↑ j ↑ ] = 0 (ω ) cos (ω )
1 2 3
0  
1 2
0 0 (ω )

 
1 0 0

0 1 
$ %
 2 0 

g i↑ j ↑
= [gi↑ j ↑ ] ↑1
=  (ω1 ) cos2 (ω3 ) 

 1  
0 0 2
(ω1 )

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4. Contravariant basis gj
↑

gi = g i j gj ↑
↑ ↑ ↑

from above:
 
cos(ω3 ) cos(ω2 )  
g1 = 1 · g1 =  cos(ω3 ) sin(ω2 ) 

 $ ↑ ↑%
1 0 0
 1 
sin(ω3 ) g ij
= 0

(ϑ1 )2 cos2 (ϑ3 )
0 

1
0 0 (ϑ1 )2
   
sin(ω2 ) cos(ω3 ) cos(ω2 )
↓ 
 ω1 cos(ω3 )   
g1 =  cos(ω3 ) sin(ω2 ) 
1  
2
g = 1 2 · g 2 = 
 cos(ω2 )   sin(ω3 )
(ω ) cos (ω )
2 3    
 ω1 cos(ω3 )  ↓ω1 cos(ω3 ) sin(ω2 )
0  1 
g2 =  ω cos(ω3 ) cos(ω2 ) 
0
 
sin(ω3 ) cos(ω2 ) 
↓ω1 sin(ω3 ) cos(ω2 )

↓ 


ω1 

 
g3 =  ↓ω1 sin(ω3 ) sin(ω2 ) 
3 1  sin(ω 3
) sin(ω )
2 
ω1 cos(ω3 )
g = 1 2 · g3 =  ↓
 
(ω )  ω 1 

 
 cos(ω ) 3 
ω1

alternatively:
from above:
 
sin(ω2 ) cos(ω2 ) sin(ω3 )
cos(ω ) cos(ω ) ↓ 1
3 2
↓ 


ω cos(ω3 ) ω1 

gj = ei εi j
↑ ↑ $ ↑%  cos(ω 2
) sin(ω 2
) sin(ω )
3 
εi =  cos(ω ) sin(ω )
j  3 2
↓ 



ω cos(ω )
1 3 ω 1 

 cos(ω ) 3 
sin(ω )
3
0
ω1

 
cos(ω3 ) cos(ω2 )
1 1 1 1
g = ε1 e1 + ε2 e2 + ε3 e3 =  cos(ω3 ) sin(ω2 ) 


sin(ω )
3

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Winter Term 2025/2026 27
  
sin(ω2 )
↓ 
 ω 1 cos(ω 3 ) 
 
 cos(ω ) 
2
g2 = ε12 e1 + ε22 e2 + ε32 e3 =  
 1 
 ω cos(ω 3 ) 
0

 
sin(ω3 ) cos(ω2 )
↓ 


ω1 

3 3 3 3
 sin(ω 3
) sin(ω )
2 
g = ε1 e1 + ε2 e2 + ε3 e3 =  ↓
 

 ω 1 
 
 cos(ω ) 3 
ω1

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Winter Term 2025/2026 28
The stress tensor (in 2D)
cutting plane
global and differential view

E
deformed structure differential element (material point)
normalized basis vectors:

geometrical relations - =
h

gaqh

·
⑭
D
↑
*

G Anaq =da
dan =
dan
A
S

-
LE
.

g
dan d na
IlqI
= =
*

mechanical relations
Equilibrium:

t(gY
dat(a) =
dan lgh)
-1 t(n)
-

· -

-
*

q11 Eigh
= d Na 11
G
-

E()
Eqh)
Na
=
A

9 &
-
go,
19'11 EsqY
actio = reactio
-
=
whiqi
tqi
=

~
naqigiogi
1-
un

↓
I H
index notation: stress tensor:

ti =
nathj I =

digiqi
matrix notation: symbolic notation:

Iti] =
TraT" [2 hi] E( = *
I =

symmetry symmetry
=
[hi] [na] =* 1
2 Stress tensor, stress vector

2.1 Stress tensor

The stress tensor can be formulated in di!erent ways:

• Cauchy stress tensor: Stresses are formulated with respect to the basis gi of the
deformed configuration.

[T ] = ω ij gi → gj

• 2nd Piola-Kirchho! stress tensor: Stresses are expressed with respect to the basis
Gi of the initial configuration.

[T ] = ω ij Gi → Gj

2.2 Stress vector

In order to calculate the e!ective stresses a stress vector t has to be generated. The stress
vector belongs to the stress tensor and a plane of arbitrary orientation (normal vector of
the plane). Using the stress vector physical stresses and finally mechanical stresses can be
evaluated.
Unit vector normal to the plane:

n = ni g i contravariant basis
!
|n| = g ij ni nj = 1 unit vector

stress vector t

t = [T ] ↑ n
ti gi = ω ij gi → gj ↑ nk gk =
= ω ij nk gi → gj ↑ gk = ω ij nk gi εjk = ω ij nj gi

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 ti = ω ij nj

t n
2
t g2
g2

t 1g 1 g1

Physical stresses: ti are the coordinates of the stress tensor t in the covariant basis. Due to
the fact that the length of the basis vectors probably di!ers from 1 the real value of the stress
has to be calculated.
↓ g
t = ti gi = ti g(ii) ↓ i = t̃i g→i
g(ii)
↓
with: t̃i = ti g(ii) real coordinates (physical stresses)
g→i unit basis vectors

2.3 Splitting stresses into physical normal and shear

stresses

For mechanical investigations usually normal (ω) and shear (ϑ ) stresses are considered. For
this aim the stress vector has to be divided into vectors of the corresponding directions

ω =t↑n
↓
ϑ = t2 ↔ ω 2 (2D)

or:

ω = n ↑ [T ] ↑ n =
= nk gk ↑ ω ij gi → gj ↑ nl gl =
= nk ω ij nl gk ↑ gi → gj ↑ gl =
= nk ω ij nl εik εjl =

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Winter Term 2025/2026 30
 = ni ω ij nj

ϑ = p ↑ [T ] ↑ n =
= pk gk ↑ ω ij gi → gj ↑ nl gl =
= pk ω ij nl gk ↑ gi → gj ↑ gl =
= pk ω ij nl εik εjl =
= pi ω ij nj

with: p unit vector in direction of the investigated shear stress

2.4 Examples

2.4.1 Example: Cantilever beam with single loading force

P P
2, y 2, y
I
1, x 2h 1, x ! 22
! 12 " ! 21
E I E
L ! 11
L b
2 2 L

Given:
$ %
" # 2axy a(h2 ↔ y 2 ) ↔P 2bh3
• Stress tensor: ω ωε = with: a= , Iz =
a(h ↔ y )
2 2
0 2Iz 3
• Orthonormal unit basis vectors: e1 , e2
Wanted:
1. Stresses of plane I ↔ I at x = ↔L/2
2. Normal stresses and shear stresses at an arbitrary point (x,y), angle of intersection =
↔45↑

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1. Stresses of plane I ↔ I at x = ↔L/2

Orthonormal unit basis vectors:

Normal vector: n =

Stress vector: t1 =

t2 = ω 21 n1 + ω 22 n2 = a(h2 ↔ y 2 ) · 1 + 0 · 0 = a(h2 ↔ y 2 )

t=

|e1 |, |e2 | = 1 ↗ already unit vectors

The basis vectors e1 , e2 of the stress vector are perpendicular to the plane and parallel respec-
tively.

ωx

ϑxy

Check:

2. Normal stresses and shear stresses at an arbitrary point (x,y),

angle of intersection = ↔45↑

Unit normal vector: n

Stress vector: t1

a(h2 ↔ y 2 )
t2 = ω 21 n1 + ω 22 n2 = ↓
2
t = t1 e1 + t2 e2

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Physical stresses:
unit basis ↗ stress vector =
& physical stress vector

Mechanical stresses:
Normal stresses ω:

ω=

Shear stresses ϑ :

Unit vector along plane: p

ϑ = pω ω ωε nε = p1 ω 11 n1 + p1 ω 12 n2 + p2 ω 21 n1 + p2 ω 22 n2 =

' ( ' (
1 1 1 1 1 1
= ↓ 2axy ↓ + ↓ a(h2 ↔ y 2 ) ↔ ↓ + ↓ a(h2 ↔ y 2 ) ↓ = axy
2 2 2 2 2 2

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2.4.2 Example: Single load on a halfspace (Solution of Boussinesque)

• Transformation of 2nd order tensors

• Calculation of normal and shear stresses out of a stress tensor

e1 x1e1
e2 " #!2 x

e3 r #!1
x 2e 2

y R
x 3e 3

g2

g1
z #!3 g3

Figure 2.1: Cylinder Coordinates

Given:
Stress tensor ω ik ei → ek at P(x = 3m, y = 4m, z = 5m):
 
" # ↔1.7538 ↔2.3896 ↔4.0515
ω ik = 
↔2.3896 ↔3.1478 ↔5.4021
↔4.0515 ↔5.4021 ↔6.7526

Wanted:
1. Coe"cients of the Jacobian [J] and of its inverse [J]↓1
2. Covariant basis in the given reference frame, the co- and the contravariant metric coef-
ficients and the contravariant basis
3. Stress tensor and the physical stress coordinates with respect to
a) Covariant basis in the curvilinear reference frame

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 b) Mixed-variant basis in the curvilinear reference frame
c) Contravariant basis in the curvilinear reference frame
4. Normal and shear stresses in a tangential section in P

1. Transformation into a cylindrical reference frame

R = xi ei

x1

x2

x3

$ %
ϖxi " #
[J] = j → = ςj →i =
ϖϱ
 1 
ϖx ϖx2 ϖx3
 1 
 ϖϱ
 1
ϖϱ1 ϖϱ1 
 ϖx ϖx2 ϖx3  
= ϖϱ 2 ϖϱ 2 ϖϱ 2 
=
 1 
 ϖx ϖx2 ϖx3 
ϖϱ3 ϖϱ3 ϖϱ3
 
0.6 0.8 0
 
= = ↔4 3 0
0 0 1

 
1
cos φ ↔ r sin φ 0
 
" #  
0.6 ↔0.16 0
[J]↓1 = ςi j = 
→
 sin φ
1 =
0.8 0.12 0

cos φ 0
 r  0 0 1
0 0 1

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2. Covariant basis in the given reference frame, the co- and the contravariant metric
coefficients and the contravariant basis

Covariant basis vectors in cylindrical coordinates

ϖxi
gj → = ei = ςj →i ei
ϖϱj →

g1→ = 0.6e1 + 0.8e2 + 0e3

g2→ = ↔4e1 + 3e2 + 0e3
g3→ = 0e1 + 0e2 + 1e3

Metric tensor

[gr→ s→ ] =

 
1
0 0 
1 0 0

" #  1 
= 
g r s = [gr→ s→ ]↓1 =
0 0 0 0.04 0
→ →

2 
r 0 0 1
0 0 1

Contravariant basis vectors

" #T
gj = g j i gi→ = ςi j ei
→ → → →

g1 = gj → g j 1 = 1g1→ = 0.6e1 + 0.8e2 + 0e3

→ → →

g2 = gj → g j 2 = 0.04g2→ = ↔0.16e1 + 0.12e2 + 0e3

→ → →

g3 = gj → g j 3 = 1g3→ = 0e1 + 0e2 + 1e3

→ → →

" #T " #T
= = [J]↓1
→
ςi j

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3. Transformation of the stress tensor into the curvilinear reference frame

a) Covariant basis

[T ] = ω ik ei → ek = ω ik ςi m gm→ → ςkn gn→ = ω ik ςi m ςkn gm→ → gn→ = ω m n gm→ → gn→

→ → → → → →

ω m n = ω ik ςi m ςkn , in matrix notation:

→ → → →

 
" # ↔4.9400 0.0000 ↔6.7526
=  0.0000 0.0015 0.0000 

→ →
ωm n 
↔6.7526 0.0000 ↔6.7526

with the physical coordinates:

 
" # " #↓ ↔4.9400 0.0000 ↔6.7526
↓  
ω̃ i→ j →
= ω i→ j →
g(i→ i→ ) g(j → j → ) =  0.0000 0.0375 0.0000 
↔6.7526 0.0000 ↔6.7526

b) Mixed-variant basis

" # " #
ωm→ n = ω k n gm→ k→ , in matrix notation: ωm→ n = [gm→ k→ ] ω k n
→ → → → → →

[T ] = ωi k ei → ek = ωi k ςmi→ gm → ςkn gn→ = ωi k ςmi→ ςkn gm → gn→ = ωmn→ gm → gn→

→ → → → → →

" # " #" #" #

ωm→ n = ωi k ςmi→ ςkn , in matrix notation: ωm→ n = ςm→ i ωi k
→ → → →
ςk n

 
" # ↔4.9400 0.0000 ↔6.7526
= 
 0.0000 0.0375 0.0000 
→
ωm→ n
↔6.7526 0.0000 ↔6.7526

with the physical coordinates:

 
" # " #! ↔4.9400 0.0000 ↔6.7526
↓
ω̃i→j = ωi→ j =  0.0000 0.0375 0.0000 

→ →
g (i→ i→ ) g(j → j → ) 
↔6.7526 0.0000 ↔6.7526

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 c) Contravariant basis

" #
ωm→ n→ = ωm→ k gk→ n→ , in matrix notation: [ωm→ k→ ] = ωmk→ [gk→ n→ ]
→ →

[T ] = ωik ei → ek = ωik ςmi→ gm → ςnk→ gn = ωik ςmi→ ςnk→ gm → gn = ωm→ n→ gm → gn

→ → → → → →

" # " #T
ωm→ n→ = ωik ςmi→ ςnk→ , in matrix notation: [ωm→ n→ ] = ςm→ i [ωik ] ςn→ k

 
↔4.9400 0.0000 ↔6.7526
 
ωm→ n→ =  0.0000 0.9375 0.0000 
↔6.7526 0.0000 ↔6.7526

with the physical coordinates:

 
! ! ↔4.9400 0.0000 ↔6.7526
 
[ω̃i→ j → ] = [ωi→ j → ] g (i→ i→ ) g (j → j → ) =  0.0000 0.0375 0.0000 
↔6.7526 0.0000 ↔6.7526

Return to Cartesian reference frame

[T ] = ωi→ k→ gi → gk = ωi→ k→ ςmi em → ςnk en = ωi→ k→ ςmi ςnk em → en = ωmn em → en

→ → → → → →

" # " #T
ωmn = ωi→ k→ ςmi ςnk , in matrix notation: [ωmn ] = ςmi [ωi→ k→ ] ςnk
→ → → →

 
↔1.7538 ↔2.3896 ↔4.0515
 
ωmn = ↔2.3896 ↔3.1478 ↔5.4021
↔4.0515 ↔5.4021 ↔6.7526

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4. Normal and shear stresses in a tangential section in P

3
x

4
y
prz
pr! n

Stresses in a tangential section in P

• Normal vector
 
0.6
n = 0.8


0.0
 
↔0.8
 
prϑ =  0.6 
0.0
 
n ↘ prϑ 0
 
prz = = 0
|n ↘ prϑ |
1

• Stress vector

t = [T ] ↑ n, ti = ω ij nj

 
↔2.964 !
 
t =  ↔3.952  , |t| = nT [T ]T [T ] n = 8.3666
↔6.7526

• Normal and shear stresses

ω = ni ω ij nj = ni ti = ↔4.939976
ϑrϑ = (prϑ )i ω ij nj = (prϑ )i ti = ↔0.000032
ϑrz = (prz )i ω ij nj = (prz )i ti = ↔6.75258

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3 Principal stresses, orientation of
principal stresses

3.1 General remarks

The value of normal and shear stresses depends on the investigated plane produced by an
imaginary intersection of the body in hand. Associated with the orientation of the plane
there is a principal stress direction for which the shear stresses vanish and the normal stresses
become extremal (principal stresses).

3.2 Calculation

3.2.1 Values of the principal stresses (Eigenvalues)

Calculation according to the condition: shear stresses vanish for the investigated plane, i.e.
the stress vector and the normal vector on the plane are parallel t = ω0 n.

!
t = tj gj = (ω ij ni ) gj = ω0 n
= ω0 nj gj
= ω0 g ij ni gj
ω ij ni = ω0 ni g ij

(ω ij ↔ ω0 g ij ) ni = 0 ≃j (generalized eigenvalue problem)

For coordinate systems with rectangular unit vectors:

(ω ij ↔ ω0 ε ij ) ni = 0 ≃j

The former equation corresponds to the evaluation of the eigenvalues of a matrix. To satisfy the
equation the determinant of the matrix has to be zero. In this case the calculated eigenvalues
are the principal stresses.

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3.2.2 Orientation of the principal stresses (Eigenvectors)

The orientation of the principle stresses (orientation of the normal vector) corresponds to the
eigenvectors. Thereto:
1. Choose n1 = 1.
2. Strike out one line of the stress matrix.
3. nj are calculated by the remaining lines.

3.3 Examples

3.3.1 Example: Continuation of example ’cantilever beam’

Wanted: Principal stresses, orientation of principal stresses

Stress matrix: (ω ij ↔ ω0 ε ij ) · ni = 0 ≃j

!
!
det(. . .) = 0 ↗ ω0I,II = axy ± a2 x2 y 2 + a2 (h2 ↔ y 2 )2

Eigenvectors:
1. n1 = 1
2. Second line of stress matrix striked out
3. First line: 2axy ↔ ω0I,II + a(h2 ↔ y 2 ) n2 = 0

4.

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Winter Term 2025/2026 41
On the free end:

$ % $ % $ % $ %
n1,I 1 n2,I 1
ωI = = , ω II = =
n1,II 1 n2,II ↔1

2, y
!1
I
1, x
E I !2

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Winter Term 2025/2026 42
3.3.2 Example: Skew angled plate, clamped
I
x2

D(0,3) Given:

C(1,2) $ %
G2 4 2
[ω ] = a
ϖϱ
2 1
A(0,1) G1 = 1 · e1 ↔ 1 · e2
G1 G2 = 2 · e2
x1
B(1,0)
I
For the sketched clamped, skew angled plate the stress tensor [T ] = ω ωε Gω → Gε with respect
to the skew angled basis Gω is given.

1. Calculate the normal and the shear stresses in the section I ↔ I.

2. Evaluate the principal stresses and their directions.

1. Calculate the normal and the shear stresses in the section I ↔ I

↓
|n̄| = 10; ⇐ n=

 
 
↓  
 
|p̄| = 10; ⇐ p=  
 
 3 
↓
10
$ %
"
j0
# 1 ↔1
ςi =
0 2

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Winter Term 2025/2026 43
 ni =

pi =

   
$ 2 % 12
↓  ↓ 
4 2  10 
 
 2  = ↼  610 
 
ti = ω ij nj = ↼
2 1 ↓
  
↓ 
10 10
 
12
/
2 2   ↓ 
36
 610  =
↼ 
ω = ni ti = ↓ ↓ ↼
10 10 
↓  10
10

ϑ=

2. Evaluate the principal stresses and their directions

$ %$ % $ %
4↼ ↔ ω0 2↼ ↔ 12 ω0 n1 0
(ω ij
↔ ω0 G ) ni = 0 ↗
ij
=
2↼ ↔ 12 ω0 ↼ ↔ 12 ω0 n2 0

$ %  
1
2 ↔2 " # 1 2
[Gij ] = ; Gij =  1
↔2 4 1
2 2

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Calculation of eigenvalues

" # " #
!
| ω ij ↔ ω0 Gij | = 0 ⇒

1 1
⇐ 4↼2 ↔ 3ω0 ↼ + ω0 2 ↔ 4↼2 + 2ω0 ↼ ↔ ω0 2 = 0
2 4
 
1 2 1
ω0 ↔ ↼ω0 = ω0 ω0 ↔ ↼ = 0
4 4
ω0,I = 4↼
ω0,II = 0

Calculation of eigenvectors

$ %T $ %
2↼ ↔ 2↼ 1 G1
ωo,I = 4↼ ↗ n2,I = =0 ⇐ nI = = ωI
↔↼ + 2↼ 0 G2
$ %T $ %
2↼ 1 G1
ωo,II = 0 ↗ n2,II = = ↔2 ⇐ nII = = ωII
↔↼ ↔2 G2

Contravariant Basevectors
Gj = Gji Gi with Gji = Gij
$ % $ %$ % $ %
G1 1 1
G1 1G + 1 G
= 1 2 = 1 1 21 2
G2 2
1
2
G2 G + 2 G2
2 1

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Winter Term 2025/2026 45
4 Derivatives of tensor functions

4.1 Deriving a tensor field

4.1.1 Deriving a general tensor field in general (curvilinear) coordinates

Vector field: A vector field assigns a vector to every point of an arbitrary space (e.g. displace-
ment field).

v = v k (xi )gk (xi ) (4.1)

Partial di!erentiation of a vector field:

v,k = (v m gm ),k = v m ,k gm + v n gn,k = (v m ,k + v n !nk m )gm = v m |k gm (4.2)

covariant derivative of a vector: v m |k = v m ,k + v n !nk m (4.3)

covariant derivative of a 2nd order tensor: v lm |k = v lm ,k + v nm !nk l + v ln !nk m (4.4)

4.1.2 Deriving a vector field in linear (skew) coordinates

Partial di!erentiation of a vector field:

v,i = v k ,i gk v,1 = v 1 ,1 g1 + v 2 ,1 g2 + v 3 ,1 g3 (4.5)

4.1.3 Deriving a scalar field

Partial di!erentiation of a scalar field:

ϖu ϖu
u,i = u,i = (4.6)
ϖxi ϖxi

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Gradient of a scalar field:

grad u = u,i gi (Nabla-Operator ⇑ corresponds to gradient: ⇑u = u,i gi ) (4.7)

4.2 Christoffel Symbols

4.2.1 Explanation

!ij k

i : "base vector which is derived"

j : "derivation with respect to"
k : "component of di!erentiation"

x2 ϖg1 1
g1 + dϱ
ϖϱ1 ϖg1 1
dϱ
ϖϱ1
g2 (ϱ1 ,ϱ2 )
ϖg1
ϱ2 = const.
ϖϱ1
!11 2 g2

g1 (ϱ1 , ϱ2 )
!11 1 g1

ϱ1 = const. ϱ1 + dϱ1 x1
ωg1
Figure 4.1: Christoffel Coefficients for
ωε1

gi,j = !ij k gk = !ijk gk (4.8)

gi,j = ↔!kj i gk (4.9)

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4.2.2 Christoffel Symbols 1st kind

1. gi,j = !ijk gk ⇐ !ijk = gi,j ↑ gk

e.g. curvilinear reference frame (see example 1.4.2)

given:
 
↔ϱ1 cos(ϱ3 ) sin(ϱ2 )
 1 
g2 =  ϱ cos(ϱ3 ) cos(ϱ2 ) 
0

e.g. !212 = g2,1 ↑ g2 =

= ϱ1 cos2 (ϱ3 )(sin2 (ϱ2 ) + cos2 (ϱ2 )) = ϱ1 cos2 (ϱ3 )

1
2. !ijk = (gjk,i + gki,j ↔ gij,k )
2
e.g. curvilinear reference frame (see example 1.4.2)
given:
 
1 0 0
 1 2
[gij ] = 0 (ϱ ) cos (ϱ )
2 3
0  
1 2
0 0 (ϱ )

!212 =

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4.2.3 Christoffel Symbols 2nd kind

1. gi,j = !ij k gk ⇐ !ij k = gi,j ↑ gk

e.g. curvilinear reference frame (see example 1.4.2)

given:
 
↔ sin(ϱ2 )
   1 
↔ϱ1 cos(ϱ3 ) sin(ϱ2 )  ϱ cos(ϱ 3 ) 
 
 cos(ϱ ) 
2
g2 =  1 
 ϱ cos(ϱ 3 ) cos(ϱ 2 )  g2 =  
0  1
 ϱ cos(ϱ ) 
3 

!21 2 = g2,1 ↑ g2 =

2. !ij k = !ijs g sk
e.g. curvilinear reference frame (see example 1.4.2)
given:
 
1 0 0

0 1 
1 2 3
" #
 2 0 

!212 = ϱ cos (ϱ ) ; g =  (ϱ1 ) cos2 (ϱ3 )
ij


 1  
0 0 2
(ϱ1 )

!21 2 =

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4.2.4 Example: Quarter of a circular plate
I

x2
4
 
3 3,375E 0
 
A [ω ij ] = 
 3,375E 

0
R
ϱ1 (ϱ )
1 2

ϱ2 x1

I R

Given is the shown plate with the shape of the fourth of a circle and its stress tensor ω ij Gi →Gj .
Determine by formal use of tensor calculus:

1. the orientation vector R and the basis vectors Gi for the given configuration,
2. the normal and shear stresses of the section I ↔ I,
3. the stress vector for point A(ϱ1 = 1, ϱ2 = ς4 ) on the surface (Sketch the stress vector.),
4. the principal stresses for point A. Sketch their orientations.
5. Sketch the distribution of the surface loads and check the global equilibrium.
6. Check the equilibrium of a di!erential element inside the plate.

1. Determine the orientation vector R and the basis vectors Gi for the given
configuration

$ %
r cos(φ)
R=
r sin(φ)

ϱ1 = r ⇓ [0; R]
/ 
2 ↽
ϱ = φ ⇓ 0;
2

$ %
" # " # x1 x2,1
[J] = ςi j0
= xj,i = ,1 =
x1,2 x2,2

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Covariant basis vectors:
$ %
cos(φ)
Gi = ςij0 e j ⇐ G1 =
sin(φ)
$ %
↔r sin(φ)
G2 =
r cos(φ)

Metric tensors:
$ % $ %
1 0 " # 1 0
[Gij ] = G ij
= 1
0 r2 0 r2

2. Determine the normal and shear stresses of the section I ↔ I

$ % $ %
↔4 3
n̄ = ; p̄ = with |n̄| = 5 = |p̄|
3 4

Normalisation:
   
4 3
↔ 
 5 5
 
⇐ n =  ; p=  
 3  4
5 5

Transformation into the curvilinear reference frame:

xi→ = ςij→ xj
 
$ %

3 4
 4
↔ 
n1 
5 
5  5
= 4 3  =
n2   3 
↔r r
 5 5  5
[J]

 
$ %
3
5
p1  
= [J]   =
p2 4
5

3,375 E
ω = ni ω ij nj = r r = 3,375E
r2
ϑ = pi ω ij nj = 0

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 ↽
3. Determine the stress vector for point A(ϱ1 = 1, ϱ2 = ) on the surface
4

   
1 $ % 1
↓  " # ↓ 
 12  ;  12  =
n1
n= 
= xj,i  

↓  n2 
↓ 
2 2

$ %
t1
t = ω ij nj ⇐ =
t2

4. Determine the principal stresses for point A

 
Principal stress: det ω ij ↔ ωo Gij = 0

=0

⇒ ωo 2 ↔ 6,75E ωo + 3,3752 E 2 = 0
!
⇐ ωo,I,II = 3,375E ± 3,3752 E 2 ↔ 3,3752 E 2 = 3,375E
 
ω ij ↔ ωo Gij ni = 0

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5. Sketch the distribution of the surface loads and check the global equilibrium.


↗ H:

ς/2


⇔ V : 3,375 E sin(φ)R dφ ↔ 3,375 E R = 0
0


⊋ MM :

6. Check the equilibrium of a differential element inside the plate.

=0 =0
   
ω |i + Q ↔ ⇀ bm = 0
im m
 
⇒ ω im ,i + ω is !si m + ω sm !si i = 0 using equation (4.4)

example
 
3,375E 0
ω ij =  3,375E 
0
r2
1
!12 2 = !21 2 = ; !22 1 = ↔r
r

m = 1 : ω i1 |i =

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 +

m = 2 : ω i2 |i =

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5 Equilibrium at an element

5.1 Equilibrium inside a body

The equilibrium can be formulated as follows:

!
ω im |i + Qm ↔ ⇀ bm = 0

in di!erent notation for Cartesian coordinates:

!
ωji,j + fi = 0 for all directions i

5.2 Equilibrium along the edges of a body

For Cartesian coordinates:

!
ωji nj = t→i for all directions i

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6 Strain tensor

6.1 General remarks

X i , Ri (”i ), Gi , Gij xi , ri (”i ), gi , gij

"2 "2

" 2 !1 " 2 !1

G2 g2

"1 "1
G1 "1 !1 g1 "1 !1
initial configuration deformed configuration

ϱi : convective coordinates

6.1.1 Strain tensor ⇁ij

Calculation by metric: Green-Lagrange strain tensor

Di!erence of the metric tensors before/after deformation

1
⇁ij = (gij ↔ Gij ). (6.1)
2

Calculation with known deformation:

1" #
⇁ij = ui |j + uj |i + uk |i uk |j geometric non-linear (6.2)
2
1" #
⇁ij = ui |j + uj |i linearized (6.3)
2

Note: Strain tensor ↖= technical strain, conversion is necessary.

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6.2 Examples

6.2.1 Example: Rotation

2
1
2

G 2 ! e2
g2 g1
1 45!
G 1 ! e1
undeformed configuration deformed configuration
g1 = ↔12 (e1 + e2 )
g2 = ↔12 (↔e1 + e2 )

[Gij ] = [gij ] = (with: g1 ↑ g1 = 1 etc)

undeformed deformed

Strain tensor:

[⇁ij ] =

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6.2.2 Example: Dilatation

2
2

g 2 ! 2e 2

G 2 ! e2

1 1
G 3 ! e3 g 3 ! e3
G 1 ! e1 g 1 ! 2e1

undeformed configuration deformed configuration

g1 ↑ g1 = 2e1 ↑ 2e1 = 4
g2 ↑ g2 = 2e2 ↑ 2e2 = 4
g3 ↑ g3 = e3 ↑ e3 = 1
g1 ↑ g2 = g1 ↑ g3 = g3 ↑ g2 = 0

Metric tensor and strain tensor:

 
4 0 0
 
[gij ] = 0 4 0 [⇁ij ] =
0 0 1

Difference of volumes:

↓ ↓
#V = g↔ G =

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Volume change and change of shape in Cartesian coordinates

Volume distension / mean strain / spherical strain:

1
⇁m = (⇁x + ⇁y + ⇁z ) = e
3

 
" # e 0 0
⇁S ij = 0 e 0

=
0 0 e

Distortion / deviatoric strain:

 
" # ⇁11 ↔ e ⇁12 ⇁13

⇁D ij =  ⇁21 ⇁22 ↔ e ⇁23 =
⇁31 ⇁32 ⇁33 ↔ e

⇁ij = ⇁S ij + ⇁D ij

Note:

The strain tensor is always symmetric. (The scalar product gi ↑ gj is commutative.)

The normal strains (⇁11 = ⇁22 = ⇁33 ) are not equal to zero, the shearing strains ⇁12 = ⇁21 =
⇁13 = ⇁31 = ⇁23 = ⇁32 are equal to zero.

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6.2.3 Example: Shearing strain

2
2
g2
G 2 ! e2

1
45! 1
G 3 ! e3 g 3 ! e3
G 1 ! e1 g 1 ! e1
undeformed configuration deformed configuration
g2 = ↔12 (e1 + e2 )

g1 ↑ g1 = 1
1 1
g2 ↑ g2 = ↓ (e1 + e2 ) ↑ ↓ (e1 + e2 ) = 1
2 2
g3 ↑ g3 = 1
1 1
g1 ↑ g2 = e1 ↑ ↓ (e1 + e2 ) = ↓
2 2
g1 ↑ g3 = g2 ↑ g3 = 0

Metric tensor and strain tensor:

 
1 ↔1 0
 2  1
[gij ] =  ↔1 1 0 [⇁ij ] = ([gij ] ↔ [Gij ]) =
 2  2
0 0 1

Difference of volumes:

↓ ↓ ! ! 1
#V = g↔ G= det([gij ]) ↔ det([Gij ]) = ↓ ↔ 1.
2

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Spherical tensor (volume distension) and deviatoric tensor (distortion):

With e = 13 (⇁11 + ⇁22 + ⇁33 ) = 0:

 
" # e 0 0
 
⇁S ij = 0 e 0 =
0 0 e

 
" # ⇁11 ↔ e ⇁12 ⇁13

⇁D ij =  ⇁21 ⇁22 ↔ e ⇁23 =
⇁31 ⇁32 ⇁33 ↔ e

Note:

The strain tensor is always symmetric. (The scalar product gi ↑ gj is commutative.)

The normal strains are zero (⇁11 = ⇁22 = ⇁33 = 0), the shearing strains ⇁12 = ⇁21 , ⇁13 = ⇁31 ,
⇁23 = ⇁32 are (in general) not equal to zero.

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6.2.4 Example: Skew angled plate, clamped

x2
See also example 3.3.2 on page 43
D(0,3)
Wanted:

G2 C(1,2) 1. Orientation vector of the undeformed geometry R

and of the deformed geometry r with respect to the
basis vectors G1 and G2 . Assume a linear shape
A(0,1)
function for the displacements.
uB2
G1 uB1 x1 2. Green-Lagrange strain tensor ⇁ij
B(1,0)

1. Orientation vectors R and r

Undeformed configuration:

$ % $ %
1↔0 1
G1 = (RB ↔ RA ) = =
0↔1 ↔1

$ % $ %
0↔0 0
G2 = (RD ↔ RA ) = =
3↔1 2

R = RA + ϱ1 (RB ↔ RA ) + ϱ2 (RD ↔ RA ) =
 
= 1 ↔ ϱ1 ↔ ϱ2 RA + ϱ1 RB + ϱ2 RD =
= η A R A + ηB R B + ηD R D =
$ % $ % $ % $ %

1 2
 0 1 0 ϱ1
= 1↔ϱ ↔ϱ + ϱ1 + ϱ2 =
1 0 3 1 ↔ ϱ1 + 2ϱ2

$ %
ϖR 1
G1 = 1 =
ϖϱ ↔1
$ %
ϖR 0
G2 = 2 =
ϖϱ 2

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Displacement field:

u=

Deformed configuration:

r=

$ %
ϱ1 + ϱ1 uB1
=
1 ↔ ϱ1 + 2ϱ2 + ϱ1 uB2

ϖr
g1 = =
ϖϱ1

ϖr
g2 = =
ϖϱ2

Metric:

G11 = 12 + (↔1)2 = 2
G12 = G21 = 0 · 1 ↔ 1 · 2 = ↔2
G22 = 02 + 22 = 4

g11 = (1 + uB1 )2 + (↔1 + uB2 )2 = 2 + 2uB1 ↔ 2uB2 + u2B1 + u2B2

g12 = g21 = 2 · (↔1 + uB2 ) = ↔2 + 2uB2
g22 = 4
$ % $ %
2 ↔2 2 + 2uB1 ↔ 2uB2 + u2B1 + u2B2 ↔2 + 2uB2
[Gij ] = ; [gij ] =
↔2 4 ↔2 + 2uB2 4

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2. Green-Lagrange strain tensor ⇁ij

1
⇁ij = (gij ↔ Gij ) see equation (6.1)
2$ %
1 2uB1 ↔ 2uB2 + u2B1 + u2B2 2uB2
[⇁ij ] =
2 2uB2 0

=
lin

Strain tensor: Here, alternatively for the component ⇁11 .

1" #
⇁ij = ui,j + uj,i + uk,i uk,j see equation (6.2)
2
0
u = u j 0 e j = uj e j = ui Gi = u i G i

$ % $ 0
% $ %
u 10 u1 ϱ1 u
= 20 = 1 B1
u 20 u ϱ uB2

 
1
1
$ %
" 0
# 1 ↔1 " # " #
0 ↓1
2
using ςi j = and ςj 0i = ςi j = 1

0 2 
0
2

$ % $ % $ % $ %
u1 " 0# 1 ↔1 ϱ1 uB1 ϱ1 (uB1 ↔ uB2 )
= ςi j [uj 0 ] = =
u2 0 2 ϱ1 uB2 2ϱ1 uB2

   
$
u1
%
" # " 0# 1 0 $ϱ 1 u % ϱ1 uB1
i T
2 = ςj 0 uj =  1 1 1 B1
= 1 1 
u ϱ uB2 ϱ (uB1 + uB2 )
2 2 2

u1,1 = uB1 ↔ uB2 u1,1 = uB1

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 u2,1 = 2uB2 u2,1 = 12 (uB1 + uB2 )
u1,2 = 0 u1,2 = 0
u2,2 = 0 u2,2 = 0

1" #
⇁11 = u1,1 + u1,1 + u1,1 · u1,1 + u2,1 · u2,1 =
2
=

=
lin

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7 Tensor of elastic constants

7.1 Theory

Hooke’s law written in tensor notation:

ω ij = C ijkl ⇁kl (7.1)

with ω ij : stress tensor 2nd order

⇁kl : strain tensor 2nd order
C ijkl : elasticity tensor 4th order

The tensor of elastic constants connects the deformation and the stresses and describes the
mechanical properties of materials.

In general the tensor of elastic constants has d4 components (i,j,k,l = 1...d). Due to the sym-
metries of the stress and the stain tensor (ωij = ωji , ⇁ij = ⇁ji ) as well as the exchangeability of
2 2
the partial derivatives ( φ↼φkl!φ↼ivij = φ↼φij!φ↼ivkl ) only the following independent components remain:

3D case: 2D case:
Anisotropic, linear material Anisotropic, linear material
81 = 34 components (i,j,k,l = 1...3) 16 = 24 components (i,j,k,l = 1...2)
↗ 21 independent components ↗ 6 independent components
 1111   1111 
C C 1122 C 1133 C 1123 C 1113 C 1112 C C 1122 C 1112
   

 C 2222 C 2233 C 2223 C 2213 C 2212 
 
 C 2222 C 2212 

 

 C 3333 C 3323 C 3313 C 3312 
 C 1212
 
 
 C 2323 C 2313 C 2312 
 
 

 C 1313 C 1312 

C 1212

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C ijkl for isotropic materials:

C ijkl = λ Gij Gkl + µ (Gik Gjl + Gil Gjk ) (7.2)

with Lamé constants

E E : Young’s modulus
µ = G=
2(1 + ▷) µ, G : shear modulus
E▷ ▷ : Poisson’s ratio
λ =
(1 + ▷)(1 ↔ 2▷)

7.2 Example: Material with Poisson’s ratio ▷ = 0

Given is a polar coordinate system. The metric coe"cients result in:

 
" # 1 0
Gij = 1
0 2
r

Wanted: C ijkl 2D: ↗ 6 independent components

Solution

▷=0↗ µ=G= E
2
λ=0

C 1111 =

C 1122 =
1 E
C 1212 = λ G12 G12 + µ (G11 G22 + G12 G21 ) = µ =
r2 2r2
C 2212 = λ( G22 G12 ) + µ (G21 G22 + G22 G21 ) = 0

C 1112 = λ( G11 G12 ) + µ (G11 G12 + G12 G11 ) = 0

C 2222 = λ G22 G22 + 2µ G22 G22 =

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8 Approximate solutions using energy
principles - rigid bodies

8.1 Theory

Minimum of total potential energy:

$tot = $i (ui ) + $e (ui ) ui : degrees of freedom

ϖ$tot
=0 ≃ ui
ϖui

8.2 Examples

8.2.1 Example: Coupled spring system

top view:
uy
& Fx #
$ !
F ' $ Fy ! ux
$F !
k1 % z" k1

uy
k2 ux k2
45! !
y 45
z
y
x z x

1. Degrees of freedom (DOFs): ux , uy , (uz = 0)

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 2. Kinematics:

Spring 1: #u1 =

Spring 2: #u2 =

3. Energy of springs ($j = 12 kj u2j ), inner potential energy:

Spring 1: $1 =

Spring 2: $2 =

Internal potential energy is always positive ($i ↙ 0 for all ux ,uy ).

4. Energy of external forces (F ↖= f (ux ,uy ), force F does not depend on the deformation):

$e =

5. Minimum of total potential energy:

$tot = $i + $e =

ϖ$tot ϖ$tot
=0 =0
ϖux ϖuy

ϖ$tot
=
ϖux

ϖ$tot
=
ϖuy

In matrices:
 1 1    
k1 + 2 k2 k2 ux
2 
Fx
   =  
 1 1  u
k2 k2 y Fy
2 2

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 Formally, one can extract the Sti!ness Matrix of the system as follows:

ϖ 2 $i
Kij =
ϖui ϖuj

6. Displacements:

1
 
 (Fx ↔ Fy ) 
u = [K]↓1 F =  k1 
1 2 
(↔Fx + Fy ) + Fy
k1 k2

8.2.2 Example: Rigid plate supported on springs

$ yy

F0
y

2b
x $ xx

F0
uz , z
x
t
$ xx
! "
k z N / m 3 # const.

2a

1. Degrees of freedom: uz , ◁xx , ◁yy , the remaining DOFs are not of interest

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 2. Kinematics:

w(x,y) =

3. Deformation energy:

1
d$i = kz w(x,y)2 dx dy =
2
=

a b a b
1 
$i = d$i = kz (uz + ◁xx y ↔ ◁yy x)2 dy dx
2
↓a ↓b ↓a ↓b
2
= kz ab (3u2z + ◁2xx b2 + ◁2yy a2 )
3

4. Potential energy of external forces:

$e =

5. Minimium of the total potential energy :

ϖ 2 $i
Kij = =
ϖDOFi ϖDOFj

ϖ$e
Fi = ↔ =
ϖDOFi

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 6. Solution:

   
uz 1
  F0  
◁xx  = [K] F =  3/b 
↓1
4kz ab
◁yy ↔3/a

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9 Approximate solutions using energy
principles - elastic systems

9.1 Procedure

a) Description of the undeformed geometry

b) If the same approach (shape functions) is used for the deformation as for the geometry,
this is called isoparametric.
c) Deformed geometry = undeformed geometry + deformation. Di!erentiation with respect
to the convective coordinate leads to the basis vectors Gi , gi ↗ Gij , gij (metric)
1
d) Strain tensor (non-linear) with ⇁ij = (gij ↔ Gij )
2
e) Calulation of tensor of elastic constants C, with Gij , λ, µ.
f) Stress tensor ω ij = C ijkl ⇁kl ↗ Piola-Kirchho! (with respect to Gi )
g) Inner deformation energy:

1
1  ij ↓
e.g. 1D $i = ω ⇁ij A G dϱ
2
0

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9.2 Examples

9.2.1 Example: Rod - isoparametric approach

ue
e
2

Re
re
ua
a Re

Ra ra
R !# " r !# "
e2
Ra

1
e1

1. Geometry of the system (initial configuration):

R(ϱ) = Ra + ϱ(Re ↔ Ra ) = (1 ↔ ϱ)Ra + ϱRe .

ϱ ⇓ [0,1] : convective coordinate

linear approach:

η1 = (1 ↔ ϱ); η2 = ϱ.

2. Deformation of the rod u(ϱ) (isoparametrically)

u(ϱ) =

3. Deformed geometry r(ϱ):

r(ϱ) = R(ϱ) + u(ϱ)

:=

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 4. Covariant basis vectors and corresponding metric tensors:

ϖR ϖr
Gi = ; gi =
ϖϱi ϖϱi

ϖR
G1 = = ↔Ra + Re
ϖϱ

ϖr
g1 = = ↔ra + re = ↔(Ra + ua ) + (Re + ue )
ϖϱ

g1
ue

G1

ua re
Re

Ra
ra

G11 = G1 ↑ G1 = (Re ↔ Ra ) ↑ (Re ↔ Ra ) = L2

Deformed metric tensor:

g11 = g1 ↑ g1 = [(Re + ue ) ↔ (Ra + ua )] ↑ [(Re + ue ) ↔ (Ra + ua )] = (L + #L)2

5. Expression of deformation vectors ua ,ue in the Cartesian basis:

$ % $ %
u u
ua = a1 ue = e1
ua2 ue2

Analogously for undeformed orientation vectors:

$ % $ %
Ra1 Re1
Ra = Re =
Ra2 Re2

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 Undeformed and deformed metric:
$ %
" # R ↔ Ra1
G11 = Re1 ↔ Ra1 Re2 ↔ Ra2 · e1
Re2 ↔ Ra2

= (Re1 ↔ Ra1 )2 + (Re2 ↔ Ra2 )2

$ %
" # R + ue1 ↔ Ra1 ↔ ua1
g11 = Re1 + ue1 ↔ Ra1 ↔ ua1 Re2 + ue2 ↔ Ra2 ↔ ua2 · e1
Re2 + ue2 ↔ Ra2 ↔ ua2

= (Re1 + ue1 ↔ Ra1 ↔ ua1 )2 + (Re2 + ue2 ↔ Ra2 ↔ ua2 )2

6. Non-linear strain tensor:

1
⇁ij = (gij ↔ Gij )
2

For small displacements the tensor can be linearized.

7. Contravariant metric: [Gij ] = [Gij ]↓1 , [g ij ] = [gij ]↓1

1
G11 =
(Re1 ↔ Ra1 )2 + (Re2 ↔ Ra2 )2
1
g 11 =
g11

8. Tensor of elastic constants:

C ikrs = λGik Grs + µ(Gir Gks + Gis Gkr )

λ + 2µ
in this case: C 1111 = (λ + 2µ)G11 G11 =  2
(Re1 ↔ Ra1 )2 + (Re2 ↔ Ra2 )2

using:

E▷ E
λ= ; µ=G=
(1 + ▷)(1 ↔ 2▷) 2(1 + ▷)

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 9. Stress tensor:

ω ij = C ijkl ⇁kl
in this case: ω 11 = C 1111 ⇁11

For the example of a horizontal rod with length L the sti!ness matrix shall be derived.
In this case the coordinates of the nodes are given by:
$ % $ %
0 L
Ra = ; Re =
0 0

thus

E E
ω 11 = C 1111 ⇁11 lin = 4
(Lue1 ↔ Lua1 ) = 3 (ue1 ↔ ua1 )
L L

Displacements along e2 do not cause any stresses and strains.

10. Elastic potential $i (using the linearized strain tensor):

1
d$i = ω ij ⇁ij dV =
2
 1
1 ij ↓
$i = d$i = ω ⇁ij A G dϱ
2
(V ) 0

11. Sti!ness matrix:

ϖ 2 $i
Kij =
ϖui ϖuj

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example:

K11 =

K12 =

K22 =

 
EA EA
 ↔ 
[K] = 

L L 

 EA EA 
↔
L L

9.2.2 Example: CST-Element - isoparametric approach

#2
2
# 2 $ 1.0
i2 , x
c i2 , x2 c

1
# 2 $ 0.2
# $ 0.2 G2

b #1 b
a
a G1
Ra
Rb
# 1 $ 1.0
i 1 , x1 i 1 , x1
! 1
R # ,# 2
"

1. Geometry of the system (initial configuration):

R(ϱ1 ,ϱ2 ) = Ra ηa (ϱ1 ,ϱ2 ) + Rb ηb (ϱ1 ,ϱ2 ) + Rc ηc (ϱ1 ,ϱ2 )

Corresponding linear shape functions:

   
ηa 1 ↔ ϱ1 ↔ ϱ2
η=  
 ηb  =  ϱ1 

2
ηc ϱ

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 ϱ1 + ϱ2 ∝ 1 ϱ1 ,ϱ2 ⇓ [0,1]: convective coordinates
2. Displacement of an arbitrary point u(ϱ1 , ϱ2 ) (isoparametrically):

u(ϱ1 ,ϱ2 ) = ua ηa (ϱ1 ,ϱ2 ) + ub ηb (ϱ1 ,ϱ2 ) + uc ηc (ϱ1 ,ϱ2 )

!2 ! 2 " 1.0
c
c
e2 , x2 e2 , x 2
uc
! 1 " 1.0 g2

b !1
b
a ub a g1
ra rb

ua
e1 , x1 e1 , x 1
#
r ! 1 ,! 2 $

3. Deformed geometry r(ϱ1 ,ϱ2 ):

r(ϱ1 ,ϱ2 ) = R(ϱ1 ,ϱ2 ) + u(ϱ1 ,ϱ2 ) = (Ra + ua )ηa + (Rb + ub )ηb + (Rc + uc )ηc
= ra ηa (ϱ1 ,ϱ2 ) + rb ηb (ϱ1 ,ϱ2 ) + rc ηc (ϱ1 ,ϱ2 )

4. Covariant basis vectors and corresponding metric tensors:

ϖR ϖr
undeformed: Gi = ; deformed: gi =
ϖϱi ϖϱi

Undeformed basis:

ϖR
G1 = = ↔Ra + Rb
ϖϱ1
ϖR
G2 = 2 = ↔Ra + Rc
ϖϱ

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 Analogously for the deformed basis:

ϖr
g1 = = ↔ra + rb = ↔(Ra + ua ) + (Rb + ub )
ϖϱ1
ϖr
g2 = 2 = ↔ra + rc = ↔(Ra + ua ) + (Rc + uc )
ϖϱ

Undeformed and deformed metric (covariant):

Gij = Gi ↑ Gj
gij = gi ↑ gj

5. Vectors in Cartesian coordinates:

$ % $ % $ %
u u u
ua = a1 ub = b1 uc = c1
ua2 ub2 uc2

Analogously for undeformed orientation vectors:

$ % $ % $ %
Ra1 Rb1 Rc1
Ra = Rb = Rc =
Ra2 Rb2 Rc2

6. Non-linear strain tensor leads to 2 ↘ 2-matrix:

1
⇁ij = (gij ↔ Gij )
2

For small displacements the tensor can be linearized.

7. Contravariant metric by inversion of the covariant: [Gij ] = [Gij ]↓1
8. Tensor of elastic constants:

C ikrs = λGik Grs + µ(Gir Gks + Gis Gkr )

9. Stress tensor for isotropic, homogenous and elastic material:

ω ij = C ijkl ⇁kl
10. Elastic potential $i :

  2
1 1↓↽
1 1 ij ↓
d$i = ω ij ⇁ij dV ↗ $i = d$i = ω ⇁ij t G dϱ1 dϱ2
2 2
(V ) 0 0

t: Thickness of the plate

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 11. Sti!ness matrix:

ϖ 2 $i
Kij =
ϖui ϖuj

9.2.3 Example: Skew angled plate, clamped (Continuation of 3.3.2 and

6.2.4)

x2

D(0,3)
E, t

G2 C(1,2) ▷=0
$ %
E 4uB1 2uB1 + uB2
A(0,1) ω =
ij
4 2uB1 + uB2 uB1 + uB2
uB2
G1 uB1 x1
B(1,0)

Wanted:
1. Green-Lagrange strain tensor ⇁ij
2. Sti!ness matrix of the plate element for the given constraints. Use the stress tensor
given above which is expressed with respect to G1 and G2 .

1. Green-Lagrange strain tensor ⇁ij

a) (see example 6.2.4):

$ % $ %
1 0
G1 = G2 =
↔1 2

R = R A + ϱ 1 G 1 + ϱ 2 G2 with ϱ1 ⇓ [0; 1], ϱ2 ⇓ [0; 1]

r=

ϖr
g1 = =
ϖϱ1
ϖr
g2 = 2 =
ϖϱ

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 b) (see example 6.2.4):
$ %
1 lin. u ↔ uB2 uB2
[⇁ij ] = ([gij ] ↔ [Gij ]) = B1
2 uB2 0

2. Stiffness matrix

Density of strain energy:

1 ij 1E
ω ⇁ij = [4uB1 (uB1 ↔ uB2 ) + (2uB1 + uB2 )uB2 · 2 + 0] =
2 24
E" # E" #
= 4uB1 2 ↔ 4uB1 uB2 + 4uB1 uB2 + 2uB2 2 = 2uB1 2 + uB2 2
8 4

Potential of the inner forces:

$i =

using
$ %
2 ↔2
[Gij ] = ↗ G = det ([Gij ]) = 4
↔2 4

Sti!ness matrix:

ϖ 2 $i
Kij =
ϖui ϖuj

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9.2.4 Example: Elastically supported beam - Ritz method and Principle of
Virtual Work

w1 ks w2

1 a
2 F 2

ks
a Shape function:
EI ↗ ′ 2  
2 3
EA ↗ ′ w(x) = 3 Lx 2 ↔ 2 Lx 3 w1
 
6 12x
L EI w↗↗ (x) = L2
↔ L3
w1
EA ↗ ′  
(w(x))2 = 9 Lx 4 ↔ 12 Lx 5 + 4 Lx 6 w12
4 5 6
kB (x) = const.

 
(w↗↗ (x))2 = 36
L4
↔ 144x
L5
+ 144x2
L6
w12

x
y

Wanted: System of equations in order to calculate w1 and w2

1. using the Ritz method,
2. using the Principle of Virtual Work.

1. Ritz method

Internal potential

$i,EI =

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 $i,kB =

$i,kS =

$i,tot = $i,EI + $i,kB + $i,kS =

External potential

$e =

ϖ 2 $i,tot ϖ$e
With Kij = and fi = ↔ one obtains the following system of equations:
ϖwi ϖwj ϖwi

Now the displacements w1 , w2 can be calculated as:

w = [K]↓1 f

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2. Principle of Virtual Work

Introduction:

!
Principle of virtual work: εW = εWi + εWe = 0

Internal virtual work εWi = ↔ ω ε⇁ dV
(V )
 
  
=↔ EIw↗↗ εw↗↗ dx 
↔ EAu↗ εu↗ 
↔ k#w #εw
(L) (L)
 
 
 
External virtual work εWe = F εw + p(x)εw(x)dx
(L)

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a) εw1 ↖= 0, εw2 = 0 : Shape functions
 2 from  before:
3
w(x) = 3 Lx 2 ↔ 2 Lx 3 w1
 
6 12x
w↗↗ (x) = L2
↔ L3
w1

εW = εWi + εWe =

L  2 L ' (2
6 12x 3x2 2x3
=↔ 2
↔ 3 w1 εw1 ↔ kB ↔ 3 w1 εw1 dx
L L L2 L
0 0
' (' (
w1 εw1
↔ kS (w2 ↔ w1 )(εw2 ↔ εw1 ) ↔ kS ↔↓ ↔↓ =0
2 2
 
12EI 13 3
↗ ↔ 3 w1 ↔ kB Lw1 ↔ kS w1 + kS w2 εw1 = 0
L 35 2

b) εw1 = 0, εw2 ↖= 0 :

εW = εWi + εWe =

=
F
= (kS w1 ↔ kS w2 + )εw2 = 0
2

One obtains the following system of equations:

 
12EI 13 3
 L3 + 35 kB L + 2 kS ↔kS  $ % $ %
  w1 0
  = F
  w2 2
↔kS kS

Now the displacements w1 , w2 can be calculated as:

w = [K]↓1 f

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9.2.5 Example: Elastically supported beam - Galerkin method

p p

EI

x k0 k0

z,w

l l

Given is an elastically supported beam with the bending sti!ness EI. Furthermore a shape
function ŵ (x) is given. Given:
• di!erential equation: EI w↗↗↗↗ + kw ↔ p = 0
 
• ŵ (x) = w1 sin ςx
l

l  
• sin2 nςx
l
dx = l
2
0

Wanted:
1. Prove that the boundary conditions can be observed by the given shape function.
 
2. Calculate the displacement w x = l
2
due to the given load using the Galerkin-Method.

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1. Checking the boundary conditions

 
2. Displacement w x = l
2

Di!erential equation: EI w↗↗↗↗ + kw ↔ p = 0

 
Weighting function: w→ (x) = w1→ sin ςx
l

Weighted residuum:

RV =

2l ''  4 (  ( l   2l  
↽ 2 ↽x ↽x ↽x
⇐ EI + k0 w1 sin dx = p0 sin dx+ ↔p0 sin dx
l l l l
0 0 l

'  4 ( '/   /  2l (

↽l·2 p0 l ↽x l ↽x
⇐ EI + k0 · w1 = ↔ cos ↔ cos
l 2 ↽ l 0 l l
'  4 (
↽ l 4l
⇐ EI + k0 · lw1 = ↔p0 (↔2 ↔ 2) = p0
l ↽ ↽

p0 ς4
w1 =  4
EI ς
l
+ k0

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9.2.6 Example: Derivation of the differential equation

p(x)

EI

x k(x)

z,w

Wanted: Derive the di!erential equation and the boundary conditions of the sketched bar
1. using the principle of a stationary value of the potential energy,
2. using virtual work.

1. Principle of a stationary value of the potential energy

L L L
1 1 
$= EI w↗↗ (x)2 dx + k (x) w (x)2 dx ↔ p (x) w (x) dx =
2 2
0 0 0
L  
1 1
= EI w↗↗ (x)2 + k (x) w (x)2 ↔ p (x) w (x) dx = I
2 2
0   
F (w(x),w→→ (x))

Variation

L $ %
ϖF ϖF
εI = εw + εw↗↗ dx = 0
ϖw ϖw↗↗
0

 
Part. Integration u v ↗ = [u v] ↔ u↗ v:

L $ %L 
ϖF ϖF d ϖF
↗↗
εw↗↗ dx = εw↗ ↔ εw↗ dx
ϖw ϖw↗↗ 0
dx ϖw↗↗
0

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 $ %L $ %L L
ϖF d ϖF d2 ϖF
= εw↗ ↔ εw + εwdx
ϖw↗↗ 0
dx ϖw↗↗ 0
dx2 ϖw↗↗
0

L $ % $ %L $ %L
ϖF d2 ϖF ϖF d ϖF
εI = εw + 2 ↗↗
εw dx + εw↗ ↔ εw =0
ϖw dx ϖw ϖw↗↗ 0
dx ϖw↗↗ 0
0

εI =

Di!erential equation:

Boundary conditions:

2. Virtual Work

εW =

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Part. integration:

L L
EI w εw dx = [EI w εw↗ ]0 ↔ [EI w +
↗↗ ↗↗ ↗↗ L ↗↗↗ L
εw]0 EI w↗↗↗↗ εw dx
0 0

L
↔εW = (EI w↗↗↗↗ + k w ↔ p) εw dx + [EI w↗↗ εw↗ ]0 ↔ [EI w↗↗↗ εw]0 = 0
L L

Di!erential equation:

↔p (x) + k (x) w (x) + EI w↗↗↗↗ (x) = 0

Boundary conditions:
 L
 
EI w (x) εw (x) =0
↗↗ ↗
     
M ⇀⇁ 0
 L
 
↔ EI w↗↗↗ (x) εw (x) = 0
     
Q ⇀w 0

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[Irgens 2008] Irgens, Fridtjov: Continuum Mechanics. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg,
2008

[Kiener 2004] Kiener, Gunter: Tensor Analysis. 2004. – Lecture Notes TU München

[Klingbeil 1989] Klingbeil, Eberhard: Tensorrechnung für Ingenieure. 2. (BI-

Hochschultaschenbücher 197/197a). Mannheim, 1989

[Stein and Barthold 1996] Stein, E. ; Barthold, F.-J.: Der Ingenieurbau, Grundwissen:
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Continuum Mechanics - Tutorial

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