ELECTROSTATICS

● An electric circuit is conducting path that allows charge to flow from one
terminal to other
● The purpose of a batter is to produce a potential difference, which can then
make charges move

Voltage - the potential difference across the two ends of a battery ranges from
about 1.5 V for a small battery to about 12 V for a car battery
- Is the difference in electrical potential between two points
● Most batteries are electrochemical cells - groups of connected cells that
convert chemical energy into electrical energy
● + terminal - offers higher electrical potential energy
● - terminal - offers lower electrical potential energy
○ Movement is from higher potential energy to lower potential energy

Electromotive force - the electric potential produced by either electrochemical cell

or by changing the magnetic field
- Is the type of energy which forces a unit positive charge to move from the
positive to the negative terminal of the source
● Generator/Battery - used for the conversion of energy from one form to
another
○ Battery Protrusion (+ terminal) | Flat End (- terminal)

Electric Current (I)

● Flow of charged particles or current
● The unit of current is Ampere (A)
● Ampere = coulombs/second
● Only present if there is electric potential between 2 points
○ Voltage and current are directly proportional
● Direct current - if the charges move around in the same direction
○ Electron flow - negative to positive
○ Conventional current - positive to negative
● Alternating current - changes its direction each half - cycle
Resistance (R)
● Measure of the opposition it offers to the flow of electric current
● SI Unit - Ohm (Ω)
● Current and Resistance are inversely proportional
● Resistor - wire or an electrical device that offers resistance to electrical flow

Resistivity (p)
● Property of conductor due to which it offers resistance to the flow of current
through it
● The better the conductor, the less its resistance
● SI Unit: Ohm-meter (Ω - meter)

Resistors
● An electrical component that limits or regulate the flow of electrical current in
an electronic circuit
● It has 4 lines
○ 4th has a gap from 1st three
■ 1st line - First digit
■ 2nd line - Second digit
■ 3rd line - Multiplier

Ohm’s Law
● The higher the electric potential difference or voltage between 2 points in a
circuit, the more charges can move between the points
● Current (I) is directly proportional to voltage and inversely proportional to
resistance
● Discovered by Georg Ohm
● V = IR
● R = V/I
● I = V/R

Electric Power (P)

 ● Rate at which electric energy is converted into another form such as
mechanical energy, heat, or light
● The power consumed by and electric appliance is equal to the product of the
current flowing through it and the voltage across it
● Power = energy per unit time (Watt)
● P = IV
● P = I2R
● P = V2/R

ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

● Any path along which current and electrons and flow

● Unbroken path of material that carries electricity
● Consists of an energy source and an energy consuming device which are
connected by conducting wires through which electric charges move
● The maximum potential difference across the terminals is provided and
maintained by the electromotive force

2 Types of Electric Circuits

1. Series - two or more load are linked across a single loop of wire
- The current is the same ate all points in the circuit
- Total resistance (equivalent resistance) to current in this circuit is the
sum of the individual resistances along the path
● Constant electric current (I)
○ Itotal = I1 = I2 = I3 = …
○ Vtotal = V1 + V2 + V3 + …
○ Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3 + …

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

● Voltage rise = total voltage drop
● Voltage rise - amount of voltage supplied by the battery
 ● Voltage drop - amount of voltage lost that occurs through all/part of a circuit
due to resistance

2. Parallel - Different loads are situated on different wire loops

- Components connected in parallel with each other all have the same voltage
- Junction - point of separation of paths
- Each path operates independently of the other paths
- Total current in this circuit equals the sum of currents in its parallel branches
- As number of parallel branches increases, resistance if the circuit is decreases

● Parallel circuit
○ Voltage is constant
○ Vtotal = V1 = V2 = V3
○ Itotal = I1 + I2 + I3
○ Rtotal = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3

Circuit Safety
● Circuit Breakers - internal current flow after a fault is detected
● Insulators - prevent movement of electric charges
● Grounding - grounded to earth

Physiological Effects of Electric Current

● Depends on the resistance of one’s body
○ Dry - higher resistance against electrical charges | Wet - lower
resistance
● The severity of electrical injury depends on the magnitude of the current and
the parts of the body through which the moving charges pass
○ Mild tingling sensation - 0.001 A
○ Muscle spasms - 0.01 to 0.02 A
○ Fatal - 0.2 A

ELECTRICAL SAFETY TIPS

WORK, ENERGY, & POWER

Work
● Done when there is motion
● Result of a force acting upon an object to cause a displacement of the object
○ Force
○ Displacement
○ Cause
● Work = Force (Newtons) * Displacement (Meter)
○ Only the force thats acts on the direction of motion counts towards
work
○ Only applied if F and d are parallel
● Measured in Joule (J)
● 1 Joule of work = 1 Newton of force * 1 meter of distance (Newton-meter)
○ 1 J = 1 (N)m or (Kg * m/s2)m or Kg * m2/s2

If force and displacement do not point in the same direction

● The product of the component of force in the direction of the displacement
and the magnitude of the displacement produced by that force
● W = Fd cos θ
○ Θ - angle between the direction of F and d

Types of Work:
● Work against gravity
○ Involves height
○ W = (mass)(gravity)(height) or W = (weight)(height)

Energy
● Property of a body or system of bodies by which work can be done or
performed
● Energy possessed by a body is equal to the total work it can do
● Work = Energy
Potential Energy
● Energy of objects at rest; stored energy
○ Gravitational potential energy - equals its weight times its height above
the ground
■ GPE = (mass)(gravity)(height) or (weight)(height)
○ Elastic potential energy - energy stored in elastic materials as the result
of stretching or compressing

Kinetic Energy
● Energy of objects in motion
● Highest point = highest amount of GPE
● KE = 1/2mv2 or 1/2 (mass)(velocity)2 = Joules

Work-Energy Theorem
● Work = Energy
● This theorem states that the net change in KE of a particle is equivalent to the
sum of work done by all types of external forces
● The KE of an object increases as a result of the amount of work. Work done on
an object transfers energy to the object
● Wnet = KEfinal - KEinitial
○ Wnet = 1/2mvf2 - 1/2mvi2
○ Wnet = 1/2m (Vf2 - Vi2) - used with a nonzero digit value for any of the
velocities

Power
● The rate at which work is done
● The rate at which energy is expended
● Power is the amount of work done by the time it takes to do it
○ P = work/time
● Power is the energy expended/transformed divided by the time it takes to
expend it
○ P = energy/time
● SI Unit: Watt (W)
 ● 1 hp = 550 ft-lb of work/second = 746 watts or 0.746 kilowatt

Work and Power

● Work has nothing to do with the amount of time the force acts to cause the
displacement
● For power, time is inversely proportional