STA 102: Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences II

Department of Statistics, University of Botswana

February 3, 2022

Department of Statistics, University of Botswana STA 102: Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences II
Outline

1. Basic definitions
2. Definition of a function
3. Domain and range
4. Graph of a function
5. Composite function
6. Linear functions
7. Applications
8. Quadratic functions
9. Polynomials
10. Rational functions
11. Exponential functions
12. Natural exponential function
13. Trigonometric functions

Department of Statistics, University of Botswana STA 102: Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences II
Basic definitions

1. Constant: A mathematical entity that does not change in a given problem. Can either be
numerical or symbolic constant (also called a parameter). For example,

I For,

y = 2x − 3, (1)
2 and 3 are numerical constants.

I For,

y = ax − b, (2)
a and b are symbolic constants.

Department of Statistics, University of Botswana STA 102: Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences II
Basic definitions..

1. Variable: A quantity that changes over a set of possible values in a given problem. For
example,

I For a consumption function,

C = a + bl, (3)
The consumption (C) and income (I) are variables, while a and b are parameters
(constants).

I For a consumption function,

C = 2 + 0.5l, (4)
The consumption (C) and income (I) are variables, while 2 and 0.5 are parameters
(constants).

Department of Statistics, University of Botswana STA 102: Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences II
Basic definitions..

1. Coefficient: A numerical or symbolic constant placed before a variable as a multiplier.

For example,

I In the supply equation,

Qs = −a + bP, (5)
b is the coefficient of P.

I In the supply equation,

Qs = 50 + 0.85P, (6)
0.85 is the coefficient of P.

Department of Statistics, University of Botswana STA 102: Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences II
Definition of a function

I Domain: The set of input values of a function f .

I Range: A set of output values of a function f .

y = f (x)

Domain Range

I A function y = f (x) is a rule that produces a relation between two variables by an

equation.

I Links each member of the domain to only one member of the range.

Department of Statistics, University of Botswana STA 102: Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences II
Function..

I y = f (x) is a function where x is an independent variable and y is a

dependent variable.

I We get exactly one output (value for the dependent variable) for each input (value for the
independent variable).

I If we get more than one output for a given input, then the equation does not define a
function.

I A function f with domain A is the set of all ordered pairs [x, f (x)] where x belongs to A.

Department of Statistics, University of Botswana STA 102: Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences II
Example 1.1.1
Consider a rectangle with length x cm and width (x − 1) cm.
x

x-1

I If y is the area of the rectangle, then the corresponding equation of the area is,

y = x(x − 1), x > 1. (7)

I For each input x, we obtain an output y (= area).

I x is an independent variable and y is dependent.

I The domain is x > 1, that is, (1, ∞) and the range is y > 0, that is, (0, ∞).
Department of Statistics, University of Botswana STA 102: Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences II
Example 1.1.2

I Suppose y = 5x − 1. If x = 2, then y = 5(2) − 1 = 10 − 1 = 9.

I If x = −2, then y = 5(−2) − 1 = −10 − 1 = −11

I Here the domain is −∞ < x < ∞, that is (−∞, ∞)

I The range is −∞ < y < ∞, that is (−∞, ∞)

Department of Statistics, University of Botswana STA 102: Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences II
Example 1.1.3

y2 − x2 = 9 (8)

is not a function. This is because,

y2 = 9 + x2
implying that

p
y = ± 9 + x 2.

This gives two values of y for every value of x. Hence y 2 − x 2 = 9 is not a function.

Department of Statistics, University of Botswana STA 102: Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences II
Some Notations

We use f , g , h, and others to denote functions. For example,

I In Example 1.1.1, f (x) = x(x − 1).

I In Example 1.1.2, f (x) = 5x − 1

Department of Statistics, University of Botswana STA 102: Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences II
Graph of a function

It is the set of all points (x, y ) in the xy − plane such that x is the domain and y = f (x).

I Example 1.2.1: Draw the graph of the function y = 2x + 1

I Example 1.2.2: Draw the graph of the function y = x 2 , −∞ < x < ∞.

I Example 1.2.3: Draw the graph of the function y = |x|.

Department of Statistics, University of Botswana STA 102: Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences II
Plotting different functions

Example 1.2.1 Example 1.2.2 Example 1.2.3

x y x y x y
-2 2 (-2)+1=-3 -2 (−2)2 = 4 -2 2
-1 2 (-1)+1= -1 -1 (−1)2 =1 -1 1
0 1 0 0 0 0
1 3 1 1 1 1
2 5 2 4 2 2
f (x) → 2x + 1 f (x) → x 2 f (x) → |x|
2 1 1

0.8 0.8

1
0.6 0.6
y

y
y

0.4 0.4
0

0.2 0.2

−1 0 0
−1 −0.8 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
x x x

Department of Statistics, University of Botswana STA 102: Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences II
Example 1.2.4

Draw the graph of the function f (x) = |x − 2|.

x y f (x) →|x − 2|
3
-2 | − 2 − 2| =| − 4| = 4
-1 | − 1 − 2| =| − 3| = 3 2

0 |0 − 2| =| − 2| = 2

y
1 |1 − 2| =| − 1| = 1 1

2 |2 − 2| =|0| = 0
3 |3 − 2| =|1| = 1 0
−2 0 2 4 6
4 |4 − 2| =|2| = 2 x

I The absolute value of a negative number is its positive value.

I The absolute value of a positive number is that very same number.

Department of Statistics, University of Botswana STA 102: Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences II
Vertical line test

A curve in the xy − plane is the graph of a function y = f (x) if and only if each vertical line
intersects it in at most one point .

Example 1.2.5: If f (x) = 12x + 6, obtain the following functions,

1. f (2x)

2. f (x + 2)

3. What is f (−2)?

Department of Statistics, University of Botswana STA 102: Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences II
Solution 1.2.5

1. f (2x) = 12(2)x + 6 = 24x + 6

2. f (x + 2) = 12(x + 2) + 6 = 12x + 24 + 6 = 12x + 30

3. f (−2) = 12(−2) + 6 = −24 + 6 = −18

Department of Statistics, University of Botswana STA 102: Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences II
Composite Functions

I If f (x) and g (x) are two functions of x, then f [g (x)] is called the composite function.

I We obtain f [g (x)] by replacing x with g (x).

√
Example 1.3.1: If f (x) = 3x − 6 and g (x) = x, obtain composite functions f [g (x)] and
g [f (x)].

Solution 1.3.1:
√ √
I f [g (x)] = 3( x) − 6 = 3 x − 6 and
p
I g [f (x)] = (3x − 6).

Department of Statistics, University of Botswana STA 102: Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences II
Linear Functions

I Form y = f (x) = mx + c, where m 6= 0 and c are constants. Represents a straight line.

I c is the y-intercept, obtained by putting x = 0 in y = mx + c and occurs at point (0,c).

I m is the slope/gradient for the line . It is the rate of change in y due to a unit change in
x. i.e., if x changes by one unit, then y changes by m units.
f (x) → 1.5x + 2 (Positive slope) f (x) → −1.5x + 2 (negative slope)
5 3

4
2
f (x)

f (x)
3

1
2

1 0
−1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
x x

Department of Statistics, University of Botswana STA 102: Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences II
Example 1.4.1

Slope or gradient

I Consider a function y = 4x − 3,

I If x = 2, then y = 4(2) − 3 = 8 − 3 = 5.

I Now suppose that x changes by one unit from 2 to 3.

I In this case y = 4(3) − 3 = 12 − 3 = 9.

I Notice that as x changes by one unit from 2 to 3, y changes by 4 (=m) units from
5 to 9.

Department of Statistics, University of Botswana STA 102: Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences II
Application of functions, Example 1.5.1

Physiology

An approximation of the normal weight of a person whose height is between 60 and 80

inches is given by w (x) = 5.5x − 220, where x is height in inches and w (x) is weight in
pounds. Find the domain and range.

Solution 1.5.1
I Domain: 60 ≤ x ≤ 80

I If x = 60, w (x) = 5.5(60) − 220 = 110. If x = 80, w (x) = 5.5(80) − 220 = 220.
So,

I Range: 110 ≤ f (x) ≤ 220

Department of Statistics, University of Botswana STA 102: Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences II
Business & Economics

Price and demand

The retail
√ price p(x) and the weekly demand x of a computer are related by p(x) =
115 − 4 x, 9 ≤ x ≤ 289. Find the domain and range.

Solution 1.5.2
I Domain: 9 ≤ x ≤ 289
√ √
I If x = 9, p(x) = 115 − 4 9 = 103. If x = 289, p(x) = 115 − 4 289 = 47. So,

I Range: 47 ≤ f (x) ≤ 103

Department of Statistics, University of Botswana STA 102: Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences II
Quadratic Functions

Quadratic Functions

I The form is y = f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c, a 6= 0, b and c are constants. The graph is a

parabola.

I The parabola opens up (convex from below) if a > 0 and open down (concave
from below) if a < 0.

f (x) → 5x 2 + 3x + 2 (Convex from below) f (x) → −5x 2 + 3x + 2(Concave from below)

5 3

4
2
f (x)

f (x)
3

1
2

1 0
−2 −1 0 1 2 −2 −1 0 1 2
x x

Department of Statistics, University of Botswana STA 102: Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences II
Quadratic Functions...

I If a > 0, the minimum occurs at x = −b

2a

I If a < 0, then the maximum occurs at x = −b

2a

I Note that a prabola is symmetric about the vertical line x = −b

2a

I So always evaluate f ( −b
2a )

Department of Statistics, University of Botswana STA 102: Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences II
Example

Find the domain and range of f (x) = 3x 2 − x + 2, for −2 ≤ x ≤ 2.

I Domain: −2 ≤ x ≤ 2

−b
1. Since a = 3 > 0, the minimum of f (x) occurs at x = 2a
. So f ( −b
2a
−1
) = f (− 2(3) ) = f ( 16 ).

2. f ( 16 ) = 3( 16 )2 − 1
6
+ 2 = 1.92

3. f (−2) = 3(−22 ) − (−2) + 2 = 3(4) + 2 + 2 = 16

4. f (2) = 3(22 ) − (2) + 2 = 3(4) − 2 + 2 = 12

I Range: [1.92, 16]

Department of Statistics, University of Botswana STA 102: Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences II
Polynomials

A function of the form

I f (x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + ... + a1 x + a0 , a 6= 0 called a polynomial of degree n.

I y = 3x 3 + 5x + 8 is a polynomial of degree 3.

I f (x) = 5x 2 + 3x + 2 is a polynomial of degree 2 (quadratic).

I f (x) = 3x + 4 is a polynomial of degree 1 (linear).

Department of Statistics, University of Botswana STA 102: Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences II
Examples...

Graph functions f (x) = x 3 and f (x) = 2x 3 − 3x 2 − 12x − 1.

f (x) → x 3 f (x) → 2x 3 − 3x 2 − 12x − 1

20 20

10
10

0
f (x)

f (x)
0
−10

−10
−20

−20 −30
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 −4 −2 0 2 4
x x

Department of Statistics, University of Botswana STA 102: Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences II
Rational Functions

g (x)
I Functions of the form y = f (x) = h(x) , h(x) 6= 0, where g (x) and h(x) are polynomial
functions.

I For example,

x 2 + 2x − 2
f (x) =
x −5
is a rational function.

Department of Statistics, University of Botswana STA 102: Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences II
Exponential Functions

I Has the form f (x) = b x , b > 0 and b 6= 1, where b is a constant and it is called the base .

I Variable x can be any real number, i.e., −∞ < x < ∞.

I The domain of an exponential function f (x) is therefore −∞ < x < ∞.

I The range is 0 ≤ f (x) < ∞.

Department of Statistics, University of Botswana STA 102: Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences II
Examples: Exponential functions

f (x) → 2x f (x) → 2−x → ( 21 )x → 0.5x

5 1

0.8
4

0.6
f (x)

f (x)
3
0.4

2
0.2

1 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
x x

I Example 1.9.3: Function f (x) = (−3)x is not an exponential function because the base is
-3 which is negative

I Example 1.9.4: Function f (x) = 1x is not an exponential function because the base is 1.

Department of Statistics, University of Botswana STA 102: Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences II
Remark

I f (x) = b x increases if b > 1, For example, f (x) = 2x increases as x increases. That is,
f (1) = 21 = 2, f (2) = 22 = 4, f (3) = 23 = 8 and so on.

I f (x) = b x decreases as x increases if 0 < b < 1. For example,

f (1) = 0.51 , f (2) = 0.52 = 0.25, f (3) = 0.53 = 0.125 and so on.

Department of Statistics, University of Botswana STA 102: Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences II
Example 1.9.5

I A single bacterium of a certain type divides every hour to produce two complete bacteria.
Given that a colony of bacteria starts with 1000 bacteria and that after t hours the colony
will have B(t) = 1000(2)t , t ≥ 0 bacteria (assuming adequate food supply). Draw the
graph of the above exponential function.
B(t) → 1000(2)t
5,000

4,000

B(t)
3,000

2,000

1,000
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
t

Department of Statistics, University of Botswana STA 102: Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences II
The Natural Exponential Function

I The function f (x) = e x is called the natural exponential function where where
e = 2.71828...

I The constant e is an irrational number

I The domain is (−∞, ∞) and the range is (0, ∞)

I Draw the graphs of the following natural exponential functions;

1. f (x) = e x

2. g (x) = e −x

2
3. h(x) = e −x

Department of Statistics, University of Botswana STA 102: Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences II
Solution 1.10.1
1 2
f (x) → e x f (x) → e −x
20 20

15 15
f (x)

f (x)
10 10

5 5

0 0
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
x x
3 2
f (x) → e −x
1

0.8

0.6
f (x)

0.4

0.2

0
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
x
Department of Statistics, University of Botswana STA 102: Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences II
Example 1.10.2

The population of a certain city during the years 1950 to 2000 can be modelled by the function
p(t) = 10000e 0.05t , 0 ≤ t ≤ 50, where t is the number of year elapsed after 1950 and p(t) is
the population of the city at the t th year. Obtain p(10)

Solution 1.10.2:

P(10) = 10000e 0.05(10) = 10000e 0.5 = 16487.21 ≈ 16487

Department of Statistics, University of Botswana STA 102: Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences II
Example 1.10.3

Re-write the following equations in the form y = ae bx , where a and b are constants.

1. y = 8.2(2.5)x

2. y = 12(0.4)x

Solution 1.10.3

1.
y = 8.2(2.5)x = 8.2e xln2.5 = 8.2e 0.916x
2.
y = 12(0.4)x = 12e xln0.4 = 12e −0.916x

Department of Statistics, University of Botswana STA 102: Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences II
Trigonometric Functions

In trigonometry, angles are measured either in degrees or radians. A complete revolution

encompasses 360 degrees or 2π radians. Thus π radians is equal to 1800 .

We consider three basic trigonometric functions being,

1. f (x) = sinx

2. f (x) = cosx

3. f (x) = tanx

Angle x is measured in radians.

Department of Statistics, University of Botswana STA 102: Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences II
Relationship to sides of a right-angled triangle

AB AC AB
sinx = BC , cosx = BC , tanx = AC

Department of Statistics, University of Botswana STA 102: Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences II
Graphs of trigonometric functions
1 2
f (x) → sinx f (x) → cosx
2 2

1 1
f (x)

f (x)
0 0

−1 −1

−2 −2
−4 −2 0 2 4 −4 −2 0 2 4
x x
3
f (x) → tanx
2

1
f (x)

−1

−2
−4 −2 0 2 4
x
Department of Statistics, University of Botswana STA 102: Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences II