Pe aeraELECTRIC CURRENT AND CIRCUIT Flow of electric charges through a conductor (e.g., metallic wire) is called an electric current. switch contacts 4 Switch — Ina torch, the cells (or a battery, when placed in proper order) provide electric current through the bulb to glow. Metal spring celfs_Lamp Contact continuous and closed path of an electric current is called electric circuit. If the circuit is broken (or > 2 5 the switch is turned off), the current stops. Etecine bul * Electric current is measured as the amount of nh rare a) charge flowing through a particular area in unit a Highs ete pa a el ie, ; : K time. i.e., it is the rate of flow of electric charges Lay K Aschematic diagram of an electric circuitELECTRIC CURRENT AND CIRCUIT 2 > Electre bub + Ina circuit of metallic wire, electrons constitute ‘Nerentoe CAS the flow of charges. Electrons were unknown ” r during the discovery of electricity. So, electric Coll a current was considered as the flow of positive | q-—__<——_+)—S charges and their direction of flow was taken as schematic diagram of an electric circuit the direction of electric current. + Conventionally, in an electric circuit, the direction = = of electric current is taken as opposite to the direction of the flow of electrons (negative | charges). i.e., electric current flows from positive ecton’ Sil terminal of the cell to negative terminal. ee Conventional S currentELECTRIC CURRENT AND CIRCUIT > Electric bulb * Consider a net charge Q flows across a cross- i section of a conductor in time t. Then, current! | ‘ammeter (A) through the cross-section is y col Pug ey Ly qs .<—___4,__} or Q=lt Aschematic diagram of an electric circuit + Slunit of electric charge is coulomb (C). It is equivalent to the charge contained in 6 x 1018 electrons. i.e., an electron has a negative charge of 1.6 x 10°C, * Sl unit of electric current is ampere (A), named after Andre-Marie Ampere (France, 1775-1836). Andre-Marie AmpereELECTRIC CURRENT AND CIRCUIT CD > Blectie bub Ammeter| ‘n) + One ampere represents the flow of one coulomb = Yt of charge per second, ie, 1A=1C/1s. Cot eet a ‘Asschematic diagram of an electric circuit * Small quantities of current are expressed in milliampere (1 mA = 10° A) or in microampere (1 pA = 10° A). * Ammeter: An instrument to measure electric current in a circuit. It is always connected in series in a circuit.ELECTRIC CURRENT AND CIRCUIT ee ‘Flow’ of charges inside a wire * Inside a solid conductor, atoms are packed together. Acurrent of 0.5 Ais drawn bya But electrons can easily travel through it, almost as filament of an electric bulb for 10 if they are in a vacuum. minutes. Find the amount of electric mn * When a current flows through a conductor, the charge that flows through the circuit. electrons move with an average ‘drift speed’ (1 mm sl for a typical copper wire). However, an electric bulb lights up as soon as the switch is turn on. Itis not due to the movement of an electron from one 1=0.5 A; t= 10 min = 600s. terminal to the other terminal through the bulb. postive Q=lt flowing electror charges = 300 negative copper wireELECTRIC POTENTIAEAND-POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE Electric charges do not flow in a metallic conductor (e.g. copper wire) by themselves. Here, gravity has no role. Electrons move only if there is a difference of electric eet notes pressure in conductor. It is called potential difference. The chemical action within a cell/battery can generate the potential difference across the terminals of the cell, | @@@@@ @ 1ow Potential Enerey even when no current is drawn from it. When the cell is connected to a conducting circuit, the potential difference sets the charges in motion and produces an electric current, To maintain this current, the cell has to expend chemical energy stored in it.ELECTRIC POTENTIAEAND-POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE + The electric potential difference between two points in an electric circuit is the work done to move a unit charge from one point to the other. or * Slunit of potential difference is volt (V), named after Alessandro Volta (Italy, 1745-1827). O00 OQ" Poti Ear S © CO CO CO © cow Potential EnergyELECTRIC POTENTIAEAND-POTE DIFFERENCE One volt is the potential difference between two points in a current carrying conductor when 1 joule of work is done to move 1 coulomb charge from ‘one point to other. 1 joule Therefore, 1 volt = ———— or 1V=1JC" 1 coulomb | Voltmeter: Instrument to measure potential difference. It is always connected in parallel across points between which the potential difference is to be measured. How much work is done in moving a charge of 2 C across two points having a potential difference 12 V? Sain Amount of charge Q= 2C. Potential difference V = 12 V. Amount of work W = VQ. =12Vx2C 224).CIRCUIT DIAGRAM ET (eee symbols of some arate] eel Lee) Coigal lial tele) war nunrawne, An electric cell A battery or a combination of cells Plug key or switch (open) Plug key or switch (closed) Awire joint Wires crossing without joining Electric bulb Aresistor of resistance R Variable resistance or rheostat Ammeter Voltmeter = Ae ah Sond 25 ah O- 2 SE NeneCoe AN * Set up a circuit consisting of a nichrome wire XY (0.5 m length), an ammeter, a voltmeter and four cells of 1.5 V each. (Nichrome = an alloy of Ni, Cr, Mn & Fe.) + Using one cell, note the ammeter reading | for the current and voltmeter reading V for potential difference across the nichrome wire. Repeat this using 2, 3 & 4 cells. Number |Current through | Potential vi tt Electric circuit for studying igalidinena difference al ampere) Ohm's law Tac ea wire, V (volt) wire, | (ampere) 1 0.5 15 a 2 1.0 3.0 3 3 15 45 3 4 2.0 6.0 3Cee NL CEE elect get fr stung TIT ms aw + Ineach case, V/I value is approximately the same. + V-Igraph is a straight line. Thus, V/lis a constant ratio. Lhe Cera Foe eet wire, V (volt) vi (i ampere) Number | Current through enemas wire, | (ampere) graph for a nichrome wie. gine ple shows tal 2s 1 05 15 ra ica eh aes, of eral aera 2 10 30 Y cere 3 15 4s s 20 60 iba SreeCo) EEN * In 1827, Georg Simon Ohm (Germany, 1787— 1854) found out relationship between current and the potential difference. Georg Simon Ohm Potential difference (V) across the ends of a metallic wire in an electric circuit is directly proportional to the current / flowing through it at constant temperature. It is called Ohm’s law. I Val or V/l=constant =R or V=IR or 1=V/R 001 02 03 04 05 06 Current (A) —>OHM’S LAW. + Risa constant for the given metallic wire at a given temperature and is called its resistance. It is the property of a conductor to resist the flow of charges. Its SI unit is ohm (9). * According to Ohm’s law, R= V/I r freciam) + If the potential difference is 1 Vand the current is1A,thenthe | Lohm= resistance (R) of the conductor is 1. 1 ampere * conductor having appreciable resistance is called a resistor. It is used LiL t\ to control electric current. 8 g gg g g * The current through a resistor is inversely proportional to its resistance. rT]! if the resistance is doubled the current gets halved. It has many practical bahaie applications. * Acomponent used to regulate current without changing the voltage source is called variable resistance. Rheostat is a variable resistor used to change resistance. RheostatElectrical resistance of a conductor Set up a circuit by connecting four dry cells of 1.5 s x ’ : Veach in series with the ammeter (0 —5 A range) —— leaving a gap XY in the circuit. ; Complete the circuit by connecting a nichrome wire in the gap XY. Plug the key. Note down : ammeter reading a Torch bulb Replace the nichrome wire with a torch bulb in the circuit and note down the ammeter reading. 7 Repeat this with a 10 W bulb and any material. The current is different for different components. In certain components, there is easy flow of electric current while the others resist the flow.Co) EN Electrical resistance of a conductor * Within a conductor, electrons are not completely free to move due to the attraction by atoms. So, resistance is increased and motion of electrons is retarded. * Acomponent that conducts electricity and has a : cum rows low resistance is called a good conductor. + Acomponent with a high resistance is a poor conductor. + Acomponent with very high resistance is called an insulator. It does not conduct electricity. [NO CURRENT CANFLOWFACTORS ON WHICH THE RESISTANCE OF A COND Note the ammeter reading in an electric circuit with 1. Anichrome wire of length /. Assume the reading = 1A. 2. Nichrome wire of twice the length (2/). Here, ammeter reading decreases to one-half (0.5 A). 3. A thicker (larger cross-sectional area) nichrome wire of the same length I. Here, reading is increased. If the area is doubled, reading is also doubled (2A). 4. A copper wire of same length and cross-sectional area as that of first nichrome wire. Here, reading is changed. w 7 is — _ Nichrome wire, length / = a Nichrome wire, length 2! — ne a oe Nichrome wire, thicker ay |e += ——_ Copper wire, length | Nichrome wire 1 | aFACTORS ON WHICH THE RESISTANCE OF A COND R DEPENDS + Thus, resistance of a conductor depends on 7 K [ aa. Its length ii. Its area of cross-section i _ iii, Nature of material. * Resistance of a uniform metallic conductor is directly =i |e *6)= proportional to its length (R el) and inversely proportional to the area of cross-section (R «1/A). i.e., Ll Ll R« al or R=p A —— _Nichrome wire, length + Where p (rho) is a constant of proportionality and is called electrical resistivity of the material of conductor. It is a characteristic property of the material. ———— Nichrome wire, thicker Nichrome wire, length 2/ * Sl unit of resistivity is Q m. ——— copper wire, length /N WHICH THE RESISTANCE OF ACOND R DEPENDS Resistivity of metals & alloys is very low (10-8 to 10 © m). They are good conductors of electricity. Resistivity of insulators (rubber, glass etc.) is very high (10"2 to 10°79 m). Resistance and resistivity vary with temperature. Resistivity of an alloy is generally higher than that, of its constituent metals. Alloys do not oxidise (burn) readily at high temperatures. So, they are used in electrical heating devices like electric iron, toasters etc. Tungsten is used for filaments of electric bulbs. Copper & aluminium are used for electrical transmission lines.FACTORS ON WHICH THE RESISTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR DEPENDS PO iatoriat Resistivity (cm) | silver 1.60% 10 Copper 1.62 « 10° Aluminium 2,63 «10° Tungsten 5.20 x 10° Conductors Nickel 6.84% 10 7 lon 10.0 « 10 Electrical Chromium 12.910" Pal Mercury 94,0 x 10° Manganese 1.84 x 10° Bue lle) Constantan (Cu + Ni) 49x10 at 20°C Alloys Manganin (Cu + Mn+ Ni) 44 10° Nichrome (Ni+ Cr +Mn + Fe) 100 10° Glass 10-10 Herd rubber 10-10 Insulators Ebonite aoe Dimond 10-108 Paper (dry) 102FACTORS ON WHICH THE RESISTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR DEPENDS Solution | 1 a) V=220V;R= 12000. Current, I = V/R 0 V/1200 N= 0.18 A, b) V=220V,R= 1000. Current, /= 220 V/1009=2.2 A. Thus the current drawn by an electric bulb and electric heater from same 220 V source is different. a) How much current will an electric bulb draw from a 220 V source, if the resistance of bulb filament is 1200 9? b) How much current will an electric heater draw from a 220 V source, if the resistance of heater coil is 100 0? Solution Potential difference between the terminals of an electric heater is 60 V when it draws. acurrent of 4 A from the source. What current will the heater draw if the potential difference is increased to 120 V? Potential difference V=60 V, current I= 4 A R= V/l= (60 V)/(4A) =15.9, When the potential difference is increased to 120 V Current = V/R = (120 V)/(150)=BA, i BUobOUbUODUEUAUOULUBUEDEFACTORS ON WHICH THE RESISTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR DEPENDS LEE ae) Awire of given material having length /and area of cross-section A has a resistance of 4 2. What would be the resistance of anoth wire of the same material having length 1/2 and area of cross-section 2A? Resistance of a metal wire of length 1 m is 26.0 at 20°C. If the diameter of the wire is 0.3 mm, what will be the resistivity of the metal at that temperature? Predict the material of the wire. + Resistance R of the wi * Diameter d= 0.3 mm=3x 10m For first wire: R, =p I/A=4. + Length lof the wire = 1m. y2 + Resistivity of the metallic wire, Honsecond'witerRs=@ y= Wei/4 p= (RA/I) = (Rnd?/4)) = 1.84 10° Om. ‘This is the resistivity of manganese.RESISTANGE OF A SYSTEM OF RESISTORS * In electrical gadgets, resistors are used in various combinations based on Ohm's law. + There are 2 methods of joining the resistors: Resistors in series & Resistors in parallel. K AHHH yr HH Resistors in series Resistors in parallelRESISTANCE OF A Join three resistors having resistances Ry, R, & R, (e.g. 10, 2.0, 3 0) in series. Connect them with a 6 V battery, an ammeter and a plug key. Note the ammeter reading. Change the position of ammeter in between the resistors. The value is same. i.e., ina series combination of resistors, the current is the same in every part of the circuit or the same current through each resistor.SEN ___Resintorsinseves x 8 Ry eee, | tC series combination of three resistors. Note the > Voltmeter potential difference (V). Now measure the potential | 4 1 difference across the two terminals of the battery. Compare the two values. Loa K Now measure the potential differences V,, V, and V, across the first, second and third resistors separately. | (y fO7 pO7 se oS The total potential difference V across a combination of resistors in series is equal to the sum of potential differences across the individual resistors. 7 ie., V=V, +V,+V; HHH ©) =(4)sSIS (4 AY Ug SSO Let / be the current through this electric circuit. The current through each resistor is also I. The three resistors can be replaced by an equivalent single resistor of resistance R, such that the potential difference and the current remains the same. Applying the Ohm’s law to the entire circuit, V=/R Applying Ohm’s law to the three resistors separately, V, =I Ry V, =I Ry V, =! Rs IR=IR,+1R,+1R, or Rs=R, +R, +R; When several resistors are joined in series, resistance of the combination Rs equals the sum of their individual resistances, R,, Ry, RyRIS Cs Og AU Ome SOS An electric lamp, whose resistance is 20, || a) Resistance of electric lamp, R and a conductor of 4.0 resistance are Resistance of the conductor, Rp connected to a 6 V battery. Calculate (a) the » Total resistance, R,= R, + R total resistance of the circuit, (b) the current b) Total potential difference, V = 6 V. through the circuit, and (c) the potential Current through the circuit is != V/R, difference across the electric lamp and =6V/240 conductor. ¢) Potential difference across the electric lamp: V,=200%025A =5V Potential difference across the conductor: V,=42x025A =1V Ifthe series combination of electric lamp and conductor is replaced by an equivalent resistor, its resistance would be Re V/l=6V/0.25A=240 This is equal to the sum of the two resistances.RECs OA RUS OsN=SSOee Resistors in Parallel Make a parallel combination, XY, of three resistors fr Note the ammeter reading (/) and the voltmeter reading. having resistances R,, R,, & R; in an electric circuit. ——— Connect a voltmeter in parallel with the resistors. eet y Voltmeter shows the potential difference V, across HHH the combination. The potential difference across each resistor is also V. This can be checked by connecting the voltmeter across each individual resistor. Insert the ammeter in series with the resistor R,. Note the ammeter reading, |, Similarly, measure the \__> currents J, & J, through R, & R; respectively.RESISTANCE OFA TEMOF RESISTORS AN Daa + The total current /, is equal to the sum of the separate currents through each branch. lah th tls * Let R, be the equivalent resistance of the parallel combination of resistors. Hence, I= WR, + Applying Ohm’s law to each resistor, 1=V/R, = V/R, Iz=V/Rs V/R, = V/R, + V/R, + V/R, or 1/R, = 1/R; + 1/R, + 1/R, + Thus, the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of a group of resistances joined in parallel is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances.R, =5,R; = 10 Q,and R= 30 0. Potential difference across the battery, V= 12 V. In the circuit diagram given, suppose the resistors R;, R & R; have the values 5 , 10 0, 30 0, respectively, which have been connected to a battery of 12 V. This is also the potential difference across each of the individual resistor. 2V/50=248 The current /,, through Rp = 12V/100=1.2A The current [,, through Ry = V/Rj= 12 V/300=0.4A a) The current /,, through R, Calculate (a) the current through each resistor, (b) total current in the circuit, and (c) total circuit resistance. c) The total resistance R,, is 1/R, = 1/R; + 1/Rp + 1/Ry 1/R,= 1/5 + 1/10 + 1/30 = 1/3 Thus, R, = 3.0. b) The total current in the circuit, I= [; + lp + ls =(244+12+04)A =4APORN a a WAU Om SOS If in Fig. given below, R; = 10 0, R, = 40 ,R, = 30 O, R, = 20.0, R= 60 0, anda 12 V battery is connected to the arrangement. Calculate (a) the total resistance in the circuit, and (b) the total current flowing in the circuit Cah Tages Suppose we replace the parallel resistors R, and R, by an equivalent resistor of resistance, R’. Similarly, we replace the parallel resistors R, R, and R;by an equivalent single resistor of resistance R”. 1/R, = 1/R, + 1/R, + 1/R; + 1/R'= 1/10 + 1/40 = 5/40. ie, R'=80 1/R” = 1/30 + 1/20 + 1/60 = 6/60. ie, R”= 100 Thus, the total resistance, R = R’ + R” = 18.0 The current in circuit, = V/R = 12 V/18 0 = 0.67APOR We ae WAU Om SSeS ~ The current is constant throughout the electric circuit. So, it is impracticable to connect an electric bulb and DET Ue ltd an electric heater in series, because they need Peso currents of different values. When one component fails, the circuit is broken and none of the components works. E.g. it is very difficult to locate the dead bulb in fairy lights. Series It divides the current through the electrical gadgets. Ne er ery Aa eiel Circuit & The total resistance is decreased. This is helpful when each gadget has different resistance and requires different current to operate properly. Parallel CircuitATING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT * Abattery or a cell is a source of electrical energy. It generates potential difference that sets the electrons in motion to flow the current through a resistor or a system of resistors. * Apart of the source energy may be consumed into useful work (e.g. rotation of an electric fan). Rest of the energy is lost as heat. E.g., an electric fan becomes warm if used for longer time.EATING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRE + Ifan electric circuit is purely resistive (ie. a a configuration of resistors only connected to a 8 battery), the source energy is dissipated entirely as heat. This is called heating effect of electric current. | ” * Consider a current / flowing through a resistor of resistance R. Let the potential difference across it - be Vand tis the time during which a charge Q flows 5 4h across. A steady current in a purely resistive electric circuit. + The work done in moving the charge Q through a potential difference Vis VQ. Therefore, the source must supply energy equal to VQ in time t. Hence the power input to the circuit by the source is y2- t Pp viTING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT Or the energy supplied to the circuit by the source in time tis Pt, ie., Vit. This energy is dissipated in the resistor as heat (H). Therefore, H = Vit u " Applying Ohm’s law (V=/R), H = PRE. This is called Joule’s law of heating. It implies that 7 =e heat produced in a resistor is directly proportional to () 1 > The square of current for a given resistance. Asteady current in a purely resistive electric circuit. > Resistance for a given current. > The time for which current flows through resistor. In practical situations, when an electric appliance is connected to a voltage source, Eq. H = PRt is used after calculating the current using the relation / = V/R.ATING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRE a Power input, P= VI Thus the current / = P/V An electric iron consumes energy at. || @) When heating is at the maximum rate: 1=840W/220V =3.82A Resistance of the electric iron is arate of 840 W when heating is the maximum rate and 360 W when the heating is at the minimum. The ecb aban voltage is 220 V. R=V/1=220V/3.82A = 57.600 What are the current and the b) When heating is at the minimum rate: resistance in each case? 1= 360 W/220V = 164A Resistance of the electric iron is R=V/l=220V/1.64A = 134,15 0.‘ATING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURREN EY H=100J, R=40, t=1s, V=? H=PRt 100 J of heat is produced each second in || So, the current through the resistor is a4 Qresistance. Find the potential 1=V(H/R) difference across resistor. =V[100)/(4.9«1)} =5A Thus the potential difference across the resistor is V=IR =5Ax40 =20VDue to heating effect, electrical energy is lost as heat. Also, it alters the properties of components in electric circuits. But heating effect (Joule’s heating) has many applications: mu a. To make devices such as electric laundry iron, electric toaster, electric oven, electric kettle & electric heater. Electric toaster math TI x N Electric heater Electric oven Electric kettleHEATING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT. b. To produce light in electric bulb. Here, the filament made of metals with high melting Lamp holder connection point can retain much heat. So it gets very hot and emits light. Glass bulb——} || Eg. tungsten (melting point 3380°C) is used | to make filaments. Filament should be Conducting L \ \ thermally isolated, using insulating support. wire i The bulbs are filled with chemically inactive | nitrogen and argon gases to prolong the life Tungsten of filament. Most of the power consumed by Filament the filament appears as heat, but a small FA part is radiated as light.HEATING EFFEC’ F ELECTRIC CURREN Coro eal c. To make fuse used in electric circuits. It protects circuits and appliances by stopping the overflow of electric current. The fuse is placed in series with the device. It consists of a piece of wire made of a metal or an alloy of suitable melting point (aluminium, copper, iron, lead etc.). During the overflow of the current, temperature of the fuse wire increases. It melts the fuse wire and breaks the circuit. The fuse wire is encased in a cartridge of porcelain or similar material with metal ends. 10A, etc. E.g. when an electric iron which consumes 1 kW electric power is operated at 220 V, 4.54 A current (1000/20) flows in the circuit. In this case, a 5 A fuse must be used, The fuses used for domestic purposes are rated as 1A, 2A, 3A, 5A, oxPower is the rate of doing work or rate of consumption of energy. Equation H = PRt gives the rate at which electric energy is dissipated or consumed in an electric circuit. This is also termed as electric power. The power P is given by Or =P B, The SI unit of electric power is watt (W). It is the power consumed by a device that carries 1 A of current when operated at a potential difference of 1 V. Thus, 1 W = 1 volt x 1 ampere =1VA. Watt is a very small unit. So, practically a much larger unit called kilowatt (1000 watts) is used.Electrical energy is the product of power and time. Its unit is watt hour (W h). One watt hour is the energy consumed when 1 watt of power is used for 1 hour. The commercial unit of electric energy is kilowatt hour (kW h), commonly known as ‘unit’, 1 kW h = 1000 watt x 3600 second = 3.6 x 10° watt second = 3.6 x 108 joule (J) In an electric circuit, electrons are not consumed. We pay for energy to move electrons through Energy meter electric gadgets.ELECTRIC POWER ee ese e ore An electric bulb is connected to An electric refrigerator rated 400 W operates 8 hour/ a 220 V generator. The current | day. What is the cost of the energy to operate it for 30 is 0.50 A, What is the power of the bulb? days at Rs 3.00 per kW h? PevI Total energy consumed by the refrigerator in 30 days: Daa a 400 W x 8.0 h/day x 30 days = 96000 Wh =96kWh =110J/s =110W -- cost of energy to operate the refrigerator for 30 days: 96 kW h x Rs 3.00 per kWh = Rs 288.00