Chapter 23
Continuous Charge Distributions and Gauss’ Law
Contents
Electric Flux
Gauss’s Law
Application of Gauss’s Law to Various Charge Distributions
23.2 Electric Flux
Area = A
Figure 23.5 Field line representing a uniform electric field
penetrating a plane of area A perpendicular to the field.
Figure 23.8 A closed surface in an electric field. The area
vectors are, by convention, normal to the surface and point
outward.
Electric Field of a Continuous Charge Distribution
If a charge Q is uniformly distributed throughout a volume V, the
volume charge density 𝜌 is defined by
𝑄
𝜌=
𝑉
If a charge Q is uniformly distributed on a surface of area A, the
surface charge density 𝜎 (Greek letter sigma) is defined by
𝑄
𝜎=
𝐴
If a charge Q is uniformly distributed along a line of length l, the
linear charge density 𝜆 is defined by
𝑄
𝜆=
𝑙
● If the charge is nonuniformly distributed over a volume,
surface, or line, the amounts of charge dq in a small volume,
surface, or length element are
𝑑𝑞 = 𝜌𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑞 = 𝜎𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑞 = 𝜆𝑑𝑙
Electric flux
Electric flux is proportional to the number of electric field lines
that penetrate a surface.
If the electric field is uniform and makes an angle 𝜃 with the
normal to a surface of area A, the electric flux through the surface is
Φ𝐸 = EA cos 𝜃
In general, the electric flux through a surface is
Φ𝐸 = 𝐸 𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑓𝑟𝑢𝑠. 𝑑𝐴
Karl Friedrich Gauss
1777 – 1855
Made contributions in
Electromagnetism
Number theory
Statistics
Non-Euclidean geometry
Cometary orbital mechanics
A founder of the German
Magnetic Union
Studies the Earth’s magnetic
field
Gauss’s Law, Introduction
• Gauss’s law is an expression of the general relationship between
the net electric flux through a closed surface and the charge
enclosed by the surface.
• The closed surface is often called a gaussian surface.
• Gauss’s law is of fundamental importance in the study of electric
fields.
Gauss’s Law – General
• A positive point charge, q, is
located at the center of a
sphere of radius r.
• The magnitude of the electric
field everywhere on the
surface of the sphere is
E = keq / r2
Gauss’s Law – General, cont.
• The field lines are directed radially outward and are perpendicular
to the surface at every point.
Φ𝐸 = 𝐸 ׯ. 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸 𝐴𝑑 ׯ
• This will be the net flux through the gaussian surface, the sphere
of radius r.
We know E = keq/r2 and Asphere = 4πr2,
Gauss’s Law – General, notes
• The net flux through any closed surface surrounding a point
charge, q, is given by q/εo and is independent of the shape of that
surface.
• The net electric flux through a closed surface that surrounds no
charge is zero.
• Since the electric field due to many charges is the vector sum of
the electric fields produced by the individual charges, the flux
through any closed surface can be expressed as
Gaussian Surface,
Example
Closed surfaces of various shapes
can surround the charge.
• Only S1 is spherical
Verifies the net flux through any
closed surface surrounding a point
charge q is given by q/𝜀0 and is
independent of the shape of the
surface.
Gaussian Surface,
Example 2
• The charge is outside the
closed surface with an
arbitrary shape.
• Any field line entering the
surface leaves at another
point.
• Verifies the electric flux
through a closed surface that
surrounds no charge is zero.
Gauss’s law
Gauss’s law says that the net electric flux Φ𝐸 through any closed
Gaussian surface is equal to the net charge 𝑞𝑖𝑛 inside the surface divided
by 𝜀0
𝑞𝑖𝑛
Φ𝐸 = 𝐸 ׯ. 𝑑𝐴 =
𝜀0
Where, E = the electric field at any point on the surface
𝑞𝑖𝑛 = the net charge inside the surface
𝜀0 = 8.85x10−12 𝐶 2 /N. 𝑚2
qin is the net charge inside the surface. E represents the electric field at any
point on the surface. E is the total electric field and may have contributions
from charges both inside and outside of the surface.
23.3 Gauss’s Law
Applying Gauss’s Law
• To use Gauss’s law, you want to choose a gaussian surface over
which the surface integral can be simplified and the electric field
determined.
• Take advantage of symmetry.
• Remember, the gaussian surface is a surface you choose, it does
not have to coincide with a real surface.
Conditions for a Gaussian Surface
Try to choose a surface that satisfies one or more of these conditions:
• The value of the electric field can be argued from symmetry to be
constant over the surface.
• The dot product of E .dA can be expressed as a simple algebraic
product EdA because E and dA are parallel.
• The dot product is 0 because E and dA are perpendicular.
• The field is zero over the portion of the surface.
If the charge distribution does not have sufficient symmetry such that a
gaussian surface that satisfies these conditions can be found, Gauss’ law
is not useful for determining the electric field for that charge distribution.
Field Due to a Spherically
Symmetric Charge Distribution
Select a sphere as the gaussian
surface.
For r >a
𝑞𝑖𝑛
Φ𝐸 = 𝐸 ׯ. 𝑑𝐴 =
𝜀0
Spherically Symmetric, cont.
Select a sphere as the gaussian surface, r < a.
qin < Q
qin = r (4/3πr3)
𝑞𝑖𝑛
Φ𝐸 = 𝐸 ׯ. 𝑑𝐴 =
𝜀0
Field at a Distance from a Line of Charge
Select a cylindrical charge distribution .
• The cylinder has a radius of r and a length of ℓ.
E is constant in magnitude and perpendicular to
the surface at every point on the curved part of
the surface.
Use Gauss’s law to find the field.
𝑞𝑖𝑛
Φ𝐸 = 𝐸 ׯ. 𝑑𝐴 =
𝜀0
Field Due to a Line of Charge, cont.
• The end view confirms the
field is perpendicular to the
curved surface.
• The field through the ends of
the cylinder is 0 since the
field is parallel to these
surfaces.
Field Due to a Plane of Charge
• E must be perpendicular to the plane and
must have the same magnitude at all
points equidistant from the plane.
• Choose a small cylinder whose axis is
perpendicular to the plane for the
gaussian surface.
• E is parallel to the curved surface and
there is no contribution to the surface
area from this curved part of the cylinder.
• The flux through each end of the cylinder
is EA and so the total flux is 2EA.
Field Due to a Plane of Charge, final
The total charge in the surface is σA.
Applying Gauss’s law:
Note, this does not depend on r.
Therefore, the field is uniform everywhere.
A spherical gaussian surface surrounds a point charge q. Describe
what happens to the total flux through the surface if
(A) the charge is tripled,
(B) the radius of the sphere is doubled,
(C) the surface is changed to a cube, and
(D)the charge is moved to another location inside the surface.
A. The flux through the surface is tripled because flux is
proportional to the amount of charge inside the surface.
B. The flux does not change because all electric field lines from the
charge pass through the sphere, regardless of its radius.
C. The flux does not change when the shape of the gaussian
surface changes because all electric field lines from the charge
pass through the surface, regardless of its shape.
D. The flux does not change when the charge is moved to another
location inside that surface because Gauss’s law refers to the
total charge enclosed, regardless of where the charge is located
inside the surface.