Subject : Physics (Heat)

Physics:
The branch of natural science which deals about the laws of nature.

Physics (XI)

Heat and Geometrical

Mechanics Thermodynamics optics
Electrostatics
Syllabus to study: (New)
• Heat and temperature:
molecular concept of thermal energy, heat and temperature, and cause and direction
of heat flow, thermal equilibrium and Zeroth law of thermodynamics, thermal
equilibrium as a working principle of mercury thermometer.
• Thermal Expansion:
examples and applications of thermal expansion, simple experiments, linear, superficial,
cubical expansion and d their corresponding coefficients with physical meaning,
relation between coefficients of thermal expansion, Pullinger’s method to determine
coefficient of linear expansion, force set up due to expansion and contraction,
differential expansion and its applications, variation of density with temperature, real
and apparent expansion of liquid, Dulong and Petit’s experiment to determine absolute
expansivity of liquid.
• Quantity of Heat:
heat capacity and specific heat capacity and explanation, Newton’s law of cooling,
principle of calorimetry and determination of specific heat capacity of a solid, latent
heat of substance, graph between heat and temperature, specific latent heat of fusion
and vaporization and their determination, effect of external pressure on boiling and
melting point, Difference between evaporation and boiling, triple point.
Syllabus to study: (New)
• Rate of heat flow:
transfer of heat by conduction, convection and radiation, their applications in daily life,
temperature gradient and relation with rate of heat transfer along a conductor,
coefficient of thermal conductivity and Searle's method, coefficient of reflection (r),
coefficient of transmission (t) and coefficient of absorption (a), ideal radiator and black
body radiation, Stefan’s law of black body radiation; emissive power and emissivity,
estimation apparent temperature of sun.
• Ideal gas:
pressure coefficient and volume coefficient of gas using Charles’s law and Boyle’s law,
absolute zero temperature with the support of P - V, V- T graph, ideal gas equation,
molecules, inter molecular forces, moles and Avogadro’s number, assumptions of kinetic
– molecular model of an ideal gas, pressure exerted by gas, root mean square speed of
gas and its relationship with temperature and molecular mass, Relation between
pressure and kinetic energy, average translational kinetic energy of gas for 1 molecule
and Avogadro’s number of molecules.
Welcome to the Class of Heat and Thermodynamics: Amrit Panthi
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
Importance of heat: ➢Incubation to grow birds in the eggs
➢Photosynthesis ➢Heat therapy (thermotherapy) for
clinical uses
➢Enzyme reactions
➢cooling of electronics in
➢Water cycle smartwatches, mobile phones, as well
➢Chemical reactions as computers on our desks, on planes,
➢Automobile motion trains and other means of
transportation
➢Cooking
➢And many more
➢Electricity generation from solar and
earth
➢Melting and molding of metals
➢Drying
➢ Sterilization
Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
What is heat?
Heat is a form of energy which produces in us the sensation of
hotness or cold ness.
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
Theories about heat
a. Caloric theory of heat:

Heat is an invisible, weightless and odorless fluid called as caloric.

• when some caloric is added to a body, its temperature rises and
when some caloric is removed form a body, its temperature
falls.
However, this theory fails to explain the production of heat by
friction, so this theory was replaced by dynamic theory of heat.
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
Theories about heat
b. Dynamic/molecular theory of heat:

All substances (solids, liquids and gases) are made up of molecules. These
molecules are in a state of continuous random motion.
Depending upon the temperature and nature of substance, the molecules
may posses three types of motion:
(i) Translatory motion: motion of a molecule (object) in a straight line.
(ii) Vibratory motion: to and fro motion of the molecules about their mean
positions.
(iii) Rotatory motion: the rotation of molecules about their axis. This occurs
usually at high temperature.
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
Theories about heat
b. Dynamic theory of heat:

When a body is heated, all these molecular motions (translational,

vibrational and rotational) becomes very fast.
Then the kinetic energy of a molecule due to each type of motion
increases.
Hence,
“heat is an energy of molecular motion which is equal to the sum total of
the kinetic energy possessed by the molecules of the body by virtue of
their translational, vibrational and rotational motions.”
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
More about heat:
• The energy associated with configuration and motion of the substance is known
as internal energy.
• The part of internal energy that is transferred from one body to another body
due to difference in temperature between them is called as heat.
• Heat is perceptible only when it flows from one body to another body.
• The absorption of heat energy makes a body hot while the loss of heat makes the
body cold.

Can we measure absolute content of heat on a body?

➢The absolute content of heat of the body can not be measured, but,
➢The heat absorbed or released by a body can be measured.
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
More about heat:

Are the expression “heat in a body” or “heat of the body” meaningful?

➢These expressions are meaningless.

• The word “HEAT” is meaningful only when energy is being transferred.

Thus heat energy can be defined as:

“Heat is the energy in the transit that flows from one body to another body due
to the difference in temperature between them”
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
Unit of heat:
SI Unit:
➢The SI unit of Heat is Joule (J), which is same as that of energy in Mechanics.

CGS Unit:
➢The CGS unit of heat is Calorie (Cal).
• One Calorie:
One calorie is defined as the amount of heat energy required to raise the
temperature of 1 gram of water through 10C (from 14.5 0C to 15.5 0C).
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
Effect of heat:
1. Change in temperature:
• When a body is heated, its temperature changes.
Note: At the time of phase change or state change, the temperature remains constant
when heat is supplied continuously.
2. Change in volume:
• On heating a substance, it starts to expand due to which we found the volume of the
substance to be increased.
3. Change in State of matter:
• When a solid substance is heated continuously, it converts into liquid and on further
heating it is found to be converted into the gas. So the heat can change the state of
matter.
4. Change in physical and chemical properties:
• When the substance is heated the physical and chemical properties of the substance
change.
Physical change: ice converted into water. Chemical change: paper converted into ash
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
Temperature:
• Temperature is the measure of degree of hotness or coldness of a body.
• Temperature is measured by using instrument called as thermometer.

High temperature and low temperature

 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
• Temperature:
If a body appears hot, it is said to be at higher temperature and if a body appears
cold the body is said to be at lower temperature.
• When two bodies are placed in contact the
heat flows from a body at higher
temperature to a body at lower temperature.
• The flow of heat continues until both of them
will be equally hot (Or will be at same
temperature.)
• After this the flow of heat stops and the state
of bodies is called as thermal equilibrium.
Temperature is the thermal state of the body which decides the direction of
flow of heat energy from one body to another when they are placed in
thermal contact with each other.
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
More about temperature:
• If two bodies are in a state of thermal equilibrium, then there is not any flow of
heat between them and they will have same temperature.
• Thus the temperature is the physical quantity which determines whether a
body is in thermal equilibrium with another body or not.
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
Kinetic interpretation /molecular
theory of temperature:
• Temperature of a body depends
upon the kinetic energy of the
molecules of the body.
• The temperature of a body is the
average kinetic energy of its
molecules.
• When a body is heated, its
molecules move faster and their
average kinetic energy increases and
this increases the temperature of the
body.
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
Difference between heat and temperature:
Heat Temperature
1. Heat is a form of energy which produces 1. Temperature is the measure of degree of
in us the sensation of hotness or coldness. hotness or coldness.

2. It is a cause, when heat is supplied to a

2. Temperature is effect of heat.
body its temperature increases.
3. It represents the total kinetic energy of 3. It represents the average kinetic energy
the molecules of the body. of molecules of the body.
4. Heat flows from high temperature side to
low temperature side, irrespective of the 4. It represents the direction of flow of
amount of heat possessed by the heat from one body to another.
substance.
5. It is measured in cal, Kcal, and in Joule. 5. It is measured in 0C or 0F or in Kelvin
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
Thermal equilibrium
The condition of equality in temperature between two bodies when the bodies are
kept in thermal contact with each other is called as thermal equilibrium.
OR
The state of being equality in temperature between two objects is known as
thermal equilibrium.
OR
The two substances are said to be in thermal equilibrium with each other if there is
not any flow of heat energy between them when brought in contact with each
other.
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
Thermal equilibrium
The concept of thermal equilibrium is applied in the measurement of
temperature.
• Since temperature is measured by thermometer, let’s say (mercury
thermometer).
• Actually, thermometer shows the temperature of mercury.
• However, the temperature shown by thermometer is equal to the
temperature of the body which is being measured.
• It is because, the body and the mercury inside the thermometer are in
thermal equilibrium.

Q. A student claims that “thermometers are useless because they record

their own temperature”. How will you comment in his statement?
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
• Thermal equilibrium:
• Misconception Alert: Human Perception vs. Reality
• On a cold winter morning, the wood on a porch feels warmer than the metal of
your bike. The wood and bicycle are in thermal equilibrium with the outside air,
and are thus the same temperature. They feel different because of the difference
in the way that they conduct heat away from your skin. The metal conducts heat
away from your body faster than the wood does. This is just one example
demonstrating that the human sense of hot and cold is not determined by
temperature alone.
• Another factor that affects our perception of temperature is humidity. Most
people feel much hotter on hot, humid days than on hot, dry days. This is
because on humid days, sweat does not evaporate from the skin as efficiently as
it does on dry days. It is the evaporation of sweat (or water from a sprinkler or
pool) that cools us off.
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
Zeroth law of thermodynamics
Statement:
“If two thermodynamic systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third one,
then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.”
Since body A and C are in thermal contact and so they
must be in thermal equilibrium. 𝐴 , (𝑇𝐴 ) 𝐵 , (𝑇𝐵 )
Then we will have,
𝑇𝐴 = 𝑇𝐶 … … … (1)
Also the body B and C are in thermal contact and so they
must be in thermal equilibrium, then we will have: 𝐶, (𝑇𝐶 )
𝑇𝐵 = 𝑇𝐶 … … … (2)

From equation (1) & (2), we can write, 𝑇𝐴 = 𝑇𝐵

i.e. bodies A and B are also in thermal equilibrium.
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
Thermometry:
• It is the branch of physics in which we study about the temperature and its measurements.
• Thermometer is the instrument which is used to measure temperature.
Essential requirement to prepare a thermometer:
(i) construction:
For the construction of thermometer, the proper choice of substance whose certain physical
properties varies with temperature is essential.
The physical properties such as volume, pressure, resistance etc. may vary with change in
temperature.
(ii) calibration:
The phenomenon of providing scale to a newly constructed thermometer to measure the
temperature of the body is known as calibration of thermometer.
For calibration, at least two fixed points are required. Namely, lower fixed point (LFP) and upper
fixed point (UFP).
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
Essential requirement to prepare a thermometer:contd:
(a) Lower fixed point:
The temperature at which pure ice melts under standard atmospheric pressure is LFP.
(b) Upper fixed point:
The temperature at which pure water boils under standard atmospheric pressure is UFP.
How the LFP and UFP are determined for a thermometer?
(iii) sensitiveness:
Once a thermometer is constructed, it must be sensitive. The thermometer is sensitive if:
(a) it can measure the small change in temperature.
(b) it can measure the temperature in short interval of time.
(c) it does not loose or gain heat from the body whose temperature is going to be
measured.
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
Temperature Scales:

Scale LFP (VALUE) UFP (VALUE) No. of divisions Value of 1 division

1. Centigrade Scale 0 100 100 10 𝐶

2. Fahrenheit Scale 32 212 180 10 𝐹

3. Kelvin Scale 273 373 100 1𝐾

4. Reaumer Scale 0 80 80 10 𝑅

Q. Which scale of thermometer is more sensitive: Fahrenheit or Celsius?

 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
Relation between different temperature scales:
For Celsius scale: 0C 0F K 0R
X
𝐶 − 𝐿𝐹𝑃 𝐶−0
=
𝑈𝐹𝑃 − 𝐿𝐹𝑃 100 − 0
For Fahrenheit scale: 1000C 2120F 373 K 800R UFP
𝐹 − 𝐿𝐹𝑃 𝐹 − 32 UFP
=
𝑈𝐹𝑃 − 𝐿𝐹𝑃 212 − 32
For Kelvin scale: R
C F K X
𝐾 − 𝐿𝐹𝑃
=
𝐾 − 273 M
𝑈𝐹𝑃 − 𝐿𝐹𝑃 373 − 273
For Reaumer scale:
𝑅 − 𝐿𝐹𝑃 𝑅−0
=
𝑈𝐹𝑃 − 𝐿𝐹𝑃 80 − 0
For Arbitrary scale X: 320F LFP
00C 273 K 00R
𝑋 − 𝐿𝐹𝑃 𝑋 − 𝐿𝐹𝑃 LFP
=
𝑈𝐹𝑃 − 𝐿𝐹𝑃 𝑈𝐹𝑃 − 𝐿𝐹𝑃
Since all four ratios must be equal so ,

𝑪−𝟎 𝑭 − 𝟑𝟐 𝑲 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝑹−𝟎 𝑿 − 𝑳𝑭𝑷

= = = =
𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝟎 𝟐𝟏𝟐 − 𝟑𝟐 𝟑𝟕𝟑 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝟖𝟎 − 𝟎 𝑼𝑭𝑷 − 𝑳𝑭𝑷
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
Absolute Zero (temperature):
• Absolute zero is the lowest
possible temperature where nothing could be
colder, and no heat energy remains in a substance.
• Absolute zero is the point at which the
fundamental particles of nature have minimal
vibrational motion, retaining only quantum
mechanical, zero-point energy-induced particle P
motion.
• By international agreement, absolute zero is
defined as precisely; 0 K on the Kelvin scale, which
−273.150 𝐶 𝜃 (0 𝐶)
is a thermodynamic (absolute) temperature scale;
and –273.15 degrees Celsius on the Celsius scale.
• At absolute zero since almost molecular motion
stops, therefore, the volume and pressure due to
gas will be zero.
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
Types of thermometer:
Depending upon the nature of thermometric substance, there are various types of
thermometers, some of them are described below:
1. Liquid thermometer:
• These thermometers use liquid as a thermometric substance.
• Mercury and alcohol are such liquids that are used as thermometric substance.
• The physical property that changes with temperature in these liquids is their “volume”.
Reason for using mercury as a thermometric liquid:
• It has low specific heat capacity.
• Its expansion is uniform.
• It has high b.p.(357 °C) and low m.p.(-39°C).
• It is opaque and shining.
• It does not stick to the sides of the glass.
• It exerts very low vapor pressure.
• It is a good conductor of heat.
• It is easily available in pure state.
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
Types of thermometer:
Reason for using alcohol as a thermometric liquid:
• Its freezing point is below -100°C {-115 0 C} and hence can record very low
temperatures. It’s boiling point is 78 0C.
• Its expansion per degree centigrade rise in temperature is very large hence, very
sensitive thermometers can be made with it.
• It can be colored brightly and hence, is easily visible.
Note:
Clinical thermometer is also a liquid thermometer. The calibration of this
thermometer is confined within the temperature range of human body. Although
human being is hot blooded (constant blood temperature), sometimes blood
temperature fluctuates and causes abnormality. The typical range of a clinical
thermometer for human use ranges from 35 0C to 42 0C or 95 0F to 110 0F.
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
Types of thermometer:
(2) Resistance thermometer:
• Resistance temperature depends on the principle that, the resistance of a
substance changes with temperature when current is flowing through it.
Resistance thermometers are designed to measure temperature between
-250 0C to 1200 0C.
(3) Gas thermometer:
• The thermometric substance used in this type of thermometer is in a gaseous
state. It is based on the principle that for the constant volume the pressure of
gas depends upon the temperature. The range of gas thermometer is between
-268 0C to 1600 0C.
• Gas thermometer is more sensitive than liquid thermometer because the
expansivity of gas is more than that of liquid so that gas thermometer can
measure small changes in temperature.
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
Types of thermometer:
(4) Magnetic thermometer:
• The thermometric substance used in this type of thermometer is a magnetic
substance. Certain magnetic properties depends on the temperature of the
substance.
• These thermometers are used to measure very low temperatures (below 1 K).
(5) Radiation thermometer:
• These thermometers are based on the quantity heat radiation emitted from a
body. These are called as pyrometers. High temperature can be measured by
using them. Their range is up to 104 K
(6) Vapor pressure thermometer:
• These thermometers are based on the principle that vapor pressure changes
with change in temperature. These are used to measure low temperature. Eg.
Helium vapor pressure thermometer. Their range is about 0.71 K to 120 K
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
Types of thermometer:
(7) Thermoelectric thermometer:
• This type of thermometers notices the difference between hot and cold
junctions through the current in the attached probes. This is the very sensitive
model that can provide accurate temperature results between -250 0C to 1600
0C.
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
Short questions discussion:
(1) Why does heat flows form a body at higher temperature to a body at lower
temperature?
➢The average kinetic energy per molecule in the body having higher
temperature is greater than that in the body having lower temperature.
➢Molecules with more kinetic energy that are in contact with molecules having
less kinetic energy transfer some of their excess energy to the less energetic
ones.
➢The direction of energy transfer is form hot to cold.
➢Hence we can say that heat flows from a body at higher temperature to a
body at lower temperature.
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
Short questions discussion:
(2) What is the temperature of vacuum?
➢ Vacuum is the space where there are no atoms or molecules, no electrons or
protons, no material substance.
➢Hence we apparently can not assign temperature of vacuum.
➢In face, vacuum is filled with radiation which occupies a volume and can exert
pressure (momentum) and possesses energy.
➢The radiations consists of particles (quanta) of light called photons.
➢These photons may be in thermodynamical equilibrium with their
surroundings and we can assign a temperature.
➢The space between the stars, galaxies are filled with background radiation
(originated during big bang)
➢The temperature of this background radiation which fills up the space of the
universe is 3 K.
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
Short questions discussion:
(3) What is the difference between degree Celsius and Celsius degree?
➢ Degree Celsius:
• The temperature is measured in degree Celsius.
• By measuring the temperature of a body as 24 0C, it means the body has a temperature
of 24 0C
• 1°C = 33.8°F
➢Celsius degree:
• The difference in temperature is assigned as Celsius degree.
• By determining the temperature as 24 Celsius degree, it means the temperature of a
body has changed by 24 0C.
• If the body temperature increases from 12 0C to 36 0C, then it is 24 C0
• 1C° = 1.8F°
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
Short questions discussion:
(4) Two thermometers are constructed in the same way except that one has a
spherical bulb and the other has an elongated cylindrical bulb. Which one will
respond faster to temperature changes?
➢ For the same volume, the sphere has least surface area.
➢Therefore, a cylindrical surface has a greater surface area than spherical
surface of the same volume. This makes more surface area in contact with
the body.
➢This is the reason that the thermometer with the elongated bulb will
respond to temperature changes more quickly than the one which has a
spherical bulb.
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
Short questions discussion:
(5) How could you determine whether two bodies have the same temperature if
it is impossible to put them in contact with each other?
➢For this we choose a third body such as thermometer.
➢The third body i.e. thermometer is kept in contact with both of them
separately.
➢If the third body is in thermal equilibrium with both of them separately,
then according to zeroth law of thermodynamic, these two bodies are in
thermal equilibrium and have the same temperature.
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
Short questions discussion:
(6) A student claimed that thermometer is useless because a thermometer always register its
own temperature. How would you respond?
➢When two bodies at different temperature are brought in thermal contact with each
other, the heat flows from hot body to cold body until both of them attain the same
temperature or until they will be in thermal equilibrium. So,
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑜𝑟, 𝑚𝑏 𝑠𝑏 Δ𝜃 𝑏 = 𝑚 𝑇 𝑠𝑇 Δ𝜃 𝑇
Δ𝜃 𝑏 𝑚 𝑇 𝑠𝑇
∴ =
Δ𝜃 𝑇 𝑚𝑏 𝑠𝑏
Since, 𝑚 𝑇 𝑠𝑇 ≪ 𝑚𝑏 𝑠𝑏 ∵ 𝑚𝑏 > 𝑚 𝑇 ,
Δ𝜃 𝑏
∴ ≪ 1 𝑖. 𝑒. Δ𝜃 𝑏 ≪ Δ𝜃 𝑇
Δ𝜃 𝑇
i.e. the change in temperature of body is very small in comparison with change in
temperature of thermometer.
Thus the thermometer registers almost the original temperature of the body.
However, if the mass of the thermometer is comparable to the mass of the body. Then
the original temperature of the body is not measured by thermometer.
Overall, the thermometer measures that temperature at which body and thermometer
are in thermal equilibrium.
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
Short questions discussion:
(7) The temperature of furnace is 2000 0C. What is this temperature on Kelvin Scale and
0F scale?

➢Given,
Temperature of furnace in Celsius Scale (C) = 2000 0C
(i) Temperature in Kelvin Scale (K) = ?
(ii) Temperature in Fahrenheit Scale (F) = ?
We know,
𝐶−0 𝐹−32 𝐾−273 𝐶−0 𝐹−32
Since, = = (ii) =
100−0 212−32 373−273 100−0 212−32
𝐶 𝐹−32
𝐶−0 𝐾−273 Or, =
100 180
(i) = 𝐶 𝐹−32
100−0 373−273
Or, =
5 9
𝐶 𝐾−273 Or, 9𝐶 = 5(𝐹 − 32)
Or, =
100 100
Or, 2000 = 𝐾 − 273 Or, 9 × 2000 = 5(𝐹 − 32)
Or, 𝐾 = 2000 + 273 = 2273 𝐾 Or, 3600 = 𝐹 − 32
Or, 𝐹 = 3632 0 𝐹
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
Short questions discussion:
(8)At what point of thermometric scale does Kelvin scale reading coincides with
Fahrenheit scale reading?
➢Let x be the point at which Fahrenheit and Kelvin scale reading coincide i.e.
𝐹=𝐾=𝑥
𝐹 − 32 𝐾 − 273
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, =
212 − 32 373 − 273
𝑥 − 32 𝐾 − 273
∴ =
180 100
𝑥 − 32 𝑥 − 273
𝑂𝑟, =
9 5
𝑂𝑟, 𝑥 = 574.25
∴ 574.25 𝐾 = 574.25 0 𝐹
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
Short questions discussion:
(9) At what temperature do the Fahrenheit thermometer and Celsius
thermometer show same reading?
➢Let x be the point at which Fahrenheit and Celsius thermometer show the same
reading. i.e.
𝐹=𝐶=𝑥
𝐹 − 32 𝐶−0
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, =
212 − 32 100 − 0
𝑥 − 32 𝑥
∴ =
180 100
𝑥 − 32 𝑥
𝑂𝑟, =
9 5
𝑂𝑟, 𝑥 = −40
∴ −40 0 𝐹 = −40 0 𝐶
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
Short questions discussion:
(10) At what temperature will the Celsius scale reading double the Fahrenheit scale
reading?
➢Let x be the temperature shown by Fahrenheit Scale then, 𝐹 = 𝑥
Then, according to the question,
𝐶 = 2𝑥
𝐹 − 32 𝐶−0
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, =
212 − 32 100 − 0
𝑥 − 32 2𝑥
∴ =
180 100
𝑥 − 32 2𝑥
𝑂𝑟, =
9 5
𝑂𝑟, 𝑥 = −12.30
It means at -24.60 0C, Celsius scale reading is double than Fahrenheit scale reading.
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
Short questions discussion:
(11) Calculate the temperature on the Kelvin Scale whose value is twice the
reading on the Celsius scale?
➢Let x be the temperature on Celsius Scale then, 𝐶 = 𝑥
Then, according to the question,
𝐾 = 2𝑥
𝐾 − 273 𝐶−0
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, =
373 − 273 100 − 0
2𝑥 − 273 𝑥
∴ =
100 100

𝑂𝑟, 2𝑥 − 273 = 𝑥
𝑂𝑟, 𝑥 = 273
It means at 546 K , Kelvin scale reading is double than Celsius scale reading.
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
Short questions discussion:
(12) What was the change in Celsius degree if it is changed from 44 0F to -56 0F?

𝐶−0 𝐹−32
➢Since, = According to question, Δ𝐹 =
100−0 212−32
𝐶1 𝐹1 −32 44 − −56 = 100 0 𝐹
Then, = … … … (1)
100 180 Therefore change in Celsius degree is
𝐶2 𝐹2 −32
and, = … … … (2) calculated as,
100 180 Δ𝐶 100
Subtracting (2) from (1), we get, =
5 9
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐹1 −32 𝐹2 −32 100×5
− = − Or, Δ𝐶 = = 55.6 0 𝐶
100 100 180 180 9
𝐶1 −𝐶2 𝐹1 −𝐹2
Or, =
100 180
Δ𝐶 Δ𝐹
Or, =
5 9
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
Short questions discussion:
(13) The distance between UFP and LFP is 80 cm. Find the temperature on the
Celsius Scale if the mercury level rises to a height of 10.4 cm above the lower
fixed point?
➢Here, for arbitrary scale,
𝑈𝐹𝑃 − 𝐿𝐹𝑃 = 80 𝑐𝑚
𝑋 − 𝐿𝐹𝑃 = 10.4 𝑐𝑚
Temperature on Celsius scale (C)=?
Since,
𝐶−0 𝑋−𝐿𝐹𝑃
=
100−0 𝑈𝐹𝑃−𝐿𝐹𝑃
𝐶 10.4
Or, =
100 80
10.4
Or, 𝐶= × 100 = 13 0 𝐶
80
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
Short questions discussion:
A platinum resistance thermometer reads 0 0C, When bold italic cap R equals bold 8 bold 0 , bold cap omega and 100 0C, when 𝑹=𝟗𝟎 𝛀 .

(14)A platinum resistance thermometer reads 0 0C, When 𝑹 = 𝟖𝟎 𝛀 and 100 0C, when
𝑹 = 𝟗𝟎 𝛀. Find the temperature of the platinum scale at which 𝑹 = 𝟖𝟔 𝛀?
bold italic cap R equals bold 9 bold 0 , bold cap omega . Find the temperature of the platinum scale at which bold italic cap R equals bold 8 bold 6 , bold cap omega ?

(15) If a centigrade thermometer reads 370 when a standard Fahrenheit thermometer

reads 1000. What is the error in the Centigrade thermometer?
(16)A 0C and a 0F thermometer are placed in hot water. The water is then cooled. What
fall in temperature will the Fahrenheit thermometer register when the centigrade
thermometer records the fall in temperature as 450?
(17)A faulty thermometer reads - 2 0C in melting ice and 102 0C in steam at normal
pressure.
(a)What is the correct temperature when the faulty thermometer reads 20 0C?
(b) What the faulty thermometer read when the correct temperature is 20 0C?
(c) At what temperature is its reading exactly correct?
(18) Two thermometers one Celsius and other Fahrenheit are put in a hot bath. The
reading on Fahrenheit scale is just three times the reading on the Celsius
thermometer. What is the temperature of the bath?
 Chapter 1: Temperature and Heat.
Joule’s Mechanical Equivalent of heat:
▪ From experiment Joule’s established a relation between the work done and heat.
▪ Joule showed that ‘Whenever a given amount of work (W) is converted into heat,
always the same amount of heat (Q) is produced.
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑊 ∝ 𝑄
𝑂𝑟, 𝑊 = 𝐽𝑄
Where J is proportionality constant, called as Joule’s Mechanical Equivalent of heat.
𝑊
𝐽=
𝑄
𝐼𝑓 𝑄 = 1 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐽 = 𝑊
Now, Joules Mechanical equivalent of heat is defined as:
“It is the amount of work that must be done in order to produce a unit quantity of heat.”
Further, 𝐽 = 4.186 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑒 hence 1 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑒 = 4.186 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 ≈ 4.2 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
NOTE: J is just a conversion factor and it is not a physical quantity.