Sci 104 (Inorganic Chemistry)

CHAPTER II
ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND THE PERIODIC TABLE

Mark Angelo M. Bayhon

Janine Rose M. Aninacion
Michelle Mae M. Carcole Dr. Maria Sheila Simon
SCI 1A, Reporters Course Facilitator

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the chapter, you will be able to:
1. Described the structure of the different models of an atom.
2. Differentiated atomic from mass number and solved problems in
relation to this.
3. Defined and compared isotopes and determined atomic masses of
isotopes of elements.
4. Written the set of quantum numbers of electrons in an atom.
5. Written the electron configuration of an element and related it to its
properties and position in the periodic table.
6. Explained the periodic trends and properties of elements and why they
react.

Indicative Content:
I. Structure of an Atom
II. Atomic and Mass Number
III. Isotopes and Atomic Masses
IV. The Periodic Law and the Periodic Table
V. Quantum Mechanical Model of an Atom
VI. Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table
VII. Periodic Trends and Properties
A. Sizes of Atoms and Ions
B. Ionization Energy
C. Electron Affinities
D. Metals, Non-metals, and Metalloids

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I. Structure of an Atom

Atom was discovered by John Dalton. He proposed the famous

atomic theory in 1807. Atoms are fundamental unit of matter. The
existence of different kinds of matter is due to different atoms
constituting them. A major challenge before the scientists at the end
of the 19th century was to reveal the structure of the atom as well as
to explain its important properties. Many scientists worked hard and
proposed many models for the atom, here we are going to learn about
the structure of an atom.
Structure of an Atom are the discovery of the two fundamental particles (electrons and
protons) inside the atoms led to the failure of the aspect of Dalton’s atomic theory. For
explaining the arrangement of electrons and protons in an atom, many scientists
proposed various atomic models.

What is an Atom?
Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass. All matter is made of atoms.
Atoms are the building blocks of matter, sort of how bricks are the building blocks of
houses.

Atomic Theory
John Dalton (1776-1884)
English chemist John Dalton proposed that atoms are indivisible
and indestructible. He also stated that all atoms of an element are
identical, but atoms of different elements differ in size and mass
 All matter is made up of atoms.
 Atoms of an element are identical.
 Each element has different atoms.
 Atoms can engage in a chemical reactions.
 Atoms can neither be created nor be destroyed.
 Atoms are indivisible.

Thomson's Plum Pudding Model

In 1897, the English scientist [Link] provided the first hint that an atom
is made of even smaller particles.
Thomson Model
 He proposed a model of the atom that is sometimes called the "Plum Pudding"
model.
 Atoms were made from a positively charged sphere with negatively charged
electrons embedded in it, like raisins in a pudding.

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 The negative and positive charges are equal in magnitude. So, the atom as a
whole is electrically stable.
Thomson's Experiment and Discovery of Electrons
 Passing an electric current makes a beam appear to
move from the negative to the positive end.
 By adding an electric field he found that the moving
pieces were negative. He called these moving pieces
"electron"
 The electron was discovered in 1897 by Thomson. He imagined the atom as a
"raisin pudding" with electrons stuck in a cake of positive charge.

Discovery of Protons
Eugene Goldstein noted streams of positively charged particles in
cathode rays in 1886.
 Particles move in opposite direction of cathode rays.
 Called "Canal Rays" because they passed through holes (channels
or canals) drilled through the negative electrode.
 Canal rays must be positive. Goldstein postulated the existence of a positive
fundamental particle called the "proton".

Discovery of Neutrons
In 1932, James Chadwick discovered another subatomic particle
which had no charge and a mass nearly equal to that of a proton. It was
eventually named as neutron. Neutrons are present in the nucleus of all
atoms, except hydrogen. In general, a neutron is represented as 'n'. The
mass of an atom is therefore given by the sum of the masses of protons
and neutrons present in the nucleus.

Rutherford's Gold Foil Experiment

In 1908, the English physicist Ernest Rutherford was hard
at work on an experiment that seemed to have little to do with
unravelling the mysteries of the atomic structure.

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 Rutherford's experiment Involved firing a stream of tiny

positively charged alpha (α) particles at a thin sheet of gold
foil.
 The expected result was that the a- particles would be
deflected by the sub- atomic particles in gold atoms. Since
a - particles were much heavier than protons, he did not
expect to see larger deflections.

What Was the Unexpected Result?

 Most of the positively charged "bullets" passed right through
the gold atoms in the sheet of gold foil without changing
course at all.
 Some of the positively charged "bullets," however, did
bounce away from the gold sheet as if they had hit
something solid. He knew that positive charges repel
positive charges.
 This could only mean that the gold atoms in the sheet were
mostly open space. Atoms were not a pudding filled with a positively
charged material.
 Rutherford concluded that an atom had a small, dense, positively
charged center that repelled his positively charged "bullets."
 He called the center of the atom the "nucleus"
 The nucleus is tiny compared to the atom as a whole.

Rutherford's Postulates
Rutherford reasoned that all of an atom's positively charged
particles were contained in the nucleus. The negatively charged particles
were scattered outside the nucleus around the atom's edge.

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Bohr's Model
In 1913, the Danish scientist Niels Bohr proposed an improvement.
In his model, he placed each electron in a specific energy level. Following
Rutherford's planetary model of the atom, it was realized that the attraction
between the electrons and the protons should make the atom unstable Bohr
proposed a model in which the electrons would stably occupy fixed orbits,
as long as these orbits had special discrete locations.

Bohr's Model of the Atom

The special orbits known as discrete orbits of electron are
allowed inside an atom. These orbits or shells are
represented by the letters K, L, M, N. The numbers, n=1,
2, 3, 4…

Key aspects of Bohr's model

• Electrons move around the nucleus at stable orbits without emitting radiation.
• Electron in one of these stable orbit has a definite energy.
• Energy is radiated only when electrons make transitions from high energy orbit to a
low energy orbit.

What is in the structure of an atom?

 Nucleus - center of the atom
 Home of Protons and Neutrons
 Has a positive charge
 Proton
 Has a relative mass of 1u
 Has a positive (+) charge
 Determines the atomic number
 Found inside the nucleus

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What is in the structure of an atom?

 Neutron
 Has no (0) charge
 Has a relative mass of 1u
 Found inside the nucleus

What is in the structure of an atom?

 Electron
 Has a negative (-) charge
 Found outside the nucleus
 Rutherford atom model - electrons are around the nucleus
 Bohr model – electrons are in specific energy levels called shells

How are p, n, e related?

 No. protons = No. electrons
 No. protons = atomic number
 No. protons + No. neutrons = mass number
 No. neutrons= mass no. - atomic no.

II. Atomic and Mass Number

The atomic number (represented by the letter Z) of an element is the number of

protons in the nucleus of each atom of that element. An atom can be classified as a
particular element based solely on its atomic number.
 Atomic number is the number of Protons in an atom.
 All atoms of a particular element have the SAME number of protons (All
Carbon atoms have 6 protons).
 In a neutral atom, the atomic number =the number of electrons.
 The number of protons in an atom is referred to as its Atomic Number.
 It is denoted by the letter 'Z'.
 Elements are defined by the number of protons they possess.
 The atomic number of hydrogen is 1.

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Mass Number
The mass number (represented by the letter A) is defined
as the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom.
 Also called atomic weight or Mass Number.
 Sum weight of protons and neutrons in an atom.
 The mass of an atom resides in its nucleus. The mass
of an atom is practically due to protons and neutrons alone.
 Therefore, Mass Number of an atom is the sum of neutrons and protons present
in the nucleus of an atom.
 For hydrogen, its mass number is 1u.

III. Isotopes and Atomic Masses

What are Isotopes?

 Two atoms are isotopes if they have the same number of protons, but they
have different numbers of neutrons.
This means that:
 Isotopes are atoms of the same element.
 Isotopes have different atomic masses.
 lsotopes have different number of neutrons in their nuclei.

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Isotopic Abundance (% Abundance)

A sample of magnesium is a mixture of the three isotopes of magnesium. Each
isotope is a fraction of the mixture, and has its own isotopic abundance (expressed as a
percentage of the whole). The isotopic abundance is fixed so that every sample of the
element (in the universe) has the same proportions of the isotopes.

Isotopic Abundance
A sample of magnesium is a mixture of three isotopes, present as:
 79% 24Mg (or Mg-24)
 10% 25Mg (or Mg-25)
 11% 26Mg (or Mg-26)

Average Atomic Mass and Isotope Abundance

 The Average Atomic Mass seen on the Periodic Table is a weighted average of
all of the isotope masses.
 The weighted average takes into account the isotope masses and their percent
abundances.
 In a weighted average calculation, the isotope with the greatest % abundance
has the biggest influence on the average atomic mass.

Average Atomic Mass

 The average atomic mass is a weighted average of all the isotope masses for a
particular element.
 When you calculate average atomic mass, you need three pieces of information:
- The number of isotopes
- The masses of each isotope
- The % abundance of each isotope

 The average atomic mass for carbon on the Periodic table is 12.01 amu.
This means:
 Carbon has more than one isotope;
 One of carbon's isotopes has a mass of 12, another is greater than 12;
 The most abundant isotope is Carbon-12.

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IV. The Periodic Law and the Periodic Table

In 1804 physicist John Dalton advanced the atomic theory of matter, helping
scientists determine the mass of the known elements. Around the same time, two
chemists Sir Humphry Davy and Michael Faraday developed electrochemistry which
aided in the discovery of new elements. By 1829, chemist Johann Wolfgang Doberiner
observed that certain elements with similar properties occur in group of three such as;
chlorine, bromine, iodine; calcium, strontium, and barium; sulfur, selenium, tellurium;
iron, cobalt, manganese. However, at the time of this discovery too few elements had
been discovered and there was confusion between molecular weight and atomic
weights; therefore, chemists never really understood the significance of Doberiner's
triad.

In 1859 two physicists Robert Willhem Bunsen and Gustav Robert Kirchoff
discovered spectroscopy which allowed for discovery of many new elements. This gave
scientists the tools to reveal the relationships between elements. Thus in 1864, chemist
John A. R Newland arranged the elements in increasing of atomic weights. Explaining
that a given set of properties reoccurs every eight place, he named it the law of Octaves.

The Periodic Law

The periodic law was developed independently by Dmitri Mendeleev and Lothar
Meyer in 1869. Mendeleev created the first periodic table and was shortly followed by
Meyer. They both arranged the elements by their mass and proposed that certain
properties periodically reoccur. Meyer formed his periodic law based on the atomic
volume or molar volume, which is the atomic mass divided by the density in solid form.
Mendeleev's table is noteworthy because it exhibits mostly accurate values for atomic
mass and it also contains blank spaces for unknown elements.

In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev and Lothar Meyer individually came up with their own
periodic law "when the elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic mass,
certain sets of properties recur periodically." Meyer based his laws on the atomic
volume (the atomic mass of an element divided by the density of its solid form), this
property is called Molar volume.

Atomic (molar) volume (cm3/mol)= molar mass (g/ mol)ρ (cm3/g)Atomic (molar)
volume (cm3/mol)= molar mass (g/ mol)ρ (cm3/g)

Mendeleev's Periodic Table

Mendeleev's periodic table is an arrangement of the
elements that group similar elements together. He
left blank spaces for the undiscovered elements
(atomic masses, element: 44, scandium; 68,
gallium; 72, germanium; & 100, technetium) so that
certain elements can be grouped together. However,
Mendeleev had not predicted the noble gases, so no
spots were left for them.

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EXAMPLE

The alkali metals (Mendeleev's group I) have high molar volumes and they also have
low melting points which decrease in the order:

Li (174 oC) > Na (97.8 oC) > K (63.7 oC) > Rb (38.9 oC) > Cs (28.5 oC)

Atomic Number as the Basis for the Periodic Law

Assuming there were errors in atomic masses, Mendeleev placed certain elements not
in order of increasing atomic mass so that they could fit into the proper groups (similar
elements have similar properties) of his periodic table. An example of this was with
argon (atomic mass 39.9), which was put in front of potassium (atomic mass 39.1).
Elements were placed into groups that expressed similar chemical behavior.

In 1913 Henry G.J. Moseley did researched the X-Ray spectra of the elements and
suggested that the energies of electron orbitals depend on the nuclear charge and the
nuclear charges of atoms in the target, which is also known as anode, dictate the
frequencies of emitted X-Rays. Moseley was able to tie the X-Ray frequencies to
numbers equal to the nuclear charges, therefore showing the placement of the elements
in Mendeleev's periodic table. The equation he used:

ν=A(Z−b)2ν=A(Z−b)2

With:

 νν: X-Ray frequency

 ZZ: Atomic Number
 AA and bb: constants

With Moseley's contribution the Periodic Law can be restated:

“Similar properties recur periodically when elements are arranged according to

increasing atomic number."

Atomic numbers, not weights, determine the factor of chemical properties. As

mentioned before, argon weights more than potassium (39.9 vs. 39.1, respectively), yet
argon is in front of potassium. Thus, we can see that elements are arranged based on
their atomic number. The periodic law is found to help determine many patterns of
many different properties of elements; melting and boiling points, densities, electrical
conductivity, reactivity, acidic, basic, valance, polarity, and solubility.

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The table below shows that elements increase from left to right accordingly to their
atomic number. The vertical columns have similar properties within their group for
example Lithium is similar to sodium, beryllium is similar to magnesium, and so on.

Elements in Group 1 (periodic table) have similar chemical properties and are called alkali
metals. Elements in Group 2 have similar chemical properties, they are called the alkaline
earth metals.

Short form periodic table

The short form periodic table is a table where elements are arranged in 7 rows, periods,
with increasing atomic numbers from left to right. There are 18 vertical columns known
as groups. This table is based on Mendeleev's periodic table and the periodic law.

Long form Periodic Table

In the long form, each period correlates to the building up of electronic shell; the first
two groups (1-2) (s-block) and the last 6 groups (13-18) (p-block) make up the main-
group elements and the groups (3-12) in between the s and p blocks are called the
transition metals. Group 18 elements are called noble gases, and group 17 are called
halogens. The f-block elements, called inner transition metals, which are at the bottom
of the periodic table (periods 8 and 9); the 15 elements after barium (atomic number
56) are called lanthanides and the 14 elements after radium (atomic number 88) are
called actinides.

V. The Quantum-Mechanical Model of an Atom

Shortly after de Broglie published his ideas that the electron in a hydrogen atom could
be better thought of as being a circular standing wave instead of a particle moving in
quantized circular orbits, as Bohr had argued, Erwin Schrödinger extended de Broglie’s
work by incorporating the de Broglie relation into a wave equation, deriving what is
today known as the Schrödinger equation. The Schrödinger equation can be written as:
H^ψ=Eψ (9.4.1)

H^ is the Hamiltonian operator, a set of mathematical operations representing the total

energy of the quantum particle (such as an electron in an atom), ψ is the wavefunction
of this particle that can be used to find the special distribution of the probability of
finding the particle, and E is the actual value of the total energy of the particle.

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Understanding Quantum Theory of Electrons in Atoms

The goal of this section is to understand the electron orbitals (location of electrons in
atoms), their different energies, and other properties. The use of quantum theory
provides the best understanding to these topics. This knowledge is a precursor to
chemical bonding.
As was described previously, electrons in atoms can exist only on discrete energy levels
but not between them. It is said that the energy of an electron in an atom is quantized,
that is, it can be equal only to certain specific values and can jump from one energy
level to another but not transition smoothly or stay between these levels.
The energy levels are labelled with an n value, where n = 1, 2, 3… Generally speaking,
the energy of an electron in an atom is greater for greater values of n. This number, n,
is referred to as the principal quantum number. The principal quantum number defines
the location of the energy level. It is essentially the same concept as the n in the Bohr
atom description. Another name for the principal quantum number is the shell number.
The shells of an atom can be thought of concentric circles radiating out from the
nucleus. The electrons that belong to a specific shell are most likely to be found within
the corresponding circular area. The further we proceed from the nucleus, the higher
the shell number, and so the higher the energy level.
(Figure 9.4.1). The positively charged protons in the nucleus stabilize the electronic
orbitals by electrostatic attraction between the positive charges of the protons and the
negative charges of the electrons. So the further away the electron is from the nucleus,
the greater the energy it has.

This quantum mechanical model for where electrons reside in an atom can be used to
look at electronic transitions, the events when an electron moves from one energy level
to another. If the transition is to a higher energy level, energy is absorbed, and the
energy change has a positive value. To obtain the amount of energy necessary for the
transition to a higher energy level, a photon is absorbed by the atom. A transition to a
lower energy level involves a release of energy, and the energy change is negative. This
process is accompanied by emission of a photon by the atom. The following equation
summarizes these relationships and is based on the hydrogen atom:

The values nf and ni are the final and initial energy states of the electron.

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The principal quantum number is one of three quantum numbers used to characterize
an orbital. An atomic orbital, which is distinct from an orbit, is a general region in an
atom within which an electron is most probable to reside. The quantum mechanical
model specifies the probability of finding an electron in the three-dimensional space
around the nucleus and is based on solutions of the Schrödinger equation. In addition,
the principal quantum number defines the energy of an electron in a hydrogen or
hydrogen-like atom or an ion (an atom or an ion with only one electron) and the general
region in which discrete energy levels of electrons in a multi-electron atoms and ions
are located.

The Pauli Exclusion Principle

An electron in an atom is completely described by four quantum numbers: n, l, ml, and
ms. The first three quantum numbers define the orbital and the fourth quantum number
describes the intrinsic electron property called spin. An Austrian physicist Wolfgang
Pauli formulated a general principle that gives the last piece of information that we need
to understand the general behavior of electrons in atoms. The Pauli Exclusion Principle
can be formulated as follows: No two electrons in the same atom can have exactly the
same set of all the four quantum numbers. What this means is that electrons can share
the same orbital (the same set of the quantum numbers n, l, and ml), but only if their
spin quantum numbers ms have different values. Since the spin quantum number can
only have two values (±1/2), no more than two electrons can occupy the same orbital
(and if two electrons are located in the same orbital, they must have opposite spins).
Therefore, any atomic orbital can be populated by only zero, one, or two electrons. The
properties and meaning of the quantum numbers of electrons in atoms are briefly
summarized in Table 9.4.1.

Quantum Numbers
A total of four quantum numbers are used to describe completely the movement and
trajectories of each electron within an atom. The combination of all quantum numbers
of all electrons in an atom is described by a wave function that complies with the
Schrödinger equation. Each electron in an atom has a unique set of quantum numbers;
according to the Pauli Exclusion Principle, no two electrons can share the same
combination of four quantum numbers. Quantum numbers are important because they
can be used to determine the electron configuration of an atom and the probable location
of the atom's electrons. Quantum numbers are also used to understand other
characteristics of atoms, such as ionization energy and the atomic radius.

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In atoms, there are a total of four quantum numbers: the principal quantum number (n),
the orbital angular momentum quantum number (l), the magnetic quantum number (ml),
and the electron spin quantum number (ms). The principal quantum number, n,
describes the energy of an electron and the most probable distance of the electron from
the nucleus. In other words, it refers to the size of the orbital and the energy level an
electron is placed in. The number of subshells, or l , describes the shape of the orbital.
It can also be used to determine the number of angular nodes. The magnetic quantum
number, ml, describes the energy levels in a subshell, and ms refers to the spin on the
electron, which can either be up or down.

The Principal Quantum Number (n)

The principal quantum number, n, designates the principal electron shell. Because n
describes the most probable distance of the electrons from the nucleus, the larger the
number n is, the farther the electron is from the nucleus, the larger the size of the orbital,
and the larger the atom is. n can be any positive integer starting at 1, as n=1 designates
the first principal shell (the innermost shell). The first principal shell is also called the
ground state, or lowest energy state. This explains why n cannot be 0 or any negative
integer, because there exists no atoms with zero or a negative amount of energy
levels/principal shells. When an electron is in an excited state or it gains energy, it may
jump to the second principle shell, where n=2. This is called absorption because the
electron is "absorbing" photons, or energy. Known as emission, electrons can also
"emit" energy as they jump to lower principle shells, where n decreases by whole
numbers. As the energy of the electron increases, so does the principal quantum
number, e.g., n = 3 indicates the third principal shell, n = 4 indicates the fourth principal
shell, and so on.
n=1, 2, 3, 4…
The Orbital Angular Momentum Quantum Number ( l )
The orbital angular momentum quantum number l determines the shape of an orbital,
and therefore the angular distribution. The number of angular nodes is equal to the value
of the angular momentum quantum number l. Each value of l indicates a specific s, p,
d, f subshell (each unique in shape.) The value of l is dependent on the principal
quantum number n. Unlike n, the value of l can be zero. It can also be a positive
integer, but it cannot be larger than one less than the principal quantum number (n−1 ):
l=0, 1, 2, 3, 4…, (n−1)
The Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)
The magnetic quantum number ml determines the number of orbitals and their
orientation within a subshell. Consequently, its value depends on the orbital angular
momentum quantum number l. Given a certain l, ml is an interval ranging from –l to
+l, so it can be zero, a negative integer, or a positive integer.
ml=−l,(−l+1),(−l+2),…,−2,−1,0,1,2,…(l–2),(l–1),+l

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The Electron Spin Quantum Number (ms)

Unlike n, l, and ml, the electron spin quantum number ms does not depend on another
quantum number. It designates the direction of the electron spin and may have a spin
of +1/2, represented by↑, or –1/2, represented by ↓. This means that when ms is positive
the electron has an upward spin, which can be referred to as "spin up." When it is
negative, the electron has a downward spin, so it is "spin down." The significance of
the electron spin quantum number is its determination of an atom's ability to generate a
magnetic field or not. (Electron Spin.)
ms=±1/2

A Closer Look at Shells, Subshells, and Orbitals

Principal Shells

The value of the principal quantum number n is the level of the principal
electronic shell (principal level). All orbitals that have the same n value are in the
same principal level. For example, all orbitals on the second principal level have a
principal quantum number of n=2. When the value of n is higher, the number of
principal electronic shells is greater. This causes a greater distance between the
farthest electron and the nucleus. As a result, the size of the atom and its atomic
radius increases.

Because the atomic radius increases, the electrons are farther from the nucleus. Thus
it is easier for the atom to expel an electron because the nucleus does not have as
strong a pull on it, and the ionization energy decreases.

Subshells
The number of values of the orbital angular number l can also be used to identify the
number of subshells in a principal electron shell:

 When n = 1, l= 0 (l takes on one value and thus there can only be one subshell)

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 When n = 2, l= 0, 1 (l takes on two values and thus there are two possible
subshells)
 When n = 3, l= 0, 1, 2 (l takes on three values and thus there are three possible
subshells)
After looking at the examples above, we see that the value of n is equal to the number
of subshells in a principal electronic shell:

 Principal shell with n = 1 has one subshell

 Principal shell with n = 2 has two subshells
 Principal shell with n = 3 has three subshells

To identify what type of possible subshells n has, these subshells have been assigned
letter names. The value of l determines the name of the subshell:

Therefore:

 Principal shell with n = 1 has one s subshell (l = 0)

 Principal shell with n = 2 has one s subshell and one p subshell (l = 0, 1)
 Principal shell with n = 3 has one s subshell, one p subshell, and one d
subshell (l = 0,1,2)

We can designate a principal quantum number, n, and a certain subshell by combining

the value of n and the name of the subshell (which can be found using l). For
example, 3p refers to the third principal quantum number (n=3) and the p subshell
(l=1).

Orbitals
The number of orbitals in a subshell is equivalent to the number of values the magnetic
quantum number ml takes on. A helpful equation to determine the number of orbitals
in a subshell is 2l +1. This equation will not give you the value of ml, but the number
of possible values that ml can take on in a particular orbital. For example, if l=1 and ml
can have values -1, 0, or +1, the value of 2l+1 will be three and there will be three
different orbitals. The names of the orbitals are named after the subshells they are found
in:

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In the figure below, we see examples of two orbitals: the p orbital (blue) and the s orbital
(red). The red s orbital is a 1s orbital. To picture a 2s orbital, imagine a layer similar to
a cross section of a jawbreaker around the circle. The layers are depicting the atoms
angular nodes. To picture a 3s orbital, imagine another layer around the circle, and so
on and so on. The p orbital is similar to the shape of a dumbbell, with its orientation
within a subshell depending on ml. The shape and orientation of an orbital depends on
l and ml.

To visualize and organize the first three quantum numbers, we can think of them as
constituents of a house. In the following image, the roof represents the principal
quantum number n, each level represents a subshell l, and each room represents the
different orbitals ml in each subshell. The s orbital, because the value of ml can only be
0, can only exist in one plane. The p orbital, however, has three possible values of ml
and so it has three possible orientations of the orbitals, shown by Px, Py, and Pz. The
pattern continues, with the d orbital containing 5 possible orbital orientations, and f has
7:

Another helpful visual in looking at the possible orbitals and subshells with a set of
quantum numbers would be the electron orbital diagram. The characteristics of each
quantum number are depicted in different areas of this diagram.

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VI. Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table

Electron Configuration
The electron configuration of an atom is the representation of the arrangement
of electrons distributed among the orbital shells and subshells. Commonly, the electron
configuration is used to describe the orbitals of an atom in its ground state, but it can
also be used to represent an atom that has ionized into a cation or anion by compensating
with the loss of or gain of electrons in their subsequent orbitals. Many of the physical
and chemical properties of elements can be correlated to their unique electron
configurations. The valence electrons, electrons in the outermost shell, are the
determining factor for the unique chemistry of the element.

Before assigning the electrons of an atom into orbitals, one must become familiar with
the basic concepts of electron configurations. Electrons exhibit a negative charge and
are found around the nucleus of the atom in electron orbitals, defined as the volume of
space in which the electron can be found within 95% probability. The four different
types of orbitals (s,p,d, and f) have different shapes, and one orbital can hold a
maximum of two electrons. The p, d, and f orbitals have different sublevels, thus can
hold more electrons.
As stated, the electron configuration of each element is unique to its position on the
periodic table. The energy level is determined by the period and the number of electrons
is given by the atomic number of the element. Orbitals on different energy levels are
similar to each other, but they occupy different areas in space. The 1s orbital and 2s
orbital both have the characteristics of an s orbital (radial nodes, spherical volume
probabilities, can only hold two electrons, etc.) but, as they are found in different energy
levels, they occupy different spaces around the nucleus. Each orbital can be represented
by specific blocks on the periodic table. The s-block is the region of the alkali metals
including helium (Groups 1 & 2), the d-block are the transition metals (Groups 3 to 12),
the p-block are the main group elements from Groups 13 to 18, and the f-block are the
lanthanides and actinides series.

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Using the periodic table to determine the electron configurations of atoms is key, but
also keep in mind that there are certain rules to follow when assigning electrons to
different orbitals. The periodic table is an incredibly helpful tool in writing electron
configurations.
Rules for Assigning Electron Orbitals
Occupation of Orbitals
Electrons fill orbitals in a way to minimize the energy of the atom. Therefore, the
electrons in an atom fill the principal energy levels in order of increasing energy (the
electrons are getting farther from the nucleus). The order of levels filled looks like this:

1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, and 7p

One way to remember this pattern, probably the easiest, is to refer to the periodic table
and remember where each orbital block falls to logically deduce this pattern. Another
way is to make a table like the one below and use vertical lines to determine which
subshells correspond with each other.

Pauli Exclusion Principle

The Pauli Exclusion Principle states that no two electrons can have the same four
quantum numbers. The first three (n, l, and ml) may be the same, but the fourth quantum
number must be different. A single orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons, which
must have opposing spins; otherwise they would have the same four quantum numbers,
which is forbidden. One electron is spin up (ms = +1/2) and the other would spin down
(ms = -1/2). This tells us that each subshell has double the electrons per orbital. The s
subshell has 1 orbital that can hold up to 2 electrons, the p subshell has 3 orbitals that
can hold up to 6 electrons, the d subshell has 5 orbitals that hold up to 10 electrons, and
the f subshell has 7 orbitals with 14 electrons.
Example 1: Hydrogen and Helium
The first three quantum numbers of an electron are n=1, l=0, ml=0. Only two electrons
can correspond to these, which would be either ms = -1/2 or ms = +1/2. As we already
know from our studies of quantum numbers and electron orbitals, we can conclude that

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these four quantum numbers refer to the 1s subshell. If only one of the ms values are
given then we would have 1s1 (denoting hydrogen) if both are given we would have
1s2 (denoting helium). Visually, this is be represented as:

As shown, the 1s subshell can hold only two electrons and, when filled, the electrons
have opposite spins.

Hund's Rule
When assigning electrons in orbitals, each electron will first fill all the orbitals with
similar energy (also referred to as degenerate) before pairing with another electron in a
half-filled orbital. Atoms at ground states tend to have as many unpaired electrons as
possible. When visualizing this processes, think about how electrons are exhibiting the
same behavior as the same poles on a magnet would if they came into contact; as the
negatively charged electrons fill orbitals they first try to get as far as possible from each
other before having to pair up.

Example 2: Oxygen and Nitrogen

If we look at the correct electron configuration of the Nitrogen (Z = 7) atom, a very

important element in the biology of plants: 1s2 2s2 2p3

We can clearly see that p orbitals are half-filled as there are three electrons and three p
orbitals. This is because Hund's Rule states that the three electrons in the 2p subshell
will fill all the empty orbitals first before filling orbitals with electrons in them. If we
look at the element after Nitrogen in the same period, Oxygen (Z = 8) its electron
configuration is: 1s2 2s2 2p4 (for an atom).

Oxygen has one more electron than Nitrogen and as the orbitals are all half-filled the
electron must pair up.

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 Sci 104 (Inorganic Chemistry)

The Aufbau Process

Aufbau comes from the German word "aufbauen" meaning "to build." When writing
electron configurations, orbitals are built up from atom to atom. When writing the
electron configuration for an atom, orbitals are filled in order of increasing atomic
number. However, there are some exceptions to this rule.

Example 3: 3rd row elements

Following the pattern across a period from B (Z=5) to Ne (Z=10), the number of
electrons increases and the subshells are filled. This example focuses on the p subshell,
which fills from boron to neon.

B (Z=5) configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p1

C (Z=6) configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p2
N (Z=7) configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p3
O (Z=8) configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p4
F (Z=9) configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p5
Ne (Z=10) configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p6

Exceptions
Although the Aufbau rule accurately predicts the electron configuration of most
elements, there are notable exceptions among the transition metals and heavier
elements. The reason these exceptions occur is that some elements are more stable with
fewer electrons in some subshells and more electrons in others (Table 1).

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Writing Electron Configurations

When writing an electron configuration, first write the energy level (the period), then
the subshell to be filled and the superscript, which is the number of electrons in that
subshell. The total number of electrons is the atomic number, Z. The rules above allow
one to write the electron configurations for all the elements in the periodic table. Three
methods are used to write electron configurations:
1. orbital diagrams
2. spdf notation
3. noble gas notation
Each method has its own purpose and each has its own drawbacks.
Orbital Diagrams
An orbital diagram, like those shown above, is a visual way to reconstruct the electron
configuration by showing each of the separate orbitals and the spins on the electrons.
This is done by first determining the subshell (s,p,d, or f) then drawing in each electron
according to the stated rules above.

SPDF Notation
The most common way to describe electron configurations is to write distributions in
the spdf notation. Although the distributions of electrons in each orbital are not as
apparent as in the diagram, the total number of electrons in each energy level is
described by a superscript that follows the relating energy level. To write the electron
configuration of an atom, identify the energy level of interest and write the number of

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electrons in the energy level as its superscript as follows: 1s2. This is the electron
configuration of helium; it denotes a full s orbital. The periodic table is used as a
reference to accurately write the electron configurations of all atoms.

A slightly more complicated example is the electron configuration of bismuth

(symbolized Bi, with Z = 83). The periodic table gives the following electron
configuration:

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p65s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p3

The reason why this electron configuration seems more complex is that the f-block,
the Lanthanide series, is involved. Most students who first learn electron
configurations often have trouble with configurations that must pass through the f-block
because they often overlook this break in the table and skip that energy level. It’s
important to remember that when passing the 5d and 6d energy levels that one must
pass through the f-block lanthanoid and actinoid series. Keeping this in mind, this
"complex" problem is greatly simplified.

Another method (but less commonly used) of writing the spdf notation is the expanded
notation format. This is the same concept as before, except that each individual orbital
is represented with a subscript. The p, d, and f orbitals have different sublevels. The p
orbitals are px, py, and pz, and if represented on the 2p energy with full orbitals would
look like: 2px2 2py2 2pz2. The expanded notation for neon (Ne, Z=10) is written as
follows:

1s2 2s2 2px2 2py2 2pz2

The individual orbitals are represented, but the spins on the electrons are not; opposite
spins are assumed. When representing the configuration of an atom with half-filled
orbitals, indicate the two half-filled orbitals. The expanded notation for carbon is
written as follows:

1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1

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 Sci 104 (Inorganic Chemistry)

Because this form of the spdf notation is not typically used, it is not as important to
dwell on this detail as it is to understand how to use the general spdf notation.

Noble Gas Notation

This brings up an interesting point about elements and electron configurations. As the
p subshell is filled in the above example about the Aufbau principle (the trend from
boron to neon), it reaches the group commonly known as the noble gases. The noble
gases have the most stable electron configurations, and are known for being relatively
inert. All noble gases have their subshells filled and can be used them as a shorthand
way of writing electron configurations for subsequent atoms. This method of writing
configurations is called the noble gas notation, in which the noble gas in the period
above the element that is being analyzed is used to denote the subshells that element
has filled and after which the valence electrons (electrons filling orbitals in the outer
most shells) are written. This looks slightly different from spdf notation, as the
reference noble gas must be indicated.

VII. Periodic Trends and Properties

Periodic trends – are patterns in the properties of
elements that appear on the periodic table. These
patterns can be used to predict an element’s chemical,
physical, and atomic properties.
The modern periodic table is based on the law that
the properties of an element are a periodic function
of their atomic number. These properties are related
to the electronic configuration of the elements. We
observe a common trend in properties as we move
across a period from left to right or down the group.
This trend in properties is known as periodic properties. The important
periodic properties are atomic size, metallic character, non-metallic
character, ionization potential, electron affinity, and electronegativity.

The following trend in periodic properties of elements is observed:

Atomic size Trends
The distance between the centre of the nucleus and the outermost shell of an atom is
known as the atomic radius. In a group the atomic size Increases due to the addition of

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shells as we move from one period to another. Across a period the atomic size decreases
as the number of shells remain the same while the nuclear charge increases. This leads
to the pulling of electrons from the outermost shell towards the nucleus thereby
decreasing the size.
Metallic character Trends
The elements which lose electrons to form cations are known as metals. Metallic
character increases as we move down the group because the atomic size increases which
lead to easy loss of electrons. On the other hand, it decreases across a period as we
move from left to right. This happens because there is an increase in nuclear charge
which makes it difficult for an atom to lose electrons.
Non-metallic character Trends
The elements which have a tendency to gain electrons are known as non-metals. The
tendency to gain electrons increases on moving across a period due to an increase in
the nuclear charge and a decrease in the atomic size. Hence, non-metallic character
increases across a period. As we move down the group the non-metallic character
decreases due to an increase in the atomic size.
Ionization potential Trends
Ionization potential is defined as the amount of energy required to remove an electron
from the outermost shell of a gaseous atom and convert it into a positively charged
gaseous ion. The periodic properties in terms of ionization potential increase because
the atomic size decreases across a period due to an increase in the nuclear charge. When
we move down the group, ionization potential decreases due to the increase in atomic
size.
Melting Point Trends
The melting point of an element is basically the energy required to change the state of
an element from its solid state to its liquid state. Which essentially implies breaking a
few bonds.

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Boiling Point Trends

Just like how the strength of the bonds between atoms affect the Melting Point, the
boiling point depends on the heat energy required to create a transition from liquid to
gaseous state. Have a look at this table with the elements of the periodic table arranged
in order of increasing boiling points.

A. Size of Atom & Ion

The size of an atom or ion is measured by its radius, which is half the distance between
the center of an atom or ion and its outermost shell. The size of an atom or ion can vary
depending on the element and its charge and its position in the periodic table.

Atomic Radius
 The atomic radius of a neutral atom is the distance between the center of its
nucleus and its outermost shell.
 The atomic radius of an atom is typically between 30 and 300 picometers (\
(pm\)), or trillionths of a meter.
 The atomic radius of an atom is more than 10,000 times the radius of its nucleus.
 The atomic radius of an atom is less than 1/1000 of the wavelength of visible
light.
 The atomic radius of an atom can be found on the periodic table.
Ionic Radius
 The ionic radius of an ion is half the distance between two gas atoms that are
just touching each other.
 The ionic radius of an ion is less than the atomic radius of the atom it came
from.
 The ionic radius of an ion can be used to measure the size of cations and anions.

Factors that affect the size of an atom or ion

 Charge: The charge of the nucleus affects how tightly the nucleus can hold
electrons, which can make the atom or ion smaller.
 Position on the periodic table: The position of an atom on the periodic table
can affect its size.
 Shape: The shape of atoms and ions is not always round, which can make it
difficult to determine their size

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 Electron cloud: The electron cloud that forms an atom’s shell doesn’t have a
fixed shape, which makes it difficult to determine the atom’s size.

How do you find the size of atoms and ions?

Because electrons are what take up space in atoms, the result is that the size of the
biggest filled orbital determines the size of the atom or ion. Sizes of orbitals depend on
the quantum numbers (n = 1, n = 3, etc.) and also on the effective nuclear charge.
What is the size of the atoms?
Atom is about 10-10 meters or 10-8 centimeters.
What is Atomic Size?
Atomic size is the distance between the centre of the nucleus of an atom and its
outermost shell. In basic chemistry, the atomic radius is defined as the shortest distance
between the atom’s nuclei and the outermost shell of the atom.
What is Atomic Radius?
An atomic radius is half the distance between adjacent atoms of the same element in a
molecule.
Measuring the atomic radii of chemical elements is a complicated task as the size of an
atom is of the order of 1.2×10-10 m. The electron cloud forming the shell of an atom
does not have any fixed shape which makes it difficult to determine the atomic size of
an atom. So we can say that practically we cannot determine the size of an individual
atom.

Trends in the Periodic Table

Moving down a group or across a column or row in the modern periodic table, we can
observe a lot of trends in the properties (physical and chemical) of elements in basic
chemistry.

When two atoms are combined, then we can estimate their atomic size by checking the
distance between the atoms. The other method by which we can measure the atomic
size of a non-metallic element is by forming a single covalent bond between two atoms
and checking the distance between the two atoms. The radius found by this method is
known as the covalent radii of the element. In the case of metal, it is termed as a metallic

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radius. It is defined as half of the total distance between the nuclei of two adjoining
metal ions joined by a metallic bond.
The Atomic radius of an atom is measured by X-ray or other spectroscopy methods.
The atomic radii of elements vary in the periodic table in a fixed pattern. We can explain
this trend by considering the nuclear charge and energy level.
In general, the atomic radius decreases as we move from left to right in a period and it
increases when we go down a group. This is because in periods the valence electrons
are in the same outermost shell. The atomic number increases within the same period
while moving from left to right which in turn increases the effective nuclear charge.
The increase in attractive forces reduces the atomic radius of elements.
It was interesting to see how the force of attraction between electrons and protons plays
a major role in increasing or decreasing the atomic radius.

Difference between Atomic and Ionic Radius

A neutral atom’s atomic radius is half its diameter. In other terms, it measures half an
atom’s diameter across the outer stable electrons. The ionic radius is equal to half of
the distance between two gas atoms that are contacting.

B. Ionization Energy
Ionization energy, in simple terms, can be described as a measure of the difficulty in
removing an electron from an atom or ion or the tendency of an atom or ion to surrender
an electron. The loss of electrons usually happens in the ground state of the chemical
species.
Alternatively, we can also state that ionization or ionization energy is the measure of
strength (attractive forces) by which an electron is held in a place.

Factors Governing Ionization Energy

Normally, when the ionization energy is high, it will be more difficult to remove an
electron. There are also several factors that govern the attraction forces.

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 If the nucleus is positively charged, then the electrons are strongly attracted to
it.
 If an electron lies near or close to the nucleus, then the attraction will be greater
than the one when the electron is further away.
 If there are more electrons between the outer level and the nucleus, the attraction
forces are less.
 When there are two electrons in the same orbital, they experience some form of
repulsion. Now, this creates disturbances in the attraction of the nucleus. In
essence, ionization energy will be less in paired electrons as they can be
removed easily.

In the year 1913, Niels Bohr proposed an atomic

structure model, describing an atom as a small,
positively charged nucleus surrounded by
electrons that travel in circular orbits around the
positively charged nucleus like planets around the
sun in our solar system, with attraction provided
by electrostatic forces, popularly known as
Bohr’s atomic model. It was basically an
improved version of Rutherford’s atomic model
overcoming its limitations.

What Is Ionization Energy?

In more technical terms, we can describe ionization energy as the minimum energy that
an electron in a gaseous atom or ion has to absorb to come out of the influence of the
nucleus. It is also sometimes referred to as ionization potential and is usually an
endothermic process.
What we can deduce further is that ionization energy gives us an idea of the reactivity
of chemical compounds. It can also be used to determine the strength of chemical
bonds. It is measured either in units of electronvolts or kJ/mol.
Depending on the ionization of molecules which often leads to changes in molecular
geometry, ionization energy can be either adiabatic ionization energy or vertical
ionization energy.
Ionization
Ionization is a process that involves the removal of electron present in an orbit outside
the atom. As the electron in each orbit has characteristic energy, ionization energy is
equal to the difference of energy between the energy of the electron in the initial orbit
and the energy of the electron outside the atom (in the infinite orbit from the nucleus).
The energy of an electron in ‘n’th orbit is calculated by the Bohr model of an atom as,

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 Sci 104 (Inorganic Chemistry)

Ionization energy for the removal of an electron from a neutral atom can be calculated
by substituting the orbit number of the electron before transition as ‘n1‘ and the orbit
number of the electron after transition as ‘∞’( infinity) and ‘n2‘ in Bohr’s energy
equation.

Ionization Energy Trends in Periodic Table

Ionization Energy follows a specific trend while moving from Left to Right and Top to
Bottom in the periodic table.
The image given below shows the trend of variation of Ionization Energy while moving
left to right and top to bottom in the periodic table.

Left to Right in a Period

As we move from left to right in a period in the periodic table the atomic radius
decreases. It is due to the reason that the elements start gaining near noble gas
configuration as we move across the period. Due to this interelectronic repulsion is
reduced and the atomic radius decreases. Hence the electrons are more tightly held by
the nucleus. Hence a higher amount of energy is required to remove the electrons. Thus
IE increases as we move across a period.

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 Sci 104 (Inorganic Chemistry)

Top to Bottom in a Group

As we move from top to bottom in a group, new shells are added up and the electrons
start to occupy higher orbitals and shells. Thus the atomic radius also increases. The
electrons are now far away from the nucleus. So lesser amount of energy is required to
remove the electron. Thus IE decreases as moves down a group.

C. Electron Affinities
Electron affinity is defined as the amount of energy released when an electron is added
to a neutral atom to form an anion. The electron affinity is the potential energy change
of the atom when an electron is added to a neutral gaseous atom to form a negative ion.
So the more negative the electron affinity the more favourable the electron addition
process is. Not all elements form stable negative ions in which case the electron affinity
is zero or even positive.
Periodic Trends
The amount of energy released when an electron is added to a neutral atom to form an
anion is called electron affinity. Electron affinities are difficult to measure.

 Electron affinity increases going left to right across a period because of

increased nuclear attraction.
 Going down the group the electron affinity should decrease since the electron
is being added increasingly further away from the nucleus. Electron becomes
less tightly bound and can be easily removed.

In a period, as we move from left to right the atomic size decreases due to the increase
in the nuclear force hence the electron gain enthalpy increases. Whereas while moving
down a group in the periodic table, the atomic size increases thereby causing a decrease
in the value of electron gain enthalpy.
The first electron affinity is always exothermic that is negative. The second electron
affinity of the same element will be positive or endothermic. This is so because the
second electron has to be forced to enter the mono negative ion. The electron affinity
cannot be determined directly but is obtained indirectly from the Born-Haber cycle.

Factors Affecting Electron Affinity

The general factors that affect electron affinity are listed below.
1. Atomic size: If the atomic size is small, then there will be greater electron gain
enthalpy because the effective nuclear forces will be greater in the smaller atoms
and the electrons will be held firmly.
2. Nuclear charge: The greater the nuclear charge, more will be the value of
electron gain enthalpy because increase in nuclear change increase nuclear force
on valence electrons.

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 Sci 104 (Inorganic Chemistry)

In general electron affinity follows the following trends:

Halogens > Oxygen family > Carbon family > Nitrogen family > Metals of group 1 and
13 > Metals of group 2

Electron Affinity of Halogens

Ionization potential is the energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom.
Energy is supplied for removing an electron implies that energy will be released if an
extra electron is added to the atom. The amount of energy released when a neutral atom
in its gaseous state accepts an electron and gets converted into a negatively charged ion
is known as electron affinity.

Here X is any element in the gaseous state and E.A. is the electron affinity. The unit of
electron affinity is electron volts per atom or kilojoule per mole. It is represented by a
negative sign [-] for example,

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 Sci 104 (Inorganic Chemistry)

D. Metals, Non-metals, and Metalloids

Metals, nonmetals, and metalloids
are classified groups of elements
on the periodic table. Metals are on
the left side, nonmetals are on the
right side, and metalloids are in the
middle.

Metals

Metal is a type of element that is shiny, conducts heat and electricity well, and can be
shaped into different forms, such as wires or sheets, without breaking.
Location: On the left side of the periodic table
Appearance: Shiny and reflective
Examples: Copper, lead, tin, nickel, and zinc
Properties of metals

 Malleable: Can be easily bent or

shaped into different forms
 Ductile: Can be deformed or drawn into wires
 Conductive: Good conductors of electricity and heat
 Lustrous: Have a shiny appearance when polished or fractured
 Hard: Solid materials that are hard
 Electropositive: Tend to donate electrons
 Resonant: Can resonate sound

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 Sci 104 (Inorganic Chemistry)

Non-metals

Non-metal is a chemical element that lacks the characteristics of a metal.

Location: On the right side of the periodic table
Appearance: Dull and nonreflective
Examples: Sulfur, nitrogen, selenium, and bromine
Properties of Non-metal
 Appearance: Non-metals are usually dull in color and non-lustrous. ( Dull and
no reflective)
 State: Non-metals can be solids, liquids, or gases.
 Conductivity: Non-metals are poor conductors of heat and electricity, but
graphite is an exception.
 Brittleness: Non-metals are usually brittle and shatter if hit.
 Electronegativity: Non-metals have relatively high electronegativity, meaning
they attract electrons in chemical bonds.
 Oxides: Non-metal oxides tend to be acidic.

Metalloids

Metalloid is a chemical element that has properties of both metals and non-metals.
Location: In the middle of the periodic table, straddling a zig-zag line between metals
and non-metals
Appearance: Can be metallic or non-metallic
Examples: Boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic,
antimony, tellurium, and polonium.

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Libretexts. (2023, June 30). The Periodic Law. Chemistry LibreTexts.
[Link]
Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Perio
dic_Trends_of_Elemental_Properties/The_Periodic_Law?fbclid=IwZXh0bgN
hZW0CMTEAAR3YyWStuLub5Nukgd48sqGzeBPBtYQb3YtT4H1SoCv3R
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Libretexts. (2024, August 14). Quantum numbers for atoms. Chemistry LibreTexts.
[Link]
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try)/Quantum_Mechanics/10%3A_Multi-
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Nermine_Ghis. (2014, September 27). Atomic and mass number [Slide show].
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85Y23prM4P2PLg

CHAPTER ACTIVITIES
Multiple Choice: Write the letter of your correct answer on the answer sheet provided.
1. Who proposed the famous atomic theory in 1807?
A. J.J. Thomson C. Ernest Rutherford
B. John Dalton D. James Chadwick

2. Which of the following elements has the largest atomic radius?

A. Lithium (Li) B. Sodium (Na) C. Potassium (K) D. Cesium (Cs)

3. Which element is most similar to Sodium?

A. Potassium B. Aluminum C. Oxygen D. Calcium

36
 Sci 104 (Inorganic Chemistry)

4. Which of the following elements has the highest electron affinity?

A. Chlorine (Cl) B. Bromine (Br) C. Oxygen (O) D. Fluorine (F)

5. What is the relative mass of a proton?

A. 0.0005 u B. 1 u C. 1.5 u D. 2 u

6. Which scientist discovered the proton?

A. Eugene Goldstein B. Niels Bohr C. James Chadwick D. John Dalton

7. Which element is a metalloid?

A. Silicon (Si) B. Calcium (Ca) C. Fluorine (F) D. Iron (Fe)

8. Which law was proposed by John A. R. Newland in 1864, stating that properties
repeat every eight elements?
A. Law of Triads B. Law of Octaves C. Periodic Law D. Law of Atomic Masses

9. Who is credited with the development of the first periodic table in 1869?
A. Robert Bunsen C. Dmitri Mendeleev
B. Henry G.J. Moseley D. Michael Faraday

10. The energy required to remove the outermost electron from a gaseous atom is
called?
A. Electron affinity B. Ionization energy C. Electronegativity D. Atomic radius

11. What does the principal quantum number (n) represent in an atom's electron
configuration?
A. The energy of an electron C. The probability of finding an electron in a
given region D. The electron's magnetic moment
B. The shape of the electron orbital

12. The mass number of an atom is calculated by?

A. Adding the number of protons and electrons
B. Adding the number of protons and neutrons
C. Subtracting the atomic number from the number of neutrons
D. Multiplying the number of protons by the number of electrons

13. Which quantum number determines the shape of an orbital?

A. n B. ml C. l D. ms

14. The most electronegative element is?

A. Oxygen (O) B. Fluorine (F) C. Nitrogen (N) D. Sulfur (S)

15. What percentage of magnesium isotopes in a sample is Mg-24?

A. 10% B. 11% C. 79% D. 100%

37