Journal of Nonlinear Mathematical Physics (2025) 32:61

[Link]

RESEARCH

Ciliary Flow of Jeffery Nanofluid with Mixed Convection in a

Curved Porous Channel: A Numerical Approach

Arshad Riaz1 · Saima Ayub1 · Safia Akram2 · Sami Ullah Khan3 · Ghaliah Alhamzi4

Received: 25 June 2025 / Accepted: 22 August 2025

© The Author(s) 2025

Abstract
The double-diffusive, cilia-induced flow of time-dependent (Jeffery) nanofluids in
porous curved channels simulates complex biological transport, supporting respira-
tory therapies, advanced drug delivery, and treatments for reproductive and mucosal
tissues. It also improves oil recovery, heat transfer in microdevices, and the efficient
transport of genetic material and pollutants in environmental and biotechnological
systems. This paper presents a numerical analysis of the double-diffusive, cilia-
induced flow of a non-Newtonian Jeffery nanofluid through a porous medium in
a curved channel. A modified Darcy’s law is used to simulate the porous region,
and curvilinear coordinates are used to convert the flow equations into a wave
frame. The model is rectified by assuming a long wavelength and a low Reynolds
number. The NDSolve tool in Mathematica is used to solve the nonlinear system
to get a numerical data with highest accuracy. It is concluded that the velocity
falls with solutal Grashof number in the range 1 < Grc < 7, the Darcy number
1 < Da < 5, and Jeffery fluid parameter 1 < β < 4 but inverse readings are visu-
alized for the nanoparticles Grashof number 0.5 < Grf < 6.5. While temperature
rises with Brinkman number and it falls with Prandtl number. The pressure gradient
rises with curvature parameter and Jeffery fluid parameter and falls with Hartmann
number. Bolus size increases with thermal Grashof number and curvature param-
eter and decreases with rising solutal Grashof number. Comprehensive 2D and 3D
visualizations provide practical interpretations of the effects of parameters on the
flow structure and graphically verify these conclusions.

Keywords Curved channel · Cilia flow pattern · Jeffery nanofluid · Double

diffusion · Porous medium · Magnetohydrodynamics

Extended author information available on the last page of the article

13
 61 Page 2 of 22 Journal of Nonlinear Mathematical Physics (2025) 32:61

1 Introduction

The surface of mammalian cells contains microscopic hair-like structures called cilia.
Motile cilia and sensory cilia are its two categories. Tissue surfaces include moving
cilia, which help the lungs get rid of pathogens. A few examples of therapeutic and
biotechnological uses are the movement of cells, tubular reabsorption, micturition,
etc. In a curved channel, the motion of cilia in a magnetic nanofluid was examined by
Riaz et al. [1]. They came to the conclusion that lowering magnetism and viscosity
effects can lower the system’s entropy. The ciliated surfaces and annular blood flow
with a clot were examined by Bhatti et al. [2]. Based on their results, the research
made the case that flow requires greater pressure in order to pass through the clogged
area. A mathematical treatment of cilia-oriented research was carried out by Ramesh
et al. [3]. Greater wave numbers were found to increase axial velocity in the core
region, while enhancing cilia extent, coupling tension, and magnetic factors signifi-
cantly reduce it. Additionally, significant uses of flagella movement-based liquid flow
can be identified in references [4–6].
Nanofluid comprises nanoparticles, which are nanometer-sized particles that are
useful in numerous processes to meet industrial needs such as medicine delivery,
cooling automobile engines, extracting geothermal forces, and propellant combus-
tion [7]. Many researchers are interested in studying nanofluids because they greatly
increase the base fluid’s thermal conductivity, which no current theory can account
for. The physicist Choi [8] was the first to use nanofluid’s phenomenon technically.
His findings challenge earlier theoretical estimates that suggested that particle shape
would have a substantial effect on the heat transfer properties of effective nanoflu-
ids, while particle size, likewise thermal conductivity, would have little effect. An
extensive study on nanofluids was carried out by Buongiorno [9], who looked at how
thermophoretic dispersion of nanoparticles and Brownian motion improve thermal
conductivity. These effects have the potential to significantly reduce the viscosity of
the boundary layer in a heated fluid, which would improve heat transfer. Ahmed et
al. [10] focused on wavy flow and thermal analysis of the nanofluid using Carreau–
Yasuda model in a porous asymmetric channel using Buongiorno’s scheme. In the
study, the velocity is found to be enhanced due to the Weissenberg number. A com-
putational work on cilia flow of Prandtl nanofluid has been performed by Ajmal et al.
[11]. The authors in this study considered the combined effects of electromagnetism
and microorganisms and concluded that electroosmotic factors helps in developing
fluid mixing and nanoparticle dispersal.
Many areas of process mechanical, chemical, and materials engineering involve
non-Newtonian transport processes. Jeffrey fluid is an example of such a model with
a time-dependent shear rate and a constant viscosity. Jeffery fluids’ viscoelastic char-
acteristics make them useful in microfluidics, biomedical engineering, and polymer
processing. Double diffusion convection for Jeffrey nanofluids in the context of a
tilted magnetic attraction has been studied by Akram et al. [12]. They evaluated how
computational modeling for multidimensional movements of a Jeffery fluid concept
is offered in addition to the above-defined convection in nanofluids. The research
conducted by Alqarni et al. [13] focused on analyzing how Jeffrey parameters influ-
ence blood vessel peristaltic walls which use energy constitutive equations with-

13
Journal of Nonlinear Mathematical Physics (2025) 32:61 Page 3 of 22 61

out approximations when hybrid nanoparticles are present in curved channels. The
researchers discovered that relaxation time parameters significantly affect curved
walls because they increase velocities and manage axial and normal and shear
stresses and temperature profiles yet produce no impact on non-curved walls. The
unique characteristics of Jeffrey fluid encourage many investigators to explore this
model [14–18].
The double-diffusion concept is discovered when fluids travel through gradients
of temperature and concentration. It was Aifantis [19] who originally introduced the
idea of the double-diffusive model in 1979. A gradient in concentration will be cre-
ated in a fluid by thermal diffusion in a mixture if a steady temperature differential
is maintained. The fluid motion is produced by the simultaneous diffusion of two
variables, namely temperature and concentration variations, which create buoyancies
[20]. Understanding double-diffusive convection is crucial for solving difficulties
in engineering, industry, and biomedicine. The process of double-diffusive convec-
tion in fluid flow has been comprehensively documented in the early Somers [21]
research, which is highly renowned in this regard. Additionally, Raju et al. [22] inte-
grated the consequences of generated Brownian velocity, thermal analysis, and fields
of magnets on dual segregated asymmetric heat radiation. Nield [23] further probed
a novel technique for diffusion in tiny fluids along with double diffusion–convection.
Results of bioconvection on the biomimetic propulsion with ionic particles through
an irregular microchannel have been addressed by Prakash et al. [24].
The combined consequences of cilia type phenomena within intricate, biologi-
cally significant geometries like curved, porous channels remain largely unexplored,
despite the fact that they have been extensively investigated separately. This com-
prehensive model serves as a fundamental tool to create and optimize biomedical
devices and microfluidic technologies as well as energy systems and environmental
processes. The model uses Jeffery fluid parameters because these parameters enable
analysis of both relaxation and retardation phenomena together with straightforward
mathematical solutions which suit simulating biological fluids such as mucus and
blood. The model remains simple enough to produce realistic viscoelastic behavior in
complicated geometrical structures without requiring too much computational power.
The current study creates a thorough mathematical model of double-diffusive, cilia-
induced Jeffery nanofluid flow in a curved porous channel in order to fill the research
gap. The model uses Jeffery fluid parameters because these parameters enable anal-
ysis of both relaxation and retardation phenomena together with straightforward
mathematical solutions which suit simulating biological fluids such as mucus and
blood. The model remains simple enough to produce realistic viscoelastic behavior in
complicated geometrical structures without requiring too much computational power.
Under lubrication assumptions, the governing equations are reformulated into a wave
frame using curvilinear coordinates, and the porous resistance is described using
modified Darcy’s law. A numerical method through NDSolve tool in Mathematica
is used to solve the nonlinear system with significant data precision. The resulting
analysis, supported by thorough 2D and 3D visualizations, helps to develop complex
bio-inspired and multifunctional fluidic systems and provides new insights into the
transport behavior of Jeffery nanofluids in curved porous environments.

13
 61 Page 4 of 22 Journal of Nonlinear Mathematical Physics (2025) 32:61

2 Mathematical Modeling of Cilia Flow

We analyze a Jeffrey nanofluid moving in a ciliated curved channel that is coiled

around a radius R* . An externally induced magnetic field B0 is applied on the flow.
∼ ∼ ∼
Velocity components are taken as are V and U , respectively, in the axial X and
∼
radial R direction. Based on the metachronal wave shape, the envelope of cilia tips
is thought to be able to be expressed mathematically as follows [11, 15, 25]:
(∼ ) ( ( )( ))
∼ 2π ∼ ∼
R = H X , t = ± a + aϵcos X −c t . (1)
λ

Here channel’s radius, a dimensionless measurement for the cilia circumference,

time, wave speed, and accredit wave length are shown by the letters a, ϵ, t, c, and λ ,
correspondingly (see Fig. 1).
According to various cilia motion patterns, the tips of the cilia can be thought of as
moving in elliptical pathways, so that their axial position can be expressed as:
(∼ ∼ ) ( )( )
∼ ∼ 2π ∼ ∼
X = h X , X 0 , t = X 0 + aα ϵsin X − c t , (2)
λ
∼
where X 0 and α denote the particle’s reference point and the measure of eccentric-
ity of the elliptical motion, respectively. The fluid’s velocity is equal to the cilia tips

Fig. 1 Geometry of the cilia flow in curved channel

13
Journal of Nonlinear Mathematical Physics (2025) 32:61 Page 5 of 22 61

velocity if the channel’s walls are non-slippery. The axial and radial velocities of cilia
are [25]
∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
∼ ∂ X ∂ h ∂ h ∂ X ∂ h ∂ h ∼
Axial velocity : U = ∼ = ∼ + ∼ ∼ = ∼ + ∼ U , (3)
∂ t ∂ t ∂ X ∂ t ∂ t ∂ X
∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
∼ ∂ R ∂ g ∂ g ∂ X ∂ g ∂ g ∼
Vertical velocity : V = ∼ = ∼ + ∼ ∼ = ∼ + ∼ U .  (4)
∂ t ∂ t ∂ X ∂ t ∂ t ∂ X
∼ ∼
Using values of X and R in above equations, we get followings
( ∼ ∼
)
∼ − 2πλ acα ϵcos
2π
λ (X − c t )
U= ( (∼ ∼
)) , (5)
1 − 2π λ aα ϵcos 2π
λ X − c t

( ∼ ∼
)
2π 2π
∼ λ acϵsin (X − c t )
λ
V= ( (∼ ∼
)) . (6)
2π
1 − λ aα ϵ cos 2π
λ X − c t

For Jeffrey fluid, we have a stress tensor as:

∼
τ = − P I + S, (7)

µ
S= (γ̇ + β 1 γ̈ ) , (8)
1+β

The formula γ̇ = ∇ V + (∇ V ) demonstrates the Rivlin–Erickson tensor. The

T
∼
viscosity factor of the fluid is represented by µ , I stands for the identity tensor, P
for pressure, β 1 for the retardation time, S for stress tensor and β for the ratio of
relaxation to retardation times.

3 Governing Equations and Formulation of Problem

Derived forms of the continuity, momentum, energy, solutal concentration and

nanoparticle volume fraction equations for porous medium and mixed convection are
elaborated below [25, 26]:
∼
∂ (( ∼ ) ∼)
∗∂ U
R +R V + R ∼ = 0, (9)
∗
∼
∂ R ∂ X

13
 61 Page 6 of 22 Journal of Nonlinear Mathematical Physics (2025) 32:61
 
∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼2 ∼
∂ V ∼ ∂ V R∗ U ∂ V U  = −∂ P 1 ∂ (( ∼ )∼ )
ρf  ∼+ V ∼ + ∼ ∼ + ∼ R +R S RR
∗
∼ − ∼ ∼
∂ t ∂ R R +R∗ ∂ X R +R∗ ∂ R R +R∗ ∂ R
∼
(10)
R∗ ∂ ∼ S XX µ ∼
+ ∼ ∼ S XR − ∼ − V,
R +R∗ ∂ X R +R∗ k0

( ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼∼ ) ∼
∂ U∼ ∂ U R∗ U ∂ U UV R∗ ∂ P
ρf ∼ + V ∼ + ∼ ∼ + ∼ = − ∼ ∼
∂ t ∂ R R +R∗ ∂ X R +R∗ R +R∗ ∂ X
(( )2 ∼ )
1 ∂ ∼ R∗ ∂ ∼
+ (∼ )2 ∼ R +R
∗
S RX + ∼ ∼ S XX
R +R∗ ∂ R R +R∗ ∂ X
( ( )( (∼ ∼ ) (∼ ∼ ) ) ( ( ))(11)
∼ ) ∼ ∼
−g ρf 1−Θ0 β T T −T 0 + C −C 0 β C − ρ p − ρ f Θ −Θ 0

σ f B0 2 ∼ µ ∼
− (∼ )2 U − U ,
k0
R +R∗

(  
∼ ∼ ∼ ∼) ∼ ∼ ( )2 ∼
∂ T ∼ ∂ T R∗ U ∂ T 1 ∂ T ∂2T R∗ ∂2T
(ρ c)f ∼ + V ∼ + ∼ ∼ = K f
 ∼ ∼ + ∼2
+ ∼ ∼2
∂ t ∂ R R +R∗ ∂ X R +R∗ ∂ R ∂R R +R∗ ∂X
  ∼ ( )   ( ) ( )2 ( ∼ )2 
∼ 2 ∼ ∼ ∼ 2
∂ Θ ∂ T R∗ ∂ Θ ∂ T  DT  ∂ T R∗ ∂ T (12)
+ (ρ c)p DB  ∼ ∼ + ∼ ∼ ∼ + ∼ + ∼ ∼
∂ R∂ R R +R∗ ∂ X∂ X T0 ∂ R R +R∗ ∂ X
 ( )2 
∼ ∼ ∼ ( )
1 ∂ C ∂2C R∗ ∂ 2 C  µ ∼2 ∼2
+ DT C  ∼ ∼ + ∼2
+ ∼ ∼2
+ U +V ,
R +R ∂ R
∗
∂R R +R ∗
∂X
k 0

 ( )2 
∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
∂ C ∼ ∂ C ∼ R∗ ∂ C 1 ∂ C ∂2C R∗ ∂ 2 C
∼+ V ∼+ U ∼ = Ds  ∼ ∼ ∼ + ∼2
+ ∼ ∼2
∂ t ∂ R R +R∗ ∂ X R +R∗ ∂ R ∂R R +R∗ ∂X

∼ ( )2  (13)
2 ∼ 2 ∼
1 ∂ T ∂ T R ∗
∂ T
+ DCT ∼ ∼ + ∼2
+ ∼ ∼2
,
R +R∗ ∂ R ∂R R +R∗ ∂X

∼ ∼ ∼
 ∼ ∼ ( )2 ∼

∂ Θ ∼ ∂ Θ ∼ R∗ ∂ Θ 1 ∂ Θ ∂2Θ R∗ ∂2Θ 
∼ +V ∼ +U ∼ ∼ = DB
∼ ∼ + ∼2
+ ∼ ∼2
∂ t ∂ R R +R∗ ∂ X R +R∗ ∂ R ∂R R +R∗ ∂X

∼ ∼ ( )2 ∼
 (14)
DT  1 ∂ T ∂2T R∗ ∂2T
+ ∼ ∼ + ∼2
+ ∼ ∼2
.
T0 R +R∗ ∂ R ∂R R +R∗ ∂X

where dtd
, DB , β T , DT C , g , β C , C , DT and DCT stands for material derivative,
Brownian diffusion component, volumetric thermal expansion coefficient, Dufour
diffusivity, acceleration, volumetric solutal expansion coefficient, heat capacity for
fluid, solutal concentration, nanoparticle mass density, thermophoretic diffusion
component and solutal diffusivity respectively.

13
Journal of Nonlinear Mathematical Physics (2025) 32:61 Page 7 of 22 61

4 Wave Frame Transformations and non-dimensional Analysis of

Parameters

Let us introduce the wave frame transformations

∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
X =x −c t , R= r , V = v, U =u +c, P = p . (15)
∼ ∼

Now, we include the following relations to introduce a dimensionless phenomenon

∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
r x u v p a2 acρ f R∗ a H
r = ,x = ,u = ,v = , p= , Re = ,k = ,δ = ,h = ,
a λ c cδ cλ µ µ a λ a

∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
T −T 0 Θ −Θ 0 C −C 0 a ∼
θ = ∼ ∼ ,Ω = ∼ ∼ ,γ = ∼ ∼ ,S = S (16)
T1 − T0 Θ1−Θ0 C1 − C0 µc

The stream functions satisfying the continuity equations are defined as

∼ kδ ∂ ψ ∼
v= r+k ∂x,
u= − ∂∂ ψr . The dimensionless stress component is found from Eq. (8)
as:
( ( )2 )
1 k 3 1
Srx = −ψ rr + δ ψ xx + ψ r , (17)
1+β r+k r+k

The dimensionless parameters generated in the above process are defined as

σ f B0 2 c2 µ µ cf µ c2
M2 = , Br = ,Pr = , Br = EcP r, Br = ,
µ T0 Kf Kf Kf (T1 − TO )
(∼ ∼ ) (∼ ∼ )
ν ν DCT T 1 − T 0 DT C C 1 − C 0
Ln = , Le = , NCT = ( ∼ ∼ ) , NT C = (∼ ∼ ) ,
DB DS C 1 − C 0 Ds Kf T 1 − T 0

( )( ( )
∼ ∼ ∼ ) (∼ ∼ ) ∼
gρ f β T 1−Θ0 T 1 − T 0 a2 ga2 ρ f β c C 1 − C 0 1−Θ0
Grt = , Grc = ,
µc µc
( )
(∼ ∼ ) ( ) ∼ ∼
(ρ c)p T 1 − T 0 DT g ρp−ρf Θ 1 − Θ 0 a2
k0
Nt = , Grf = , Da = ,
T0 k µc a2
( )
∼ ∼
(ρ c)p DB Θ 1 − Θ 0
b  (18)
Nb = , ϵ= .
k a

13
 61 Page 8 of 22 Journal of Nonlinear Mathematical Physics (2025) 32:61

We now derive the dimensionless format of Eqs. (9–14) by utilizing the assumptions
of the low Reynolds number and large wavelength estimation as:

∂p
= 0,  (19)
∂r
( ))
2 (
k ∂p 1 ∂ (r + k) ∂ 2ψ 1 ∂ψ
− + − +
r + k ∂ x (r + k)2 ∂ r 1+β ∂ r2 r+k ∂r
( )
1 ∂ψ  (20)
− M2 2 − + 1 + (Grt θ + Grc γ − Grf Ω )
(r + k) ∂r
( )
1 ∂ψ
− − + 1 = 0,
Da(1 + β ) ∂r
( ) ( )2
∂ 2θ 1 ∂θ ∂Ω ∂θ ∂θ
+ + P rNb + P rNt
∂ r2 r+k ∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r
( 2 ) ( )2  (21)
∂ γ 1 ∂γ Br ∂ψ
+ P rNT C + + − + 1 = 0,
∂ r2 r+k ∂r Da(1 + β ) ∂r
( )
∂ 2γ 1 ∂γ ∂ 2θ 1 ∂θ
+ + NCT + = 0,  (22)
∂ r2 r+k ∂r ∂ r2 r+k ∂r
( )
∂ 2Ω 1 ∂Ω Nt ∂ 2θ 1 ∂θ
2 + r+k ∂r + N 2 + r+k ∂r = 0.  (23)
∂r b ∂r

Eliminating pressure from Eqs. (19) and (20) generate fourth order differential equa-
tion given below
( ( ( )) ( )
∂ 1 ∂ 2 ∂ 2ψ
1 ∂ψ 1 M2 ∂ψ
(r + k) + − − − + 1
∂r r+k∂r ∂ r2
1+β ∂r r+k r+k ∂r
( )) (24)
(r + k) ∂ψ
+ (r + k) (Grt θ + Grc γ − Grf Ω ) − − +1 = 0.
Da(1 + β ) ∂r

The no-slip conditions for boundaries in their dimensionless form

F ∂ψ
ψ = , = u0 , θ = 0, γ = 0, Ω = 0 at r = −h, (25)
2 ∂r

F ∂ψ
ψ =− , = u0 , θ = 1, γ = 1, Ω = 1 at r = h, (26)
2 ∂r

where u0 = −1 − 2π α ϵδ cos2π x and h = 1 + ϵcos2π x.

13
Journal of Nonlinear Mathematical Physics (2025) 32:61 Page 9 of 22 61

Flow rate is given as

Q = F + 1. (27)
∫
where F = u (r)
h
−h
dr.

5 Numerical Findings and Discussion

The built-in Mathematica command ND Solve has been used to numerically describe
the relevant parameters in a graphical format for flow velocity parallel to the axis,
thermal energy level, and concentration profile and nanoparticle volume distribution
in order to avoid complex solution formulations. According to research, this method
can yield the greatest computation outcomes with the least amount of CPU time
(3–4 min). This section comprises an evaluation of the various parameters affecting
the velocity profile, temperature distribution, concentration profile, volume percent-
age of nanoparticles, and pressure force density profile visualized within Figures
(2–12). Table 1 is also added to enhance the accuracy and validity of the current results.
In this table, a detailed comparison is given between current values of the velocity
taken under certain limitations and the values of the existing study of Saleem et al.
[26]. It is convincingly seen here that the current study regenerates the data of [26]
through neglecting the newly considered factors like β = Grf = Grc = M = 0,
Da → ∞ .

5.1 Axial Velocity Profile

By varying distinct quantities of nanoparticle Grashof number Grf , Jeffery fluid

parameter β , solutal Grashof number Grc , and Darcy number Da, Fig. 2(a)–(d)
examines the phenomenon of flow velocity. The axial velocity pattern shows decreas-
ing values as it moves from the lower boundary toward the channel center between
−1.5 ≤ r ≤ 0 according to Fig. 2(a) and (c). The axial velocity demonstrates an
upward movement when solutal Grashof number Grc and Jeffery fluid parameter

Table 1 Comparison of current r Data of Saleem et al. [26] Current work with
velocity values with existing β = Grf = Grc = M = 0,
literature [26] Da → ∞
−1.0 −0.60229 −0.60229
−0.8 0.35973 0.35973
−0.6 0.74742 0.74742
−0.4 0.88109 0.88109
−0.2 0.86148 0.86148
0.0 0.73392 0.73392
0.2 0.52327 0.52327
0.4 0.24500 0.24500
0.6 −0.09040 −0.09040
0.8 −0.47540 −0.47540
1.0 −0.90436 −0.90436

13
 61 Page 10 of 22 Journal of Nonlinear Mathematical Physics (2025) 32:61

Fig. 2 Velocity Profile for 2D (a) Grc (b) Da (c) β (d) Grf

β increase in the upper half of the domain 0 ≤ r ≤ 1.2. The physical explana-
tion for this phenomenon is that higher Grc values cause increased buoyant forces
through solute concentration variations and higher β values indicate enhanced fluid
elasticity which minimizes deformation resistance leading to faster flow at the upper
wall. The flow acceleration pattern shows an uneven distribution across the cross-
section because curvature effects combine with cilia-driven motion to push flow
acceleration toward the upper surface. Similarly, the axial velocity reduces in region
−1.5 ≤ r ≤ −0.4 by amplifying the value of Da while it changes its behavior
in the interval −0.4 ≤ r ≤ 1.5. Conversely, in Fig. 2(d), when the nanoparticle
Grashof number Grf is used, the axial velocity distribution first increases in region
−1.5 ≤ r ≤ 0 and subsequently decreases in 0 ≤ r ≤ 1.5. We may conclude
that the flow rate climbs as Grf grows until it reaches its maximum near the chan-
nel’s center. 3D velocity distribution within Fig. 3(a)–(d) exhibit comparable behav-
ior to the 2D velocity profiles. The 3D graphs provide a more comprehensive view
by highlighting the spatial disparities and the coherence of the patterns displayed in
the 2D graphs.

5.2 Temperature Variation

Figure 4(a)–(d) shows how temperature distribution affects the Brinkman num-
ber Br, Darcy number Da, Prandtl number P r, and thermophoresis parameter Nt .
Figure 4(a) makes it evident that when the Br value increases, so can the tempera-
ture distribution. It emphasizes how natural convection flows contribute to heat redis-

13
Journal of Nonlinear Mathematical Physics (2025) 32:61 Page 11 of 22 61

Fig. 3 Velocity Profile for 3D (a) Grc (b) Da (c) β (d) Grf

tribution in fluid systems. Boundary-driven convection encourages mixing when a

hotter fluid migrates to cooler areas, creating a more uniform temperature distribu-
tion. The temperature profile θ is shown in Fig. 4(d) and is strongly affected by Nt ,
the temperature falls as Nt grows because buoyancy effects are amplified, especially
close to the channel centerline. This suggests that enhanced buoyancy causes local-
ized heating and increased thermal convection by pushing more heat into the center.
The fluid’s temperature distribution is affected by the parameter Da. The effects of
Da and P r on the profile are represented in Figs. 4(b) and 3(c). When the magnitude
of Da increases, the temperature θ likewise lessens and reaches a higher magnitude
in the channel’s center, as shown in Fig. 4(b). Decreased thermal diffusion results in
a more uniform distribution of temperature and intensifies degree of the temperature
profile. The 3D thermal gradient profile illustrated in Fig. 5(a)–(d) functions similarly
to the 2D profiles. The 3D representation enhances visualization by providing a more
complete understanding of the thermal behavior, verifying the patterns observed in
the 2D graphs, and more precisely representing spatial changes.

5.3 Solutal Concentration Profile

The concentration distribution is represented by the Prandtl number P r, Darcy num-

ber Da, Soret parameter NCT and thermophoresis parameter Nt in Figs. 6(a)–(d).

13
 61 Page 12 of 22 Journal of Nonlinear Mathematical Physics (2025) 32:61

Fig. 4 Temperature summary for 2D (a) Br (b) Da (c) P r (d) Nt

The concentration distribution effects of P r together with Nt are shown in Fig. 6(a)
and (d) respectively. The thermal diffusivity decreases with increasing Prandtl num-
ber P r because heat moves at a slower pace than momentum during thermal diffu-
sion. A higher Prandtl number creates a stronger thermal gradient which affects mass
transfer by coupling with thermal convection. The solutal distribution changes when
fluid viscosity increases through the influence of high P r values because they affect
flow resistance. The thermophoresis parameter Nt measures nanoparticle move-
ment away from hot areas thus higher Nt values cause particles to move toward
cooler regions which results in notable concentration depletion near heated surfaces.
The system controls nanoparticle and solute dispersion through strong interactions
between thermal properties and flow characteristics. In situations where thermal dif-
fusion is involved and controlled by the Soret parameter NCT , a comparable pattern
is observed. The variations in the concentration of nanoparticles and fluid volume
correspond to the patterns seen for different amounts of P r. The thermophoretic
behavior of nanoparticles is greatly impacted by temperature distribution fluctua-
tions, which cause them to migrate from hotter to colder places. As seen in Fig. 6(b),
this movement frequently leads to a decline in the pattern of nanoparticle density.
The homogeneous distribution of nanoparticles is disrupted by temperature-induced
movement, highlighting the influence of thermal gradients on their behavior. Changes
in the Darcy number Da, which indicates the medium’s permeability, show a similar
pattern. Figure 6(b) illustrates how the concentration distribution of nanoparticles
decreases as Da values rise. A less concentrated profile may result from this improved
dispersion and decreased concentration of nanoparticles in specific areas caused by

13
Journal of Nonlinear Mathematical Physics (2025) 32:61 Page 13 of 22 61

Fig. 5 Temperature summary for 3D (a) Br (b) Da (c) P r (d) Nt

the enhanced flow. Both phenomena, concentration reduction linked to rising Da

and thermophoretic migration brought on by temperature gradients; emphasize how
sensitive nanoparticle behavior is to changes in flow and thermophysical parameters.
In order to optimize processes that rely on regulated nanoparticle behavior, these
interactions are essential for comprehending the transport and dispersion of nanopar-
ticles in systems where heat and flow characteristics are dynamically connected.
The 3D solutal concentration profiles depicted in the accompanying Fig. 7(a)–(d)
demonstrate how solutal amount falls in consistently by raising the distance from
the surface, which is in line with the 2D plots. The 3D depiction provides a more
comprehensive view of spatial changes and a deeper comprehension of concentration
distribution patterns, in addition to validating the trends observed in the 2D profiles.

5.4 Nanoparticle Volume Fraction Profile

Visualized in the Fig. 8(a)–(d) are illustrations of the effects of the proportion of
nanoparticles by amount on various fluid properties. The graph in Fig. 8(a) illus-
trates how the volume percentage of nanoparticles affects Nt . Since natural convec-
tion becomes more dominant, increasing the thermophoresis parameter Nt can lead
to less intricate and constrained flow paths. Impacts of Da and Brownian motion
parameter Nb on concentration distribution are shown in Fig. 8(b) and (c), respec-

13
 61 Page 14 of 22 Journal of Nonlinear Mathematical Physics (2025) 32:61

Fig. 6 Solutal concentration Profile for 2D (a) P r (b) Da (c) NCT (d) Nt

tively. The porous medium’s permeability is described by its Darcy number Da.
More flow across the medium is encouraged by a higher Da and N b , which speeds up
the transfer of mass and heat. More consistent concentration distributions are made
possible by this. Lower Da values, on the other hand, cause restricted flow and
steeper concentration gradients. They show that enhancing the counts of the Da and
Nb composition profile of nanoparticles may increase as a result of the nanoparticles
experiencing less mixing and having a lower propensity to diffuse evenly throughout
the fluid. Conversely, by increasing the values of NT C , the volume percentage of
nanoparticles declined, they encourage diffusion processes that prevent formation
that dilutes the nanoparticle solution in certain areas like depicted in Fig. 8(d). The
3D profiles of nanoparticles, which exhibit similar patterns to the 2D graphs, with
the volume fraction decreasing as the distance from the surface increases as shown in
Fig. 9(a)–(d). By effectively highlighting spatial variations, the 3D display improves
the coherence of the 2D analysis and provides a clearer picture of the distribution of
nanoparticles.

5.5 Pressure Gradient Variation

As described in Fig. 10(a)–(d), it shows how the pressure difference dx dp

along the x
direction is affected by the key physical factors. In Fig. 10(a), (b), and (d), when the
values of Da , β and k rise, the pressure gradient enhances. An improved pressure
gradient results from increases in the Darcy number Da, Jeffery fluid parameter β ,

13
Journal of Nonlinear Mathematical Physics (2025) 32:61 Page 15 of 22 61

Fig. 7 Solutal concentration of 2D (a) P r (b) Da (c) NCT (d) Nt

and curvature parameter k . Greater permeability, which permits fluid to flow more
readily and increases resistance effects, is indicated by a higher Da. Likewise, an
increase in β enhances buoyant forces which intensifies pressure changes and con-
vection. The pressure gradient is further impacted by higher k, which increases heat
transfer efficiency. In Fig. 10(c), M exhibits an opposite pattern, with higher values
causing the pressure gradient to drop within the same locations. The magnetic param-
eter M shows the reverse trend since a resistive Lorentz force is induced by a rising
magnetic field, which dampens fluid velocity and lowers the pressure gradient.

5.6 Pressure Rise Profile

Plotting flow velocity Q against rising pressure with wavelength ∆ p, the impact of
various factors has been portrayed in Fig. 11(a)–(d). The following parts are used to
categorize the pumping phases in order to reveal every fact of pressure rise. Increas-
ing the Jeffery parameter β and k reduces pressure and resistance in the extended
pumping zone by changing the fluid’s shear-thinning or shear-thickening behavior as
illustrated in Fig. 10(a) and (d). Jeffery parameter processes cause more energy to be
dissipated, which raises the pressure in the retrograde zone. In Fig. 11(b), a stronger
thermal Grashof number Grt increases buoyant forces, which in turn intensifies con-
vection and boosts the pressure rise. In Fig. 11(c), the graph for pressure in contrast to
flow rate is presented for multiple numbers of the Hartmann number M . These num-

13
 61 Page 16 of 22 Journal of Nonlinear Mathematical Physics (2025) 32:61

Fig. 8 Nanoparticles volume fraction distributions representation for 2D (a) Nt (b) Da (c) Nb (d)
NT C

bers show that the flow rate reaches a critical value, at which point the pressure rise
turns negative. Furthermore, there is a negative correlation between the parameters
and the pressure increase before and after this crucial flow rate value. For rising val-
ues of M above the critical point, Fig. 11(c) shows a fall in the pressure values, and
as the values of M advance, the pull of the magnetic field’s impact on the electrically
conducting fluid improves as well. While retrograde and free pumping zones experi-
ence an increase in pressure due to increased electromagnetic resistance to flow.

5.7 Streamline Profile

The characteristics along with the behavior of fluid while it flows are mostly dictated
by the streamlines. Among other things, they assist in defining the field of the fluid’s
flow velocity vector, which enables you to identify if the flow is regular or irregular
(i.e., whether vortices are present). From a physical perspective, this is typical since
the fluids internal thrust increases as the mean flow rate rises. A bolus appears on both
sides of the streamlines, indicating that they are packed when they increase. The trap-
ping phenomenon sometimes takes place when a substance gets subjected to a con-
siderable amplitude range, which is an exclusive hydrodynamic trait that goes hand
in hand with peristaltic mechanisms. Stream threads assume the contours of the wall
when they avoid a trapped lump. The collection of stream patterns in the experimen-
tal frame shows fluid bulk moving both inside and alongside the wave. Trapping is
the process by which adjacent streamlines create a flowing bolus along the motion. In

13
Journal of Nonlinear Mathematical Physics (2025) 32:61 Page 17 of 22 61

Fig. 9 Nanoparticles volume fraction distributions portait for 3D (a) Nt (b) Da (c) Nb (d) NT C

essence, it involves creating a bolus that circulates within. The fluid enclosed through
the barred stream edges is known as the bolus’s volume. This intriguing occur-
rence has significant implications in development and technical expertise and other
physiological secretions. Figure 12 (a-i) shows several values of thermal Grashof
number Grt , solutal Grashof number Grc , and curvature parameter k . Figure 12(d-
f) shows that the confined bolus’s diameter shrinks when the amounts of solutal
Grashof number Grc are increased. As the thermal Grashof number Grt curvature
coefficient k gets larger, the closed bolus’s size expands. It is illustrated that the
bolus’s amplitude rises by enhancing the values of Grt and k .

6 Conclusion

The current study’s mathematical results were obtained by analyzing the rhythmic
movement of a tiny hair-like structure similar to cilia creating an undulation of nano-
fluid through a curved channel, with preference for measurements of heat transfer,
pressure derivative, velocity variation, and streamline graphs, and discussed how dou-
ble diffusion affects a nanofluid’s cilia flow along a curved channel. The solutal con-
centration, temperature, velocity, and nanoparticle controlling equations have been
altered and shown under assumed limitations of low Reynolds number (Re ≈ 0)

13
 61 Page 18 of 22 Journal of Nonlinear Mathematical Physics (2025) 32:61

Fig. 10 Pressure gradient sketch for distinct parameters

Fig. 11 Pressure rise summary for varied parameters

13
Journal of Nonlinear Mathematical Physics (2025) 32:61 Page 19 of 22 61

Fig. 12 The effect of streamlines on Grt, Grc and k

and high wave length (δ ≈ 0). In order to generate a set of nonlinear partial dif-
ferential equations, fluid flow is theoretically described. The differential equations
that were ultimately acquired were solved by the integrated ND Solve tool in Math-
ematica, which is used to numerically calculate the correlated nonlinear differential
equations that yielded extremely accurate and reliable results. A detailed discussion
and graphical representation have been presented to find out the geometric manner of
the investigation’s key characteristics. Based on the computation from the previous
discussion, we summarize our discussion in the important points. The following are
the paper’s primary conclusions:

1. Velocity profile increases with amplifying the quantities of Grf , but gives oppo-
site effects on velocity for Grc , Da, and β .

13
 61 Page 20 of 22 Journal of Nonlinear Mathematical Physics (2025) 32:61

2. The temperature profile is declined through increasing the parameters P r, Da,

and N t . Whereas, contrary behavior is observed for Br.
3. The concentration profile increases as the values of parameters P r, Nt , and Da
are enhanced while an adverse outcome is noted for NCT .
4. The nanoparticle fraction amplifies as the values of parameters N b and Da are
exceeded, but the opposite pattern is perceived for NT C and Nt .
5. The pressure gradient profile is observed to fall by raising the values of M , but
rises with increasing the values of parameters Da, k and β .
6. When M increases, pressure rise per length profile decreases in the augmented
region and increases in the retrograde region, while the converse behavior is dis-
cerned for β and k . The pressure rise enhances with increase of Grt overall.
7. The streamline graphs show that the bolus size increases when Grt and k increase,
but the bolus size reduces as Grc values increase.

Author Contributions A.R done the supervision, S.A wrote the original draft, S. A done the methodology,
S.U.K. done the investigation and validity, G.A done the formal analysis.

Data Availability No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

Declarations

Competing Interests The authors declare no competing interests.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-

NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution
and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s)
and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed
material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article
or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative
Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in
the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or
exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view
a copy of this licence, visit ​h​t​t​p​:​​​/​​/​c​r​e​a​t​i​v​e​c​o​m​m​o​n​​​s​.​o​r​​​g​/​l​i​c​​e​n​s​​e​s​​/​​b​y​​​-​n​c​​-​​n​d​/​4​.​0​/.

References
1. Riaz, A., Almutairi, S., Alhazmi, S.E., Saleem, A., Nadeem, S., Abdelrahman, A.: Insight into the
cilia motion of electrically conducting Cu-blood nano fluid through a uniform curved channel when
entropy generation is significant. Alexandria Eng. J. 61(12), 10613–10630 (2022)
2. Bhatti, M.M., Elelamy, A.F., Sait, M., S., Ellahi, R.: Hydrodynamics interactions of metachronal
waves on particulate-liquid motion through a ciliated annulus: Application of bio-engineering in
blood clotting and endoscopy. Symmetry. 12(4), 532 (2020)
3. Ramesh, K., Tripathi, D., Bég, O.A.: Cilia-assisted hydromagnetic pumping of bio rheological couple
stress fluids. Propuls. Power Res. 8(3), 221–233 (2019)
4. Hussein, S.A., Ahmed, S.E., Arafa, A.A.: Ciliary peristalsis flow of hydromagnetic sutterby nanofluid
through symmetric channel: Viscous dissipation in case of variable electrical conductivity. Eng. Sci.
Technol. Int. J. 62, 101956 (2025)
5. Nadeem, S., Sadaf, H.: Trapping study of nano fluids in an annulus with cilia. AIP Adv., 5(12). (2015)

13
Journal of Nonlinear Mathematical Physics (2025) 32:61 Page 21 of 22 61

6. Jived, K., Alqsair, U.F., Hassan, M., Bhatti, M.M., Ahmad, T., Bobescu, E.: Cilia-assisted flow of
viscoelastic fluid in a divergent channel under porosity effects. Biomech. Model. Mechanobiol. 20,
1399–1412 (2021)
7. Hussein, S.A., Ahmed, S.E., Arafa, A.A., Elshekhipy, A.A.: Temperature-dependent electrical con-
ductivity impact on radiative and dissipative peristaltic transport of Boron nitride‐ethylene glycol
nanofluid through asymmetric channels. ZAMM‐Journal Appl. Math. Mechanics/Zeitschrift Für
Angewandte Math. Und Mechanik, 104(1), e202300136. (2024)
8. Choi, S.U.S.: Nanofluid Technology: Current Status and Future Research (No. ANL/ET/CP-97466).
Argonne National Lab.(ANL), Argonne, IL (1998). (United States)
9. Buongiorno, J.: Convective transport in nanofluids. (2006)
10. Ahmed, S.E., Arafa, A.A., Hussein, S.A.: Viscous dissipation and joule heating in case of variable
electrical conductivity Carreau–Yasuda nanofluid flow in a complex wavy asymmetric channel
through porous media. Mod. Phys. Lett. B. 38(36), 2450369 (2024)
11. Ajmal, M., Mehmood, R., Akbar, N.S., Muhammad, T.: Computational study on cilia transport of
Prandtl nanofluid (blood-Fe3O4) enhancing convective heat transfer along microorganisms under
electroosmotic effects in wavy capillaries. Int. J. Numer. Methods Heat. Fluid Flow. 35(6), 2180–
2204 (2025)
12. Akram, S., Zafar, M., Nadeem, S.: Peristaltic transport of a Jeffrey fluid with double-diffusive con-
vection in nanofluids in the presence of inclined magnetic field. Int. J. Geom. Methods Mod. Phys.
15(11), 1850181 (2018)
13. Alqarni, A.J., Abo-Elkhair, R.E., Elsaid, E.M., Abdel-Aty, A.H., Abdel-wahed, M.S.: Effect of mag-
netic force and moderate Reynolds number on MHD Jeffrey hybrid nanofluid through peristaltic
channel: Application of cancer treatment. Eur. Phys. J. Plus. 138(2), 1–30 (2023)
14. Khan, M., Iftikhar, F., Anjum, A.: Some unsteady flows of a Jeffrey fluid between two side walls over
a plane wall. Z. Für Naturforschung A. 66(12), 745–752 (2011)
15. Elsaid, E.M., Abo Elkhair, R.E.: Induced magnetic force and curvature effect of ternary hybrid nano-
fluid (jeffrey model) in ciliary peristaltic channels. Int. J. Model. Simul., 1–19. (2024)
16. Elsaid, E.M.: Simulation of blood flow in a tapered artery with ternary hybrid nanofluid and Jeffrey
model. Mod. Phys. Lett. B. 39(20), 2550056 (2025)
17. Jeffrey, A.S., Shanmugapriya, M., Sundareswaran, R., Fernandez-Gamiz, U.: MHD ternary (Ag–
CuO–SWCNT) blood-based Jeffrey nanofluid flow with surface catalyzed reaction. AIP Adv., 15(4).
(2025)
18. Nazeer, M., Hussain, F., Khan, M.I., Shahzad, Q., Chu, Y.M., Kadry, S.: MHD two-phase flow of
Jeffrey fluid suspended with hafnium and crystal particles: Analytical treatment. Numer. Methods
Partial Differ. Equations, 40(2), e22766. (2024)
19. Aifantis, E.C.: Continuum basis for diffusion in regions with multiple diffusivity. J. Appl. Phys.
50(3), 1334–1338 (1979)
20. Pop, I., Ingham, D.B.: Convective Heat Transfer: Mathematical and Computational Modeling of
Viscous Fluids and Porous Media. Elsevier (2001)
21. Somers, E.V.: Theoretical considerations of combined thermal and mass transfer from a vertical flat
plate. (1956)
22. Raju, A., Ojjela, O., Kambhatla, P.K.: The combined effects of induced magnetic field, thermophore-
sis and brownian motion on double stratified nonlinear convective-radioactive Jeffrey nanofluid flow
with heat source/sink. J. Anal. 28, 503–532 (2020)
23. Nield, D.A., Kuznetsov, A.V.: The onset of double-diffusive convection in a nanofluid layer. Int. J.
Heat Fluid Flow. 32(4), 771–776 (2011)
24. Prakash, J., Sharma, A., Tripathi, D.: Convective heat transfer and double diffusive convection in
ionic nanofluids flow driven by peristalsis and electromagnet hydrodynamics. Pramana. 94, 1–17
(2020)
25. Nadeem, S., Sadaf, H.: Theoretical analysis of Cu-blood nanofluid for metachronal wave of cilia
motion in a curved channel. IEEE Trans. Nanobiosci. 14(4), 447–454 (2015)
26. Saleem, A., Akhtar, S., Alharbi, F.M., Nadeem, S., Ghalambaz, M., Issakhov, A.: Physical aspects
of peristaltic flow of hybrid nano fluid inside a curved tube having ciliated wall. Results Phys. 19,
103431 (2020)

13
 61 Page 22 of 22 Journal of Nonlinear Mathematical Physics (2025) 32:61

Authors and Affiliations

Arshad Riaz1 · Saima Ayub1 · Safia Akram2 · Sami Ullah Khan3 ·

Ghaliah Alhamzi4

Ghaliah Alhamzi
gyalhamzi@[Link]

1
Department of Mathematics, Division of Science and Technology, University of Education,
Lahore 54770, Pakistan
2
MCS, National University of Sciences and Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan
3
Department of Mathematics, Namal University, Mianwali, Pakistan
4
Department of Mathematics and Statistics, College of Science, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud
Islamic University (IMSIU), Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

13