Introduction to oscillator
An oscillator is an electronic circuit capable of generating periodic waveforms of
a desired frequency. These waveforms may be harmonic waveforms such as
sinusoidal waves or relaxation waveforms such as saw-tooth waves, square
waves or triangular waves.
Therefore oscillators can be generally classified as (i) sinusoidal oscillators and
(ii) relaxation oscillators. As periodic waveforms are required in all
communication, measurement, display and signal processing applications,
oscillators form an essential and integral part of any electronic system.
Oscillatory Circuit or Tank Circuit or L-C circuit or Resonator Circuit The heart of
any electronic oscillator is a tank circuit constructed by connecting an inductor
L and a capacitor C in parallel to each other. This L-C combination, also called as
the oscillatory circuit, generates periodic waveforms having a frequency
determined by the values of L and C.
Working
The working of a tank circuit leading to the generation of oscillations
can be analysed in four stages as shown in Figs. 4.1(i-iv).
Stage - I: Let us consider the inductor and capacitor are connected in
parallel through a switch S. Further let us assume that the capacitor is
charged fully from a D.C source with its lower plate say A having an
excess of −ve charge and the upper plate B having an excess of +ve
charge. In this fully charge state, the electric field across the capacitor
is a maximum. As the switch S is open no charges flow across the
inductor and hence no magnetic flux is generated across it.
Consequently the magnetic field energy across the inductor is zero.
Stage - II: When the switch S is closed, −ve charges start to flow from A
to B through the inductor L giving rise to an electric current in the
direction shown in Fig. 1(b). This causes the capacitor C to discharge,
which leads to a decrease in its electric field. However the flow of the
charges will set up magnetic flux across the inductor, thereby setting up
a magnetic field and an electro-motive force emf across it. This emf will
try to oppose the motion of charges, e = − dφ dt . This is shown in Fig.
4.1(b).
Stage - III: When the charges across plates A and B become
balanced or neutralized, the electric field across the capacitor
becomes zero. However, the emf across the inductor at this point
becomes a maximum. It now causes the motion of −ve charges
from plates B to A of the capacitor building up an electric field
across it, but now in an opposite direction as shown in Fig. 1(c). At
the end of this process, as the emf opposes the motion of the
charges, the magnetic flux generated across the inductor
decreases. Hence, the magnetic energy built up across it eventually
becomes zero.
Stage - IV: As the electric field energy across the capacitor is now
maximum, it starts to discharge, causing the electric field across it
to decrease. This will however increase the magnetic field across
the inductor. The only difference in this case when compared to
stage -I is that the direction of the current flow as well as the
direction of the magnetic flux will be opposite as shown in Fig. 1(d).
This four-stage process is continued alternatively in time giving rise
to periodic variations in the intensities of currents and voltages in
the circuit thereby setting up oscillations in it
Principle
The capacitor and the inductor are both energy storing elements,
with the capacitor storing energy in the form of electric field and
the inductor storing energy in the form of magnetic field. When a
capacitor charges up, its electric field energy increases. On the
other hand if it discharges, its electric field energy decreases.
Similarly, when the magnetic flux associated with the motion of
electrons across the inductor increases, the magnetic field energy
of the inductor increases, while it decreases otherwise. Thus by
alternatively charging and discharging a capacitor or increasing
and decreasing the magnetic flux associated with the inductor, we
get periodic variations in the intensities of the currents or voltages
across the circuit, which we call as oscillations.
Transistor Oscillators
The block diagram of a transistor oscillator is shown in Fig. It
consists of three parts, namely 1. the tank circuit 2. an amplifier 3.
feedback
Tank Circuit This is the heart of the oscillator. It consists of an
inductor L and a capacitor C connected in parallel to each other. It
generates waveforms of frequency determined by the relation f =
1 /2π √ LC .
Transistor Amplifier This circuit takes the oscillations of the tank
circuit and gives an amplified form of these as the output. For this
purpose, it requires a DC power source. It converts the DC power
into AC power. Feedback Network This circuit determines the
fraction of the output energy of the transistor amplifier that
should be taken and given as the input to the tank circuit as
positive feedback so as to overcome the I 2R losses in energy
during each cycle of oscillation.
Oscillators can also be classified into various types depending on the parameter considered i.e.
based on the feedback mechanism, the shape of the output waveform, etc.. These classifications
types have been given below:
[Link] Based on the Feedback Mechanism: Positive Feedback Oscillators and Negative
Feedback Oscillators.
[Link] Based on the Shape of the Output Waveform: Sine Wave Oscillators, Square or
Rectangular Wave oscillators, Sweep Oscillators (which produce saw-tooth output waveform),
etc.
[Link] Based on the Frequency of the Output Signal: Low-Frequency Oscillators,
Audio Oscillators (whose output frequency is of audio range), Radio Frequency Oscillators,
High-Frequency Oscillators, Very High-Frequency Oscillators, Ultra High-Frequency
Oscillators, etc.
[Link] Based on the type of Frequency Control Used: RC Oscillators, LC Oscillators,
Crystal Oscillators (which use a quartz crystal to result in a frequency-stabilized output
waveform), etc.
[Link] Based on the Nature of the Frequency of Output Waveform: Fixed Frequency
Oscillators and Variable or Tunable Frequency Oscillators.
Oscillator Applications
Oscillator Applications: Oscillators provide a cost-effective method for generating specific
frequencies. For instance, RC oscillators generate low frequencies, LC oscillators produce high
frequencies, and Op-Amp based oscillators ensure stable frequencies.
The frequency of oscillation can be varied by varying the component value with potentiometer
arrangements.
Some common applications of oscillators include:
•Quartz watches (which uses a crystal oscillator)
•Used in various audio systems and video systems
•Used in various radio, TV, and other communication devices
•Used in computers, metal detectors, stun guns, inverters, ultrasonic and radio frequency
applications.
•Used to generate clock pulses for microprocessors and micro-controllers
•Used in alarms and buzzes
•Used in metal detectors, stun guns, inverters, and ultrasonic
•Used to operate decorative lights (e.g. dancing lights)