Linear Algebra — Key Concepts Notes

Linear Algebra
Key Concepts with Augmented Matrix Examples
FA23-BAI-002 | COMSATS University Islamabad, Wah Campus

Quick Summary — All 8 Concepts

Use this table as a cheat-sheet. The key to everything: if a FREE VARIABLE exists after row reduction
→ non-trivial solution exists → vectors are linearly dependent.

Concept Meaning Key condition Memory tip

Consistent Has a solution At least one solution Con = can be solved

exists

Inconsistent No solution Row gives 0 = nonzero In = impossible

(contradiction)

Homogeneous Ax = 0 RHS is all zeros Homo = zero on the

right

Non-homogeneous Ax = b, b ≠ 0 RHS has at least one Non = not zero on right

non-zero

Trivial solution x=0 Every variable = 0. Trivial = just plug zero,

Always exists in Ax = 0 done

Non-trivial solution x≠0 Free variable exists Needs free variable to

after row reduction exist

Linearly No vector = combo Only solution to Each vector adds a

independent of others c1v1+...=0 is all c=0 NEW direction

Linearly One vector = combo Free variable exists in One vector is

dependent of others row reduction redundant/extra

1. Consistent System
A system is CONSISTENT when it has at least one solution (either unique or infinitely many). After row
reduction, no row gives a contradiction like [ 0 0 | 5 ].

Example — unique solution (consistent)

System: x + y = 5 and x − y = 1

Step Augmented matrix / working What it tells us

Write [ 1 1 | 5 ] [ 1 -1 | 1 ] Two equations, two unknowns

augmented

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 Linear Algebra — Key Concepts Notes

matrix

R2 → R2 − R1 [ 1 1 | 5 ] [ 0 -2 | -4 ] Eliminate x from R2

R1 → R1 − [ 1 0 | 3 ] [ 0 1 | 2 ] Back-substitute to get RREF

(1/2)R2 ...simpl
ified

Read solution x = 3, y = 2 Unique solution →

CONSISTENT

Result: x = 3, y = 2 → Consistent (unique solution)

2. Inconsistent System
A system is INCONSISTENT when there is NO solution at all. After row reduction, you will find a row
that says [ 0 0 | nonzero ] — a contradiction (0 = 5 is impossible).

Example — no solution (inconsistent)

System: x + y = 5 and x + y = 9

Step Augmented matrix / working What it tells us

Write [ 1 1 | 5 ] [ 1 1 | 9 ] Same left side, different right

augmented side
matrix

R2 → R2 − R1 [ 1 1 | 5 ] [ 0 0 | 4 ] Identical rows cancel out

Read result Row 2 says: 0x + 0y = 4 0 = 4 is impossible →

INCONSISTENT

Result: No solution → Inconsistent

3. Homogeneous System (Ax = 0)

RHS is ALL ZEROS. Always consistent (trivial solution x = 0 always works). May also have non-trivial
solutions if a free variable exists.

Example — homogeneous system

System: 2x − 4y = 0 and x − 2y = 0

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 Linear Algebra — Key Concepts Notes

Step Augmented matrix / working What it tells us

Write [ 2 -4 | 0 ] [ 1 -2 | 0 ] RHS is 0,0 → homogeneous

augmented
matrix

R1 → R1 ÷ 2 [ 1 -2 | 0 ] [ 1 -2 | 0 ] Scale R1

R2 → R2 − R1 [ 1 -2 | 0 ] [ 0 0 | 0 ] Rows identical → zero row

Read result x = 2t, y = t (t is free) Free variable t → infinite

solutions

Result: x = 2t, y = t → Homogeneous, infinite solutions

4. Non-Homogeneous System (Ax = b, b ≠ 0)

RHS has at least one non-zero value. May be consistent (1 or infinite solutions) or inconsistent (no
solution).

Example — non-homogeneous with unique solution

System: x + 2y = 7 and 3x − y = 7

Step Augmented matrix / working What it tells us

Write [ 1 2 | 7 ] [ 3 -1 | 7 ] RHS = 7,7 ≠ 0 → non-

augmented homogeneous
matrix

R2 → R2 − 3R1 [ 1 2 | 7 ] [ 0 -7 | -14 ] Eliminate x from R2

R2 → R2 ÷ (−7) [ 1 2 | 7 ] [ 0 1 | 2 ] Scale R2 to get pivot = 1

R1 → R1 − 2R2 [ 1 0 | 3 ] [ 0 1 | 2 ] x=3, y=2 → unique solution

Result: x = 3, y = 2 → Non-homogeneous, consistent, unique solution

5. Trivial Solution
x = 0 (every single variable = 0). ONLY occurs in homogeneous systems (Ax = 0). It ALWAYS exists —
you never need to find it, just plug in zeros and it works.

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 Linear Algebra — Key Concepts Notes
Example — identifying the trivial solution
System (homogeneous): x − 3y + 2z = 0 and 2x − 6y + 4z = 0

Step Augmented matrix / working What it tells us

Write [ 1 -3 2 | 0 ] [ 2 -6 4 | RHS all zero → homogeneous

augmented 0 ]
matrix

R2 → R2 − 2R1 [ 1 -3 2 | 0 ] [ 0 0 0 | R2 becomes zero row → free

0 ] vars

Trivial solution x=0, y=0, z=0 Always works → TRIVIAL

Non-trivial y=s, z=t free: x=3s−2t, y=s, z=t Exists because free vars exist
solution

Trivial: x=0, y=0, z=0 always works → Non-trivial also exists (free variables y, z)

6. Non-Trivial Solution
At least one variable ≠ 0. Only exists when there is a FREE VARIABLE after row reduction. You write it
in parametric vector form.

Example — finding non-trivial solutions

System (homogeneous): x1 − 2x2 + x3 = 0

Step Augmented matrix / working What it tells us

Write [ 1 -2 1 | 0 ] 1 equation, 3 unknowns

augmented
matrix

Already in [ 1 -2 1 | 0 ] Pivot col: x1 x1 is pivot, x2 & x3 are free

echelon form Free: x2=s, x3=t

Identify pivots & x1 = 2s − t x2 = s x3 = t Express pivot in terms of free

free vars vars

Write x = s[2,1,0] + t[-1,0,1] Two direction vectors → non-

parametric form trivial

When s=1,t=0: x=(2,1,0) ≠ 0 → Non-trivial solution exists!

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 Linear Algebra — Key Concepts Notes

7. Linearly Independent
A set of vectors is linearly INDEPENDENT if the ONLY way to write c1v1 + c2v2 + ... = 0 is when ALL
constants c = 0. After forming a matrix and row reducing → NO free variable → only trivial solution.

Example — checking independence

Are v1 = [1, 0, 0], v2 = [0, 1, 0], v3 = [0, 0, 1] linearly independent?
Form matrix A with v1,v2,v3 as columns and solve Ax = 0:

Step Augmented matrix / working What it tells us

Write [ 1 0 0 | 0 ] [ 0 1 0 | 0 ] Ax=0, columns are the vectors

augmented [ 0 0 1 | 0 ]
matrix

Already in [ 1 0 0 | 0 ] [ 0 1 0 | 0 ] Identity matrix — already done

RREF [ 0 0 1 | 0 ]

Count pivots 3 pivot columns 0 free variables Every column is a pivot

column

Conclusion Only solution: x1=x2=x3=0 Trivial solution only →

INDEPENDENT

No free variable → only trivial solution → Linearly INDEPENDENT

8. Linearly Dependent
A set of vectors is linearly DEPENDENT if at least one vector can be written as a combination of the
others. After forming matrix and row reducing → FREE VARIABLE exists → non-trivial solution exists.

Example — checking dependence

Are v1=[1,2], v2=[2,4], v3=[3,6] linearly independent?
Form matrix A with v1,v2,v3 as columns and solve Ax = 0:

Step Augmented matrix / working What it tells us

Write [ 1 2 3 | 0 ] [ 2 4 6 | 0 ] 3 vectors as columns

augmented
matrix

R2 → R2 − 2R1 [ 1 2 3 | 0 ] [ 0 0 0 | 0 ] R2 is just 2×R1 → zero row

Identify pivots & Pivot: x1 only Free: x2=s, x3=t 2 free variables!
free vars

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 Linear Algebra — Key Concepts Notes

Conclusion x1 = -2s - 3t Non-trivial exists! Free vars exist →

DEPENDENT

Note: v2 = 2v1 and v3 = 3v1 — they all point in same direction! → Linearly DEPENDENT

The Golden Rule — Remember This!

FREE VARIABLE EXISTS NO FREE VARIABLE

→ Non-trivial solution exists → Only trivial solution (x=0)
→ Infinitely many solutions → Unique solution
→ Vectors are DEPENDENT → Vectors are INDEPENDENT
→ Homogeneous system (Ax=0) → Every column is a pivot col

Step-by-step exam strategy:

• Look at the RHS — all zeros? → Homogeneous (Ax=0). Any non-zero? → Non-homogeneous.
• Write the augmented matrix [A | b].
• Row reduce to echelon form using row operations.
• Check for contradiction row [0 0 ... 0 | nonzero] → Inconsistent (stop here).
• Count pivot columns vs total columns → free variables = total − pivots.
• Free variables exist → non-trivial solutions → dependent vectors → infinite solutions.
• No free variables → only trivial solution → independent vectors → unique solution (if
consistent).

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