UNIT ONE

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 The Nature and Uses of History

A. Definition of History

The term history comes from the Greek word Istoria, which means “inquiry” or “an account of
one’s inquiries.” The first known use of the word is credited to Herodotus (c. 484–425 B.C.E.),
an ancient Greek historian often called the “father of history.”

In general, history refers to everything that has happened in the human past. The past includes
both the events themselves and the facts that have been recorded in writing. In this way, history
is a branch of social science that deals with specific past events.

In academic terms, history is defined as the organized and systematic study of the past. This
study includes the discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of information about past
events.

B. Nature of History

The number of things that actually happened in the past is almost limitless. Like natural
scientists, historians choose the topics and problems they want to study.

History mainly focuses on human society and how it interacts with the natural environment—
something that other disciplines also study.

Key points about the nature of history:

 History is different from other disciplines because it studies human-environment

interactions in the past, while other disciplines usually focus on the present.
 History is about facts, truth, and reality. It is not free from questions, and it is never
complete.

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  History is not fiction, a story, a novel, or something vague. It is a real academic
discipline.
 History cannot be reversed or undone. It is recorded based on oral and written sources.
 History is both an art and a science.

C. Key Elements of History

1. Periodization
This means dividing historical time into sections like ancient, medieval, and modern. Human life
in the past whether social, cultural, economic, or political—has changed over time. However,
some things stay more or less the same for a long period.

For example:

 We still speak the languages of our ancestors.

 We follow their beliefs and religious practices.
 We wear similar clothes.
 We continue their farming or herding ways of life.
 We keep their basic social structures.

2. Uses of History

People live in the present and think about the future, but history studies the past. Why is this
important?

a. History Helps Better Understand the Present

History is the best source of information for understanding how people behaved in the past.
Without this, it's hard to understand today’s problems. Knowing historical background helps us
understand many current world issues better.

b. History Provides a Sense of Identity

History helps us know who we are and how we fit into the world. Just as memory helps an
individual function, history helps a society stay connected and make smart decisions. It defines
identity and helps societies understand their past and their connections to other communities.

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c. History Provides Background for Other Disciplines
Knowledge of history is useful for understanding subjects like literature, art, philosophy,
religion, sociology, political science, anthropology, and economics.

d. History Teaches Critical Skills

Studying history helps develop research skills, such as how to find and judge sources, build
arguments, and present ideas clearly in writing.

e. History Helps Develop Tolerance and Open-Mindedness

Learning about other societies from the past is like traveling to another culture. It helps students
see beyond their own cultural assumptions and builds flexible thinking useful in many life
situations.

f. History is a Source of Fascination

Studying how people in the past lived their lives gives us a sense of beauty, excitement, and a
deeper understanding of human life.

Conclusion
History is essential for both individuals and society.

3. Sources

Historians are not fiction writers. Their work must be supported by evidence from sources,
which bring the past to life. It is said: “where there are no sources, there is no history.”

Historical sources are mainly divided into two types: Primary and Secondary.

I. Primary Sources

Primary sources are very close in time and space to the event they describe. They are created by
people involved in the events or by eyewitnesses. These are also called original sources or
evidence.

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Examples include:

 Manuscripts (handwritten documents)

 Diaries and letters
 Meeting minutes, court records, administrative files
 Travel documents, photos, maps
 Videos, audio materials
 Artifacts like coins, fossils, tools, weapons, clothes, buildings

Primary sources are usually more reliable and authentic than secondary ones.

II. Secondary Sources

Secondary sources are written later and give second-hand accounts of past events. They explain
what happened, why it happened, and how it happened—often based on primary sources.

Examples include:

 Articles
 Books and textbooks
 Biographies
 Published stories or movies based on historical events

Secondary sources give us completed pictures of past events. But history is never final—new
sources lead to new interpretations. No source is beyond question.

Both primary and secondary sources must be critically examined:

 Check primary sources for originality (e.g., some letters may be forged).
 Check secondary sources for accurate interpretations.
 Oral sources can change over time and should be cross-checked with written ones.

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Oral Sources

Oral sources are especially useful for studying non-literate societies. They can be both primary
and secondary, and help fill gaps in written records.

Two types of oral data:

 Oral tradition: cultural information passed down (e.g., folk songs, sayings)
 Oral history: personal memories and testimonies

✔ Both primary and secondary sources are equally important—if they are verified to be true.

1.3 Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn

Concepts of History Writing

 Historiography: the method of writing history

 Chronicle: history of kings or queens
 Biography: life story of a person
 Hagiography: life stories of saints, monks, churches, or sheikhs

Historiography is the study of how history is written and passed down. People have always had a
sense of the past, but writing history with critical methods is more recent.

History of Historiography

 The first organized history writing was done by ancient Greek historians like Herodotus
and Thucydides.
 In China, Sima Qian (145–86 B.C.E.) was an early historian during the Han dynasty.
 In the 1800s, history became an academic subject in Europe and the USA.
 Leopold Von Ranke (1795–1886), a German historian, is called the “father of modern
historiography” for developing historical methods and treating history as a science.

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Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn

This has changed a lot over the last hundred years. Some early references:

 The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea: written in the 1st century A.D by an unknown
author.
 Christian Topography: written by Cosmas Indicopleustes (6th century A.D.), about
Aksum's trade and military campaigns.
 7th-century manuscripts found in Abba Gerima monastery (Yeha).
 13th-century manuscripts from Haiq Istifanos monastery (Wollo). These were mostly
religious.
 Hagiographies from the Ethiopian Orthodox Church (written in Ge’ez). These tell stories
of saints, but also include information on church, state, and kings.
 A Muslim hagiographical tradition also existed, like the story of Shaykh Ja’far
Bukko of Gattira (Wollo, 19th century), which gives insight into local Islam and its
global links.

Chronicles

Ethiopia had its own tradition of writing royal histories, called chronicles, beginning in the 14th
century in Ge’ez and later in Amharic.

Examples:

 The Glorious Victories of Amde-Tsion

 The Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu

Features of chronicles:

 Combine facts and legends

 Include information on royal genealogy, battles, religious devotion, leadership
 Use strong chronological order
 Do not focus much on numbers or economic/social life
 Explain events mostly in religious terms

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Written accounts of Arabic-speaking visitors to the coast

Written accounts by Arabic-speaking visitors to the coast provide useful information on different
parts of the region’s history. Some of these visitors and their contributions are listed below:

Al-Masudi
He described the culture, language, and import-export trade in the main central region of the East
African coast in the tenth century.

Ibn Battuta
He described the culture, language, and import-export trade in the same region during the
fourteenth century.

Shihab ad-Din

 He wrote a book titled Futuh al Habesha.

 He recorded the conflict between the Christian kingdom and the Muslim principalities in
the sixteenth century.
 He described the conquest of northern and central Ethiopia by Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim
al-Ghazi.
 His writing also covers major towns and their people in southeastern Ethiopia up until
1535.

Al-Haymi

 He gave a first-hand account of Ethiopia.

 He came to Ethiopia in 1647, leading a Yemeni delegation to the court of Emperor
Fasiledes (r. 1632–1667).

Accounts of European missionaries and travelers

From the early sixteenth to the late nineteenth centuries, Catholic and Protestant missionaries
came to Ethiopia intending to stay. Their writings give us valuable information over a long

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period. They cover topics such as religious and political changes in Ethiopia and the country’s
relations with other countries. Among these travelers and sailors were:

Francisco Alvarez

 He was a Portuguese priest.

 He wrote a book titled The Prester John of the Indies.
 He came with the Portuguese mission to the court of Emperor Lebna Dengel in 1520.

James Bruce

 He traveled to find the source of the Nile River.

Although the materials written by missionaries and travelers are valuable, they must be used
carefully because they often reflect social and political bias.

Foreign writers

Hiob Ludolf (1624–1704)

 He was a German and is considered the founder of Ethiopian studies in Europe in the
seventeenth century.
 He wrote Historia Aethiopica, which was translated into English as A New History of
Ethiopia.
 Although he never visited Ethiopia, he wrote about its history using information from an
Ethiopian priest named Abba Gorgorios (Abba Gregory), who was in Europe at the time.

August Dillman

 In the nineteenth century, he published two studies on ancient Ethiopian history.

 Compared to Ludolf, Dillman showed more objectivity in his historical research.

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Ethiopian writers as references: Traditionalists, Modernists, and Postmodernists

i. Traditional Ethiopian writers before the occupation

In the early twentieth century, Ethiopian historical writing began to change from the old
chronicle tradition. Traditional writers began to move away from praising kings and started
addressing other important topics.

Early writers included Aleqa Taye Gebre-Mariam, Aleqa Asme Giorgis, and Debtera Fisseha-
Giorgis Abyezgi. Later, Negadras Afework Gebre-Iyesus and Gebre-Hiwot Baykedagn joined
them. These writers explored topics like social justice, government reform, economic analysis,
and history. Taye and Fisseha-Giorgis wrote books on Ethiopian history, while Asme wrote
about the Oromo people.

Negadras Afework Gebre-Iyesus

 He wrote Tobiya, the first Amharic novel in Ethiopian history.

Gebre-Hiwot Baykedagn

 He wrote Atse Menilekna Ityopia (Emperor Menilek and Ethiopia) and Mengistna Yehizb
Astedader (Government and Public Administration).

Blatten Geta Hiruy Wolde-Selassie

 He was the most productive Ethiopian writer in the early twentieth century.
 He wrote four major works:
o Ethiopiana Ena Metema (Ethiopia and Metema)
o Wazema (Eve)
o Yehiwot Tarik (A Biographical Dictionary)
o Yeityopia Tarik (A History of Ethiopia)

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Gebre-Hiwot and Hiruy were more objective and used better research methods than earlier
writers. Unfortunately, the Italian occupation interrupted their efforts in modern history writing
and publication.

ii. Traditional Ethiopian writers in the post-liberation period

Tekle-Tsadik Mekuria

 He connected the writers of the pre-1935 period with the professional historians who
came later.
 He published about eight historical works.
 He was better at evaluating his sources than earlier writers.

Yilma Deressa

 He wrote A History of Ethiopia in the Sixteenth Century.

 The book focuses on the Oromo movement and the wars between the Christian kingdom
and the Muslim sultanates.

Blatten Geta Mahteme-Selassie Wolde-Meskel

 He wrote Zikre Neger, a detailed account of Ethiopia’s landholding and taxation systems
before the war.

Gebre-Wold Engidawork

 He wrote about Ethiopia’s land tenure systems.

Dejazmach Kebede Tesema

 He wrote about the imperial period. His work was published as Yetarik Mastawesha in
1962 E.C.

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The 1960s were a key time for the growth of Ethiopian history writing. During this decade,
history became a recognized academic subject. This happened due to the following
developments:

 The History Department was opened in 1963 at the then Haile Selassie I University.
 By the late 1960s, students began writing BA theses.
 The Department started its MA program in 1979 and PhD program in 1990.
 Since then, many Ethiopians and foreign students have written theses on various
historical topics.

The Institute of Ethiopian Studies (IES) was also established in 1963. It became an important
place for historical research.

 The late Richard Pankhurst, its founding member and first Director, was a leading
historian.
 He wrote or co-wrote 22 books and hundreds of articles about Ethiopia.
 IES also publishes the Journal of Ethiopian Studies to share historical research.

Regarding African historiography

African historiography developed mostly after independence, as African countries began to re-
explore their own histories. This included recovering evidence of lost pre-colonial civilizations
and correcting the colonial historical narrative.

 Historians began using oral traditions, archaeology, anthropology, and linguistics.

 European scholars also contributed to African historiography.
 Major research was done at institutions like the School of Oriental and African Studies
(SOAS) in London and the University of Wisconsin-Madison.
 Francophone scholars were just as important as Anglophone scholars.
 However, African historiography was not only developed by Europeans.
 African universities trained their own scholars, many of whom studied abroad and later
published significant works on the history of their regions.

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 CHAPTER TWO

2. PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN

2.1 Human Evolution

Human evolution makes up only a small part of the Earth's long history. The Earth formed about
4.5 billion years ago through natural processes. Life first appeared between 3 and 1 billion years
ago.

Primates (a group of mammals that includes humans) evolved from placental mammals around
200–170 million years ago. From these early primates:

 Some evolved into Pongidae (like gorillas, chimpanzees, orangutans, and gibbons),
 Others evolved into Hominidae, the ancestors of humans.

Archaeological evidence shows that the East African Rift Valley is the birthplace of
humankind.
Important discoveries related to biological and cultural evolution were made in the Lower
Omo and Middle Awash River valleys by both Ethiopian and foreign researchers.

Here are some major fossil discoveries:

Fossil Name Location & Year Age (Years BP)

Chororapithecus Anchar (West Hararghe), 2007 10 million
Ardipithicus ramidus kadabba Middle Awash 5.8–5.2 million
Ardipithicus ramidus Afar, 1994 4.2 million
Australopithecines Belohdelie, Middle Awash 3.6 million
Selam Dikika, Mille, Afar, 2000 3.3 million
Lucy/Dinkinesh Hadar, Afar, 1974 3.18 million
Anamensis Lake Turkana —
Garhi Bouri, Middle Awash, 1996– 2.5 million
1999

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The next major step in human evolution involved brain development, which led to the
emergence of the Genus Homo, around 2–2.5 million years ago. Fossils of this genus have been
found in various parts of Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa.

i. Homo habilis

 The name means “skillful human” in Latin.

 Lived around 1.9 million years ago; fossils were found in the Lower Omo.
 Known as “Handyman” for making stone tools.
 Found only in East Africa.

ii. Homo erectus

 Known for walking upright.

 Dated to about 1.6 million years ago; found at Melka Kunture, Konso Gardula, and
Gadeb.
 Originated in Africa and later spread to Asia and Europe (including China, Germany, and
Spain).
 Controlled fire and began burial practices.

iii. Homo sapiens

 Meaning “wise human.”

 First appeared around 400,000 years ago.
 Fossils of Homo sapiens sapiens (modern humans) dated to 100,000 years BP were
found at Porc Epic near Dire Dawa and Kibish in Lower Omo (1967).
 In 2004, the Kibish fossils were re-dated to 195,000 BP, making them the oldest known
Homo sapiens.
 Homo sapiens idaltu, found in 1997 at Middle Awash, lived around 160,000 BP.
 Had a larger brain, rounder skull, and smaller jaws and teeth.

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3. Cultural Evolution
Cultural evolution refers to technological changes that improved human life. It is usually divided
into the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age.

Stone Age

 A time when people made tools from stone—humanity’s first major technology.
 Stone tools are grouped into three modes based on their features and how they were
made.

Mode I: Olduwan

 Named after Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania.

 Crude, one-sided tools made by direct striking.
 Made by Homo habilis.
 Found at Gona (dated to 2.52 million years BP) and Shungura in Afar.

Mode II: Acheulean

 Named after discoveries at St. Acheul, France.

 Bifacial (two-sided), pointed, and rounded tools made by indirect percussion (hand axes
or hammers).
 Made by Homo erectus from 1.7 million years BP.
 Found at Kella, Middle Awash (1963).

Mode III: Sangoon

 More refined tools made with obsidian (volcanic glass).

 Made by Homo sapiens from around 300,000 years BP.
 Found at Gademotta in the central Ethiopian Rift Valley (dated to 200,000 BP).

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Stone Tool Periods

1. Old Stone Age (Paleolithic) – 3.4 million to 11,000 BP

 People lived in caves.

 Developed language.
 Used stone, bone, wood, and animal skins for food and clothing.
 Labor was divided by sex and age: men hunted animals, women and children gathered
plants.

2. Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic) – 11,000 to 10,000 BP

3. New Stone Age (Neolithic Revolution) – 10,000 to 6,000 BP

 People began using axes, grinding stones, beads, pottery, and stone figures.
 Tools from this period were found at Gobodara rock shelter near Aksum.
 Rock art showing domesticated animals was found at Laga Oda near Charchar.
 People became more sedentary.
 They shifted from foraging to domesticating plants and animals.
 People started farming grasses with edible seeds, such as:
o Teff (Eragrostis teff)
o Dagussa (Eleusine coracana)
o Nug (Guzotia abyssinica)
o Enset (Ensete ventricosum)
 Domesticating enset reduced shifting agriculture and helped preserve soil.
 Evidence for domesticated cattle was found near Lake Basaqa around Matahara.

2.3 The Peopling of the Region

2.3.1 Languages and Linguistic Processes

Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa are known for their rich ethnic and linguistic diversity, with
about 90 languages and 200 dialects spoken today. Linguists classify these languages into two
major super-families:

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A. Afro-Asiatic Super Family

Divided into three language families:

i. Cushitic:
Divided into four branches:

 Northern: Beja (spoken in northwestern Eritrea near Sudan)

 Central: Agaw (Awign, Kunfel, Qimant, Hamtanga, Bilen)
 Eastern: Afar, Ale, Arbore, Baiso, Burji, Darashe, Dasanech, Gedeo, Hadiya, Halaba,
Kambata, Konso, Libido, Mosiye, Oromo, Saho, Sidama, Somali, Tambaro, Tsemai, etc.
 Southern: Dhalo (Kenya), Nbugua (Tanzania)

ii. Semitic:
Divided into:

 North: Ge’ez, Rashaida (Eritrea-Sudan border), Tigre (Eritrean Lowlands), Tigrigna

(Eritrean and Tigray Highlands)
 South:
o Inner group: Amharic, Argoba, Harari, Silte, Wolane, Zay
o Outer group: Gafat (extinct), Gurage, Mesmes (endangered)

iii. Omotic:
Languages include Anfillo, Ari, Banna, Basketo, Bench, Boro-Shinasha, Chara, Dawuro, Dime,
Dizi, Gamo, Gofa, Hamer, Karo, Keficho, Konta, Korete, Male, Melo, Oyda, Sezo, Shekkacho,
Sheko, Wolayta, Yem, Zayse, etc.

B. Nilo-Saharan Super Family

Languages include Anywa, Berta, Gumuz, Kacipo-Balesi, Komo, Kunama, Kwama, Kwegu,
Majang, Mi’en, Murle, Mursi, Nara, Nu’er, Nyangatom, Opo, Shabo, Suri, and Uduk.

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Language classification is not fixed. It has changed over time due to:

 Population movement
 War and conquest
 Trade
 Religious and territorial expansion
 Urban growth

These factors led to some languages becoming extinct or endangered, while others grew and
became more widely spoken.

2.3.2 Settlement Patterns

The way people are spread across the land in northeast Africa today is the result of long
historical developments. Studies based on language history and how different groups interacted
with one another show that the environment, economy, and political conditions played a big role
in shaping where different groups live.

 The Cushitic-speaking peoples are the largest language group in Ethiopia and the Horn of
Africa. They live in large areas from Sudan down to Tanzania.
 The Semitic-speaking peoples also occupy a large area. They live in the northern, north-
central, northeastern, south-central, and eastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn.
 The Semitic group is the second largest after the Cushitic peoples.
 Most Omotic-speaking groups live in southwestern Ethiopia along the Omo River basin.
However, the Shinasha live in Benishangul-Gumuz and the South Mao live in Wallagga.
 Nilotic-speaking groups mainly live along the Ethiopia-Sudan border in the west.
However, some Chari-Nile groups, like the Karamojo cluster, live as far south as the
Lake Turkana area along the Ethiopia-Kenya border.

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2.4 Religion and Religious Processes

i. Indigenous Religions

These are traditional religious beliefs and practices that developed in the region over a long time.
A key feature is belief in a Supreme Being, along with the idea that nature (like the sun, trees,
rivers) has sacred powers. Below are examples of such beliefs among various groups:

The Oromo

 Their traditional religion is called Waqeffanna.

 The Supreme Being is Waqa.
 Waqa’s power is shown through spirits called Ayyana.
 Spiritual leaders, Qallu (male) and Qallitti (female), serve as messengers between the
spirits and people.
 Ceremonies are held in sacred places (Galma) and an important ritual is called Aba muda,
where religious leaders are chosen.

The Hadiya

 Their religion is called Fandanano.

 The Supreme Being is Wa’a, believed to have created the world.
 The sun (elincho) and moon (agana) are his eyes.
 Spirits include Jara (male), Idota (female), Anjancho, and Jaramanjcho.
 Founders of the religion are believed to be Itto and Alibajo.

The Kambata

 They believe in Negita or Aricho Magano (Sky God).

 Their religious leaders are called Magnancho.

The Gedeo

 The Supreme Being is Mageno.

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  They have a thanksgiving ceremony called Deraro.

The Konso

 Their worship centers on Waaq or Wakh.

The Gojjam Agaw

 The Supreme Being is called Diban (Sky God).

The Gurage

 Some groups believe in Waq or Goita (Supreme Being), Bozha (thunder god), and
Damwamwit (goddess of health).
 Along with the Yem, they also believe in a god called Abba at Enar.

The Yem

 Their Supreme Being is Ha’o (Sky God).

 The So’ala clan was responsible for religious duties.
 Each village had a religious courier called Magos.

The Konta

 Their spirit cult is known as Docho.

The Wolayta

 They believe in Tosa (God) and Ayyana (spirit).

 Ceremonies happen at Mitta (sacred place), offering first fruits (Teramo or Pageta) at the
end of May or early June.
 They gather around a sacred tree called Dongowa, unique to each clan.
 They observe Chaganna (days when work is forbidden).
 Religious leaders called Sharechuwa conduct rituals in a house called Becha or Kera Eza
Keta.

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The Keficho

 The Supreme Being is Yero.

 The spirit is Eqo, and the person who hosts it is called Alamo.
 The chief spirit is Dochi, and its host is Dochi-nayo. Ritual centers are at Adio.

The Boro-Shinasha

 Their god is Iqa, who created the universe.

 They have rituals such as:
o Gure Shuka – to protect the land.
o Shode De’na – during illness.
o Marrowa Shuka – for children’s health and wealth.

The Nuer

 The Supreme Being is Kuoth Nhial (God in Heaven).

 God shows himself through rain, lightning, thunder, and the rainbow (which is his
necklace).
 Spirits are also linked to clan symbols like spears (WiW for war).
 When a person dies, their body goes to earth, breath returns to God, and soul lives on,
traveling with a sacrificed ox to the spirit world.

One interesting thing about these religions is how they often mix with Christianity or Islam—a
blending called syncretism.

ii. Judaism

Judaism is the religion of the ancient Hebrews and based on a covenant with God
(Yahweh/Jehovah). In Ethiopia, it existed even before Christianity.

 The Bete-Israel community practiced Haymanot, an Israelite religion different from

modern Jewish traditions.

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  One story says some members of the Tribe of Dan came to Ethiopia during the Exodus,
led by the sons of Moses (1400–1200 BCE).
 Another story claims Jews arrived in the 6th century CE with leaders Azonos and
Phinhas.
 Some believe that Jewish immigrants married Agaw women and started the community.
 However, some scholars (like Tadesse Tamrat and Kay Shelemay) argue that Bete-Israel
were local followers of early Old Testament Christianity, not migrants.
 Either way, this community was separated from mainstream Judaism for centuries.

iii. Christianity

Christianity became the state religion in 334 CE during the rule of King Ezana (320–360 CE).
Two Syrian brothers, Aedesius and Frumentius, helped convert him.

 Frumentius (called Kasate Birhane or Abba Salama) was made the first bishop of the
Ethiopian Orthodox Church (EOC) by Patriarch Athanasius of Alexandria.
 Ethiopian bishops were appointed from the Egyptian Coptic Church until 1959, when
Abune Baslios became the first Ethiopian patriarch.

The Nine Saints

Christianity spread further in the late 5th century during the reign of Ella Amida II (478–486)
with help from nine saints:

Name Origin Monastery Location

Abuna Aregawi (Abba Za Constantinople Debre Damo Eastern Tigray
Mika’el)
Abuna Isaq (Abba Gerima) Constantinople Debre Gerima Medera (East of
Adwa)
Abba Pentelwon Constantinople Debre Asbo (NE of Aksum)
Pentelwon
Abba Afse Laodicea Debre Afse Yeha (NE of Aksum)
Abba Alef Caesarea Debre Haleluya Biheza (NE of Aksum)
Abba Gubba Cilicia Debre Gubba West of Medera

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Abba Liqanos Constantinople Debre Qonasel North of Aksum
Abba Sehama Antioch Tsedania SE of Adwa
Abba Yima’ata Qosa’iti Debre Yima’ata Ger’alta

 These saints also translated the Bible and religious texts into Geez.
 During the Zagwe dynasty (1150–1270), Christianity continued to spread.
 From 1270 to 1527 (Early Medieval Period), many churches and monasteries were built,
including:
o Rock-hewn churches of Lalibela
o Debra-Bizan (Hamasen, Eritrea)
o Debra-Hayiq (Wollo)
o Debre-Dima, Debre-Werq (Gojjam)
o Debre-Libanos (Shewa)
o Birbir Mariam (Gamo)
o Debre-Asabot (Harar route)

In the 16th and 17th centuries, Jesuit missionaries tried to change the Ethiopian Orthodox belief
(Monophysite) into Catholic belief (Dyophysite), which caused violent conflict and their
eventual expulsion.

From 1804, European Catholic and Protestant missionaries arrived:

 Catholics included Giuseppe Sapeto, Giustino De Jacobis, Cardinal Massaja, and the
d’Abbadie brothers.
 Protestants from groups like the Anglican Church Missionary Society, Church
Missionary Society of London, and Wesleyan Methodist Society included Samuel Gobat,
C.W. Isenberg, and J.L. Krapf.

Protestant missionaries:

 Used local names for God like Waqayyo and Tosa.

 Built village schools open to all children.

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  Translated spiritual books into local languages.
 Provided medical services.

iv. Islam

When Prophet Muhammad started preaching in Mecca (610 CE), he faced opposition. He sent
some early followers—including his daughter Ruqayya and her husband Uthman—to Aksum.

 Future wives of the Prophet, Umm Habiba and Umm Salma, also came.
 The group was led by Ja’far ibn Abi Talib.
 Muhammad described Ethiopia as a land ruled by a just king where no one is mistreated.
 The Aksumite king, Armah Ella Seham (also called Ahmed al-Nejash), gave them
protection (615–628 CE) despite pressure from Mecca to send them back.

Islam spread in the Horn of Africa mostly through peaceful trade and preaching:

 By the 8th century, it was well established on the Dahlak Islands.

 In the 10th century, the Muslims on these islands formed a sultanate.
 From the coast, Islam gradually moved inland, mainly through traders and preachers.

However, this coastal route had limited impact on the interior because Christianity was already
strong in Aksum and northern Ethiopia.
The port of Zeila became a key center for the spread of Islam into present-day Shewa, Wollo,
and the surrounding areas.

UNIT THREE

3. POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN TO THE

END OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY

3.1 Emergence of States: State Formation

A state is an independent political unit with a population, a defined territory, sovereignty, and a
government that has the authority to make and enforce laws. The formation of states was part of

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a long cultural process. One of the major developments during this period was the emergence of
states that had different social, cultural, and economic systems.

Several important factors contributed to the rise of states:

 The beginning of sedentary (settled) agriculture

 The growth of trade, which helped states develop
 The role of religions, which shaped the social and cultural structures of states in different
areas of Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa

Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa is one of the regions in Africa where early states emerged. These
states started small but gradually became strong kingdoms and even empires with clear social
hierarchies. Some states became more powerful than others due to their location near major
waterways like the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, and Indian Ocean, and by controlling trade routes and
ports.

3.2 Ancient States

3.2.1 North and Northeast

i. Punt
Punt was the earliest recorded state in Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa. Most of what we know
about Punt comes from Egyptian hieroglyphic records. Pharaoh Sahure (r. 2743–2731 B.C.) sent
an expedition to Punt to collect valuable items like myrrh, ebony, and electrum (a mixture of
gold and silver). The best-documented journey was under Queen Hatshepsut (1490–1468 B.C.).
She sent five ships, led by a Black Nubian captain named Nehasi, through Wadi Tumilat.

The people of Punt, ruled by King Perehu, warmly received the expedition. The Egyptians
returned with goods such as frankincense, cinnamon, sandalwood, spices, ivory, rhinoceros
horns, leopard skins, ostrich feathers and eggs, live animals like monkeys and giraffes, and even
people. Punt’s exports had religious value, so the Egyptians called it Ta Netjeru or the “land of
the gods.”

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Punt also exported iron, bronze, donkeys, foxes, cattle, animal fur, dye plants, and medicinal
plants. In return, Punt imported Egyptian goods like axes, daggers, swords, knives, sickles,
clothes, bracelets, necklaces, beads, and other ornaments. However, scholars still debate the
exact location of Punt.

ii. Da’amat
The state of Da’amat developed just south of Aksum. Its rulers used a religious-political title
called Mukarib. The people worshipped gods like Almouqah (main god), Astarr (god of Venus),
Na’uran (god of light), Shamsi (sun god), and Sin (moon god). These beliefs were similar to
those in South Arabia at the time.

There were many cultural centers in northern Ethiopia. The main ones include:

 Yeha: Located 30 km northeast of Aksum, Yeha was likely founded around 1000 B.C. as
a trading post for South Arabian merchants. It reached its peak between 750 and 500 B.C.
 Hawulti Melazo: Southeast of Aksum, this site contains stone tablets inside a rectangular
temple with wall paintings showing herds of cattle.
 Addi-Seglemeni: Found 10 km southwest of Aksum, this site has the oldest known
monumental Ethiopian inscription carved on a stone slab.

Other cultural centers include Addi Gelemo, Addi Grameten, Addi Kewih, Atsbi Dera, Feqiya,
Hinzat, Sefra, Senafe, Tekonda, and more.

vi. The Aksumite State

The Aksumite state began to take shape around 200–100 B.C., starting from the town of Aksum
and surrounding areas. At its height, Aksum’s territory stretched from the Red Sea coast
(Avalites/Zayla and Malao/Berbera) to the Indian Ocean (Benadir coast: Serapion/Mogadishu,
Nicon/Brava, and Merca).

Aksum’s exports included ivory, myrrh, emeralds, frankincense, ginger, cassia, cinnamon, gold,
rhinoceros horns, hippopotamus hides, tortoise shells, and exotic animals. Imports included
clothing and textiles from Egypt, India, Rome, and Persia; glassware and jewelry from Egypt and
elsewhere; metal tools and utensils; oil and wine from the Roman Empire and Syria.

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King Zoscales (r. 76–89) spoke Greek, the common language of the Greco-Roman world. A
Greek inscription from Adulis (published in Christian Topography by Cosmas Indicopleustes)
describes Aksum’s trade, including long-distance trade with Sasu (probably in Beni Shangul).

Aksumite kings had strong international ties, especially with South Arabia, exchanging both
material goods and cultural values. Aksum was considered one of the four great powers of the
world alongside Rome, Persia, and China.

Aksum had a strong navy and commercial fleet. Adulis had both shipbuilding timber and the
skills for constructing ships. Ships were used for both trade and military purposes.

King Kaleb (r. 500–535) expanded Aksum’s influence into South Arabia. His son Gabra
Masqal (r. 535–548) built a church at Zur Amba (Gaynt), and it was during his reign that Saint
Yared created the sacred music and hymns of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.

Aksum’s achievements include:

 Its own writing script and calendar

 Orthodox Church liturgical music and art
 Advanced tools and pottery
 Urban development and architecture (palaces, obelisks, rock-hewn churches)
 A strong administration and irrigation-based agriculture

Decline of Aksum
Aksum started to weaken in the late 7th century due to both internal and external problems:

 Environmental damage and declining agriculture

 Plague outbreaks
 The destruction of the port of Adulis around 702 by Arabs, which cut off international
trade routes
 Muslim Arab expansion, which blocked Aksum’s access to its trade partners
 Local uprisings by groups like the Beja, Agaw, and Queen Bani al-Hamwiyah (Yodit)

These factors led to Aksum’s political, military, and economic decline.

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vii. Zagwe Dynasty
After the fall of Aksum, political power moved south to the Kubar highlands, an Agaw area.
The Zagwe Dynasty, founded by Merra-Teklehaimanot, ruled from around 1150 to 1270.
Their capital was in Bugna District (Wag and Lasta) at a place called Adafa, near Roha (now
Lalibela).

The Zagwe kingdom included areas from former Aksumite provinces in the north to northern
Shewa in the south, Lake Tana, and northern Gojjam in the west. The Agaw people preserved
many Aksumite traditions.

The Zagwe kings revived trade and cultural ties with the eastern Mediterranean.
They exported slaves, ivory, and rare spices and imported cotton, linen, silver, copper goods,
medicines, and coins.

The Zagwe era is especially known for its contributions to art and religion:

 Many religious texts were translated from Arabic into Ge’ez

 Great achievements in church construction:

1. Cave churches: Simple, natural caves with light decorations (e.g., Bete Meskel)
2. Semi-hewn churches: Decorated interiors with outer walls still connected to rock (e.g.,
Bete Denagil, Bete Mikael, Bete Golgotha, Bete Merqorios, Bete Gabriel-Rufael, Bete
Abba Libanos)
3. Monolithic churches: Fully carved from rock, inside and outside, separated from
surrounding stone (e.g., Bete Amanuel, Bete Giyorgis, Bete Mariyam, Bete
Medhanialem)

Bete Medhanialem is the largest, while Bete Giyorgis, shaped like a cross, is considered the
most beautiful.

Decline of the Zagwe Dynasty

Several factors led to its fall:

 Internal disputes over royal succession

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  Claims from groups saying they descended from the Aksumite kings. These groups said
the Zagwe were not legitimate rulers, based on the legend of the Queen of Sheba as
recorded in the Kebra Nagast (Glory of Kings).
 Yekuno-Amlak (r. 1270–1285), claiming descent from the last Aksumite king Dilna’od,
got support from church leaders and defeated Yetbarek, the last Zagwe king, in battle at
Gaynt. Yekuno-Amlak then took power and restored the Solomonic Dynasty.
 Economic decline due to natural and human-made disasters, and weak military strength

3.2.2 East, Central, Southern, and Western States

Bizamo: This kingdom was located on the southern bend of the Abay River, just across from
today’s Gojjam area and near the present-day Wambara region. It was founded in the eighth
century and had early connections with the Damot kingdom.

Damot: One of the oldest kingdoms, Damot was a powerful state that expanded into many areas.
It controlled lands south of the Abay River, north of Lake Turkana, west of the Awash River, and
east of the Didessa River. In the 13th century, its prominent king was Motalami.

Enarya: This kingdom was found in the Gibe region of southwestern Ethiopia. In the ninth
century, King Digna-Jan of Aksum is said to have campaigned in Enarya, along with Orthodox
Christian priests who carried the ark of the covenant, known as tabots.

Gafat: Historically located south of the Abay River and next to Damot, Gafat was on the
southwestern edge of the Christian Kingdom. It was inhabited by Semitic-speaking people
related to the Harari and Gurage. Despite Christian missionary efforts, most Gafat people
continued practicing their traditional religion.

 The rulers of Gafat were known by the title Awalamo.

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3.2.3 Muslim Sultanates

Shewa: In 896 AD (283 A.H.), Makhzumi Khalid ibn al-Walid, who claimed descent from
Mecca, founded the Makhzumite Sultanate on the northeastern foothills of Shewa.

Fatagar: This sultanate was established in the 11th century around Minjar, Shenkora, and Ada’a.
It was a lowland region with cultivated fields producing wheat and barley, along with fruits and
large herds of cattle, sheep, and goats.

Dawaro: Located south of Fatagar, Dawaro lay between the upper Awash and Wabi-Shebelle
rivers, extending to Charchar in the northeast and Gindhir in the southeast. An Egyptian writer,
Ibn Fad Allah el-Umari, provided valuable information about Dawaro, including its use of a
currency called hakuna for trade.

Bali: This was a large kingdom located on a high plateau between the Shebelle and the Rift
Valley lakes. It was one of Ethiopia’s biggest Muslim provinces. The people traded by bartering
items like cattle, sheep, and cloth. The state had a strong army made up of both cavalry and
infantry.

Ifat: Located next to the Shewa Sultanate, Ifat extended from the Afar plains eastward to the
Awash River. It was founded by Umar Walasma, who claimed descent from the Hashamite clan
of Arabia and arrived in the region between 1271 and 1285. He took advantage of internal
disputes among Shewan princes, annexed Shewa, and formed the new sultanate. Ifat was a fertile
and well-watered region where people farmed wheat, sorghum, millet, and teff and raised
livestock. Chat (khat) was first noted here as a stimulant.

Others: Several other autonomous Muslim states existed and flourished. These included
Arababani (between Hadiya and Dawaro), Biqulzar, Dera (between Dawaro and Bali), Fadise,
Gidaya, Hargaya, Harla, Kwilgora, Qadise, Sharkah (west of Dawaro and north of Bali in Arsi),
and Sim. Among these, the Hadiya Muslim sultanate was one of the oldest and had extensive
territories in Ethiopia.

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3.3 External Contacts

Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa had connections with Egypt as early as 3,000 BC. These early
ties may represent the region’s first contact with the Mediterranean or Greco-Roman worlds.
Ethiopia also had strong trade and cultural links with the South Arabian kingdoms before 1,000
BC.

The introduction of Christianity to Aksum created a new relationship between Ethiopia and
Egypt. Aksum formed close ties with the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire, especially since
both had shared commercial interests in the Red Sea and were rivals to the Persian Empire.
However, by the 7th century, these ties weakened. As Muslim Arabs expanded across the Middle
East, North Africa, and along the Nile, Aksum's land and sea trade routes declined.

Muslim rulers of Egypt began using the appointment of bishops as a way to influence Ethiopian
kings. In response, Ethiopian rulers sometimes threatened to block the Nile. Tensions worsened
with the rise of the Mamluks, who persecuted Christians. They also blocked Ethiopian ties with
European powers. Still, Ethiopian Christian pilgrims continued to travel to Jerusalem and other
holy sites, using land routes through Egypt and sharing news about the Ethiopian Orthodox
Church (EOC) and its traditions.

These reports impressed Europeans, who came to believe that a powerful Christian kingdom
existed in the Horn of Africa. By the mid-12th century, a myth began to spread in Europe about a
wealthy Christian ruler called Prester John. The story emerged during the Crusades, when
Muslim forces were winning. In 1165, a letter supposedly from Prester John appeared in Europe,
claiming that he ruled a mighty Christian kingdom. For a long time, Europeans didn’t know
where his land was, but they eventually began to think it was in Ethiopia—then the only
Christian kingdom between the Red Sea and India. They tried to find it and make alliances.

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3.4 Economic Formations

i. Agriculture and Land Tenure System

The economy of ancient highland states mainly relied on plough-based farming. Land was
always a valuable resource. The rules for owning, sharing, and using land are known as the land
tenure system.

The most common and oldest land system in Ethiopia and the Horn was the communal land
tenure system. In northern areas, peasants held rist rights to land.

 Rist: A birthright to land shared by families and clans whose ancestors had lived in an
area for generations. It was passed down based on custom. Those who held rist rights
were called bale-rist. While they owned land by tradition, the state technically claimed
all land. Rist holders had to pay tribute.
 Gult: This was the right to collect tribute from rist landowners. People with gult rights,
called bale-gult, could keep a part of the tribute and send the rest to the emperor.
 Riste-Gult: When gult rights became hereditary, powerful officials could pass them on to
their children.

ii. Handicraft

Traditional handicrafts existed from ancient times. The social, political, and economic
environment allowed artisans to develop various crafts, such as:

 Metalwork: They made weapons (swords, spears, arrows), tools (hoes, ploughs, axes),
and household items (tripods, ornaments).
 Carpentry: Craftsmen carved wooden objects like furniture, beams, mortars, and coffins.
 Pottery: Potters made cooking pots, jars, plates, and granaries.
 Tannery: Tanners produced leather goods like saddles, ropes, shoes, mats, containers,
and clothing.

Later, cotton clothing by weavers replaced many leather garments. However, most artisans were
socially marginalized and looked down upon, except for some carpenters and masons.

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iii. Trade

Trade was also vital to ancient states. Both local and international trade brought in significant
income. Major towns and political centers often doubled as trade centers, connected by roads to
the coast and the interior. Traders from nearby and distant areas used these roads regularly.

The region had many trade routes linking different markets in all directions. Protecting these
routes from bandits was a priority for rulers because trade was crucial for the economy.

3.5 Socio-cultural Achievements

i. Architecture

As kingdoms grew, architecture also developed. Around the third century AD, a unique style
called stele engraving emerged in Aksum. There were 58 steles in and around Aksum. One stood
33 meters high, making it the tallest stele in the world. Another was 24 meters tall, and the third
tallest was 21 meters.

The rock-hewn churches of the Zagwe dynasty are also considered major architectural
achievements. UNESCO recognized them as World Cultural Heritage in 1978.

ii. Writing System

The Sabean language had its own alphabet. It used boustrophedon writing, which means writing
alternated from left to right and then right to left. The earliest Sabean inscriptions in Ethiopia and
Eritrea date back to the 9th century BC. These inscriptions usually had no vowels, using only
consonants.

iii. Calendar Systems

 Oromo Calendar: Based on the moon’s position and certain stars (Urjii Dhahaa and
Bakkalcha). It has 29.5 days per month and 354 days in a year.

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  Sidama Calendar: Follows star movements. It has 13 months—12 months with 28 days
and one with 29 days. Their week has four days (Dikko, Dela, Qawado, and Qawalanka),
meaning 7 weeks per month.
 Ethiopic Solar Calendar: Has 12 months of 30 days plus a 13th month of 5 or 6 extra
days (6 every four years). There’s a 7–8 year difference between this calendar and the
Gregorian calendar because of how the date of the Annunciation is calculated. This is
now Ethiopia’s official calendar.
 Muslim Calendar: A lunar calendar with 12 months totaling 354 or 355 days. It starts
from the Hijra (622 AD), when Prophet Mohammed migrated from Mecca to Medina.
Dates are labeled AH (After Hijra), and earlier dates are BH (Before Hijra).

Many other groups like the Agaw, Halaba, Hadiya, Wolayta, Gedeo, and Nilotic peoples also
have their own unique calendars.

iv. Numerals

Numerals began appearing in Ethiopia and the Horn around the 4th century AD. The Geʽez
numeral system is similar to Hebrew, Arabic, and Greek numerals but doesn’t have separate
characters for each digit.

Unit Four

Politics, Economy and Society (Late 13th – Early 16th Centuries)

4.1. The “Restoration” of the “Solomonid’’ Dynasty

 The Zagwe dynasty was overthrown in 1270 by a powerful force that combined military,
economic, and ideological resources.
 Yekuno Amlak, a contender from Amhara, about whose origin and early career very
little is known, launched a series of military campaigns from Lasta to Gayinet,
ultimately defeating Yitbarek, the last Zagwe king.

33
  The rulers of the “Solomonid” Dynasty claimed they were descendants of the last king
of Aksum and were therefore legitimate to take over state power from the “illegitimate”
Zagwe rulers.
 This claim is elaborated in the Kibre Negest (“Glory of Kings”), which associated
Ethiopia with the Judeo-Christian tradition.
 The Kibre Negest asserts that the Ethiopian ruling class descended from Menelik I, son
of the Queen of Sheba and King Solomon of Israel.
 As a result, Ethiopian monarchs from Yekuno Amlak to Emperor Haile-Sellassie I
claimed descent from Menelik I.

4.2. Internal Political Conflicts

 The formative years of the “Solomonid” dynasty were marked by two main challenges:
o Establishing a consistent modality of succession to the throne
o Formulating an effective policy for regulating Christian-Muslim relations in
Ethiopia
 After Yekuno Amlak’s death in 1285, political instability arose due to power struggles
among his sons and grandsons.
 The power struggle intensified during the reigns of Yegba-Tsion’s five sons (1294–
1299).
 In 1300, under Widim Ra’ad (r. 1299–1314), the succession issue was partially resolved
by creating a royal prison at Amba-Gishen (present-day southern Wollo).
 All male members of the royal family were confined there until one was selected to
rule.
 Loyal soldiers guarded the prison, and when a monarch died, court dignitaries would
send an army to escort the successor to the throne.
 This system continued until Imam Ahmad Ibrahim Al-Ghazi destroyed Amba-Gishen
in 1540.

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4.3. Consolidation and Territorial Expansion of the Christian Kingdom

 By the time Yekuno Amlak came to power in 1270, the Christian kingdom had
expanded over:
o Present-day Eritrea
o Northern, northwestern, and central Ethiopia
 However, it lacked control east of the Shewan plateau, where Muslim states like Ifat
and Hadiya were dominant.
 Other important political entities included:
o The Ethiopian Jews
o The kingdoms of Gojjam and Damot
o Various Muslim principalities
 Amde Tsion (r.1314–1344) launched two major projects:
o Solidifying the Solomonid dynasty in Christian provinces
o Expanding the kingdom by conquering other political units
 His campaigns led to rapid expansion, unmatched in medieval Ethiopian history.
 In 1316–1317, Amde Tsion conquered:
o Damot (west of the Awash River)
o Hadiya (south of the Awash River)
 His influence extended to:
o The Gibe, Gojeb, and Omo River basins
o Gojjam and the northern areas of Lake Tana
 He also asserted authority over Muslim regions: Ifat, Dawaro, Sharkha, and Bali
 These were reduced to tribute-paying vassals, strengthening the Christian military
position.
 Arab historian Ibn Fadil al-Umari described Amde Tsion as having "ninety-nine kings
under him and that he makes up the hundredth."
 He is credited for shaping and solidifying the medieval Christian kingdom of Ethiopia.

35
  His expansions were driven by ambitions to:
o Acquire new lands
o Gain control over lucrative trade routes previously dominated by Ethiopian
Muslims.

4.4. Administration and Military Organization of the Ethiopian Christian Kingdom

4.4.1. Administration

 Despite military campaigns, rulers aimed to create a functional government to make the
kingdom more cohesive.
 A hybrid administrative system developed, organized in three concentric circles:

1. Innermost Circle (Core Provinces)

o Directly controlled by the emperor
o Administered by his representatives
o Strong centralized administration
2. Second Circle (Tributary Territories)
o Local rulers retained autonomy and hereditary positions
o Required to pay tribute and fulfill obligations
o A core army ensured loyalty
3. Third Circle (Peripheral Territories)
o Beyond the direct control of the emperor
o Authority was symbolic
o Local rulers recognized as autonomous
o Still expected to acknowledge suzerainty and pay tribute

 As the kingdom grew, traditional governance became harder.

 Emperor Zara Yacob (r. 1434–1468) made efforts to centralize administration by:
o Strengthening central authority
o Creating a body of state officials
o Reorganizing court officials

36
 o Bolstering the army
o Increasing control over revenues
o Involving the church and monastic orders in reforms

4.4.2. Military Organization

 The medieval Ethiopian army had four types of regiments:

1. Regular troops of the Emperor
2. Regular troops of individual military leaders
3. Specially mobilized territorial troops
4. Irregular troops
 The core military units were chewa regiments:

o “Chewa” originally meant military regiment

o Other terms included serawit (army), hara, and chefra (body of troops)
o Units were organized by region of origin and identity
o Relied on provisions from the peasantry
 From the late 14th to early 16th centuries, chewa regiments formed the backbone of
the army.
 Territorial expansion under Amde Tsion allowed for:
o Creation of new chewa regiments from conquered people
o Regiments of diverse religious and ethnic backgrounds
 Amde Tsion reorganized and enhanced the royal army by introducing new units.
 Zara Yacob attempted to:
o Introduce new technologies and warfare methods
o Draw from Mamluk Egypt and Christian Europe

4.4.3. Temporal Administrative and Military Decline

Decline of Christian Kingdom’s Dominance

37
  The traditional dominance of the Christian kingdom in Ethiopia’s balance of power
began to decline in the last three decades of the 15th century.

Internal Political Rift

 A key cause of decline was internal political conflict, which began at the end of
Emperor Zara Yacob’s reign.
 As a result:
o Law and order deteriorated
o Monarchical power weakened
o The economy suffered
 Discontented lords who opposed centralized power often defected to Muslim
forces.

Failure of National Integration

 The kingdom’s 14th and 15th century conquests brought diverse communities
under its control.
 However, efforts at cultural assimilation and political integration were incomplete.

Zara Yacob’s Attempts at Unity

 Emperor Zara Yacob tried to build national unity across these diverse groups.
 However, his approach involved imposing religious nationalism, which largely
failed.

Weak Successors and Dynastic Instability

 His successors were ineffective in resolving the situation.

 The monarchy faced:
o Dynastic instability
o Short reigns of young and inexperienced rulers

38
 Economic Consequences

 Central authority weakened, and imperial garrisons withdrew or lost strength.

 Consequently, local authorities retained more revenue, reducing imperial income.

4.5. Economic Bases of the Kingdom

1. Foundations of Economic Strength

 The kingdom’s economy was primarily based on control over land, labor, and
trade routes.

2. Role of Land

 Land was the economic backbone, supporting:

o Farming
o Animal husbandry
o Mining of valuable minerals like copper, iron, gold, and silver

3. Tribute System

 Wealth also came from tributes collected from dependent peripheral regions.

4. Trade Expansion

 After conquering Muslim territories along the eastern frontier, the monarchs:
o Gained access to profitable trade routes
o Increased revenue by:
 Taxing imports and exports
 Organizing state-sponsored trade caravans led by appointed
commercial representatives

4.6. Cooperation, Competition, and Conflict between Christian and Muslim Rival Powers

Rise of Muslim Principalities

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  By the late 13th century, flourishing trade led to the emergence of powerful and
well-organized Muslim states.
 Key Muslim principalities included: Shewa, Ifat, Fatagar, Dawaro, Hadiya, Bali,
and Adal.
 Adal was a small state believed to lie south of Ifat, near the Harar plateau.

Adal and Ifat: Shifting Power

 In 1288, Adal was conquered by the Walasma ruler of Ifat, after defeating:
o The Makhzumite dynasty of Shewa
o Other Muslim principalities
 After 1288, Adal regained its independence.
 During Amde Tsion’s campaigns, Adal acted independently of Ifat.
 It allied with Walasma ruler Jamaladdin, instead of becoming a vassal.

Defeat and Subordination

 Amde Tsion defeated the Adal-Jamaladdin coalition, making Adal subordinate to

Ifat until 1415.

Turning Point in 1415

 In 1415, King Yishaq captured Zeila, and the Walasma sultan Saddadin Abul
Barakat Mohammed b. Ahmed was killed.
 The Walasma family fled to Yemen, but later returned.
 Facing continued Christian attacks, they moved their capital to Dakar, east of
Harar.

Adal’s Rise to Power

 Adal was no longer under Ifat—instead, Ifat became part of Adal.

 Adal inherited Ifat’s political ambitions, solidified its authority, and launched
new military campaigns from its new capital.

40
Christian-Muslim Relations

 Building good relations with powerful Muslim sultanates was a major challenge for
the Christian kingdom.
 In the absence of a clear policy, interactions fluctuated between peace and conflict.

Peaceful Cooperation

 Peace was often maintained through a tributary system.

 Many Muslim principalities were ruled by hereditary leaders, who retained power as
long as they:
o Acknowledged the Christian monarchs’ suzerainty
o Paid tribute
o Ensured safe trade routes to the coast
 This arrangement was mutually beneficial, particularly for sustaining trade networks.

Sources of Conflict

 Tensions often emerged from the struggle for political and economic dominance, not
primarily from religion.
 Conflicts were triggered by:
o Refusals to pay tribute
o Blocking the passage of messengers
 Although religious differences existed, they were not the main cause of hostility.
 Both sides used religion to rally support:
o Christians through crusades
o Muslims through jihads

 Christian-Muslim conflicts were complex and driven by economic and political

motives, rather than being purely ethno-religious in nature.

4.7. Interactions and Integrations of Peoples and Cultures

 Three key patterns shaped Ethiopia’s multi-ethnic society:

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 1. Continuous interaction between diverse peoples
2. Formation of shared characteristics
3. Absorption of new peoples and cultures
 The Christian kingdom’s successive conquests brought together diverse peoples with
different identities.
 This fostered a shared sense of belongingness.
 These interactions allowed the formation of a composite Ethiopian identity.

4.7.1. Expansion of the Christian Kingdom

 In the 14th and 15th centuries, the kingdom's expansion enhanced national integration:
o Attracted highland people who readily identified with the Christian kingdom and
religion.
o Enchanted outlying kingdoms with imperial grandeur and religious influence.
o Inspired legends e.g., kings of Kafa and Kambata claimed descent from King
Solomon and Queen Sheba.

4.7.2. Population Movements, Interaction, and Integration

 The kingdom’s expansion coincided with population movements.

 Ethiopians moved for land, raids, trade, religious study, and pilgrimage.
 These movements fostered interethnic relationships.

4.7.3. Roving Court

 Adafa, the last permanent capital under Zagwe rulers, was followed by mobile royal
camps.
 Yekuno Amlak and successors ruled from camps in Ifat, Amhara, Shewa, Dawaro, and
Fatagar.
 The mobile court remained a unifying political and economic center.
 It served as a cultural melting pot and trading hub for Christians and Muslims.

4.7.4. Establishment of Military Garrisons

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  Military regiments played a major role in political and cultural integration.
 Chewa regiments were stationed in new territories, becoming less mobile over time.
 Soldiers intermarried with locals and promoted Christianity, language, class values, and
land tenure systems.
 This strengthened integration and extended the kingdom’s influence.

4.7.5. Warfare

 Conflicts over cattle, slaves, land, and trade routes fostered interaction among Ethiopian
groups.

4.7.6. Market Centers as Cultural Melting Points

 Markets facilitated direct and indirect interethnic contact.

 Ethiopians participated in interconnected local and regional markets.
 Goods were moved from small local markets to larger regional hubs.
 Historic markets like Dabaraw, Manadalay, Qorqora, and Wasel played integrative
roles.

4.7.7. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church and Monastic Networks

Role of the Church as a Unifier

o The Ethiopian Orthodox Church played a key role as a religious and cultural
unifier, particularly after territorial expansion.

Spread of Christianity

o The Church spread Christianity in newly conquered areas through land grants and
missionary efforts.

Monastic Growth

o A revival in the 14th century led to significant monastic growth, especially in

regions like Amhara and Shewa.
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 o Monasteries became central to Christian life, with roots dating back to the 13th
century.

Interaction with Traditional Beliefs

o Christianity did not completely replace traditional beliefs, but instead offered a new
worldview to the people.

Diverse Converts

o Converts to Christianity came from a wide range of linguistic and cultural

backgrounds.

4.7.8. Islam Promoted Integration, Unity and Collective Identity

Unification through Islam

o Islam played a vital role in uniting diverse groups in Ethiopia, including those who
had converted from indigenous beliefs or other faiths.

Ethiopia’s Role in Islamic Tradition

o Many Muslims regard Ethiopia as a sanctuary for the persecuted companions of the
Prophet Mohammed.
o The story of Al-Najashi in Islamic tradition highlights Ethiopia’s importance in
promoting interfaith harmony.

Islamic Cultural Development

o Although Islamic cultural institutions didn’t take root in the first half of the 14th
century, they gradually developed over time.
o Islamic literature in both Arabic and local languages flourished, especially in Harar
and Wollo.

Christian and Muslim Interactions

44
 o Missionary activities from both Christians and Muslims created supra-ethnic
alliances in Ethiopia.
o Despite occasional conflicts, mutual accommodation between Muslims and Christians
was common.

Syncretic Religious Practices

o Given the syncretic nature of both Islam and Christianity in Ethiopia, followers of
both faiths shared common religious practices.

External Relations

1. Relations with Egypt

 Yekuno-Amlak’s Diplomatic Efforts (1272):

o Sent emissary to Egypt’s Sultan Baybars to request an Abun (bishop) from the
Coptic Church.
o Both Egypt and Ethiopia acted as protectors of religious minorities.
 Conflicts and Diplomacy:
o Mohammed ibn Qala’un persecuted Copts and destroyed their churches in Cairo
(early 14th century).
o Amde-Tsion demanded the restoration of these churches, threatening to divert the
Nile waters.
o Patriarch Marqos (1348-63) sent a message about his imprisonment by the
Egyptian Sultan, leading to his release.
o Patriarch Matewos (1328-1408) helped establish harmonious relations
between King Dawit and Egypt.
o In 1437, Zara-Yaqob wrote to Sultan Barsbay requesting protection for
Christians in Egypt.
o Tensions remained, including the demolition of the Mitmaq Church, which led
to a diplomatic exchange with Sultan Jaqmaq (1438-53).

45
2. Relations with Christian Europe

 Prester John and Medieval Contacts:

o Legend of Prester John influenced relations between Ethiopia and Christian
Europe.
o In 1395, an Ethiopian delegation attended Gian Galeazzo Visconti’s coronation
in Milan.
o In 1418, Ethiopians attended the Council of Constance.
 Diplomatic Engagements:
o King Amde-Tsion sent a message to King Philip of France in 1332.
o King Henry IV of England sent a letter to Prester John in 1400.
o During King Dawit’s reign, Ethiopia received letters from leaders across Europe,
including Rome, Constantinople, Syria, and Armenia, asking for support.
o King Dawit welcomed Italian craftsmen, particularly from Florence.
 Delegations to Europe:
o In 1402, Antonio Bartoli led an Ethiopian delegation to Europe.
o King Yishaq sent a delegation to Alphonso of Aragon in 1427, requesting
artisans and military experts.
o Zara-Yaqob sent Pietro Rombulo (a Sicilian) to Europe in 1450, requesting
political and military aid.
 Later Relations:
o In 1508, Portugal sent an envoy to Ethiopia, marking the beginning of closer
relations.
o Queen Elleni, the regent of Lebne-Dengel, sent an envoy to Portugal in 1512.
o Portuguese embassy (1520) aimed to establish a naval base against the
expanding Ottoman Turkish power in the Red Sea but was unsuccessful.

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 UNIT FIVE

Politics, Economy, and Social Processes from the Early 16th to the End of the 18th
Centuries

5.1. Conflict Between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal, and Its Aftermath
The first half of the 16th century marked a turbulent period in Ethiopia’s history, with major
events shaping the region's socio-political landscape. These events included the conflict between
the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal, the Oromo expansion, and the Jesuit presence.
The prolonged conflict, primarily over control of the Zeila trade route and tribute collection,
reached its peak between 1529 and 1543.

The Role of Imam Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (Gragn)

Imam Ahmed, also known as "Gragn" (meaning "left-handed"), emerged as a prominent leader
in the 1500s in the region of Adal.

Early Life and Rise to Power

 Born around 1506 in Hubat, Imam Ahmed began his career under Garad Abun Ibn
Adash, a leader competing with Sultan Abu Bakr for power in Adal.
 After Garad Abun’s death in 1525, Ahmed assumed leadership and began
expanding his forces.

Causes of Conflict

 The initial conflict centered around control of trade routes.

 However, the underlying tensions were fueled by environmental pressures.
Pastoralists from the lowlands (Afar, Somali) began migrating to the highlands in
search of better pasture, which further strained relations between Muslim and
Christian communities.

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 Expansion of the Campaign

 Imam Ahmed united several groups, including the Afar, Somali, Argobba, and
Harari, to launch military campaigns into Christian territories.

Key Battles and Conquests

 In 1527, Ahmed began his military campaign, seizing regions like Bali, Dawaro, and
Hadiya.
 In 1529, Emperor Lebne Dengel of the Christian Kingdom raised an army to counter
Ahmed’s expansion. However, Ahmed decisively defeated the Christian forces at the
Battle of Shimbra-Kure.

Resulting Impact

 After the battle, Imam Ahmed gained control over much of the Christian Kingdom,
although the conflict persisted.

The Involvement of Foreign Powers

o 1535: Emperor Lebne Dengel appealed to Portugal for assistance.

o 1541: Portuguese forces, led by Christopher da Gama, arrived with matchlocks and
cannons.
o 1542: The Portuguese were defeated at the Battle of Wafla, and Christopher da
Gama was killed.
o Despite the setbacks, the Portuguese continued to support Emperor Gelawdewos,
who came to power in 1540.
o 1543: The decisive battle against Imam Ahmed’s forces occurred at Zantara
(Woyna Dega). Imam Ahmed was killed, marking the end of the Adal Sultanate’s
territorial control.

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The Aftermath of the Conflict

o After Imam Ahmed's death, the Christian Kingdom regained its territories.
o However, Emperor Gelawdewos faced further challenges:

o 1559: Gelawdewos was killed.

o His successors, including Emperor Minas and Sertse Dengel, faced continued
pressures from:
 Turkish-backed Bahr Negash Yishaq.
 Internal Oromo movements.

Consequences of the Conflict

o Both the Christian Kingdom and Adal suffered significant losses, weakening both
powers.
o The conflict contributed to the success of the Oromo population movement, as the
weakened Christian Kingdom was unable to defend its territories.

 Cultural Interactions: Despite the wars, the period saw linguistic and religious
interactions, as well as intermarriage between various cultural groups.

5.2. Foreign Intervention and Religious Controversies

Portuguese and Ottoman Influence

 The Portuguese and Ottomans were competing for influence in the Red Sea and Indian
Ocean.
 The war against Adal had weakened the Ethiopian Church, which suffered from:
o Destruction of property.
o Loss of clergy.

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The Jesuit Mission

 1557: Jesuit missionaries arrived in Ethiopia with the aim of converting the kingdom to
Roman Catholicism.
 Key Jesuit figures:
o João Bermudez
o Andreas de Oviedo
o Pedro Paez
 The Jesuits engaged in doctrinal debates with the Ethiopian Orthodox Church (EOC):
o A major point of contention was the Tewahedo doctrine of Christ’s dual nature,
which conflicted with Catholic theology.
 Emperor Gelawdewos (1540-59) engaged with the Jesuits and defended Orthodox
Christianity.
 Later, the Jesuits faced setbacks under:
o Emperor Minas and Sertse-Dengel.
o Their efforts had some success with Emperor Za-Dengel, who was sympathetic
to Catholicism.
o However, Za-Dengel's successor, Emperor Yaqob, overthrew him.

The Conversion of Susenyos

 Emperor Susenyos sought to consolidate power and gain external support by converting
to Catholicism in 1612.
 In 1622, he declared Catholicism the state religion.
 This decision led to significant religious controversy, with:
o Anti-Catholic resistance growing among the clergy and nobility.

Religious Reforms and Resistance

 Between 1617-1618, Susenyos introduced reforms that sparked widespread opposition:

o Re-consecration of Orthodox priests.

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 o Prohibition of traditional practices such as:
 Circumcision.
 Fasting on Wednesdays.
o Introduction of Latin Mass.
 These reforms triggered revolts, culminating in a battle in 1632, during which many
peasants died.

The Abdication of Susenyos

 Facing mounting resistance, Emperor Susenyos was forced to abdicate in 1632.

 His son, Fasiledas, succeeded him and reversed the Catholic reforms, restoring
Ethiopian Orthodox Church as the state religion.
 The Jesuits were expelled, and Catholic converts faced punishment.

Isolationist Policy of Fasiledas

 Fasiledas adopted a "closed-door" policy, isolating Ethiopia from European powers for
over a century.
o Occasional visits from figures like:
 French doctor Charles Jacques Poncet (1700).
 Scottish traveler James Bruce (1769).
 Fasiledas also negotiated with the Ottoman Empire to prevent European intrusion.

Doctrinal Divisions within the Ethiopian Orthodox Church

The Jesuit intervention in Ethiopia led to significant doctrinal divisions within the Ethiopian
Orthodox Church. This caused the emergence of different sects, each with its own
interpretation of Christ's nature and birth:

1. Tewahedo (Two Births):

o The orthodox and dominant teaching, especially in Tigray and Lasta.
o Emphasizes the belief in Christ’s dual nature and two births: one from the
Father (eternal) and one from Mary (temporal).

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 2. Qibat (Unction):
o Dominant in Gojjam.
o Accepts Christ’s eternal birth but emphasizes the Holy Spirit’s anointing at
Christ's incarnation.
3. Sost Lidet (Three Births):
o Dominant in Gondar and Shawa.
o Combines the doctrines of Tewahedo and Qibat, integrating the concept of three
births.

Resolution and Reaffirmation

 These doctrinal divisions persisted until the Council of Boru Meda in 1878.
 The council reaffirmed the Tewahedo doctrine as the official teaching of the Ethiopian
Orthodox Church.

5.3. Population Movements

Population movements have significantly shaped the history of Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa.
These movements were influenced by both push and pull factors, which stemmed from natural
and social causes, often linked to the region's socio-political conditions. During the medieval
period, these migrations led to cultural changes, the intermingling of peoples, and the evolution
of new identities.

5.3.1. Population Movements of the Argobba, Afar, and Somali

The Argobba

 There are two theories regarding the origins of the Argobba people:
1. Some claim they descended from the followers of Prophet Mohammed who
settled in Ifat.
2. Others argue that the Argobba are one of the ancient peoples of the region who
accepted Islam early through religious leaders from Arabia.

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  The Argobba were key agents in the spread of Islam, trade, and the formation of Muslim
states in the Horn.
 For example, the Sultanates of Shewa and Ifat, established by the Makhzumite and
Walasma Dynasties, were primarily dominated by the Argobba.
 The Christian-Muslim rivalry caused the Argobba people to disperse, resulting in
fragmented settlement patterns.

The Afar

 The Afar people lived in northeastern Ethiopia, northern Djibouti, and parts of
southern Eritrea.
 Their indigenous governance system, known as Makabanto, exhibited some
democratic features.
 The Afar were first mentioned by Ibn Said (1214-86), who noted their presence near
Bab el-Mandeb.
 Drought led the Afar to migrate eastward to the middle Awash by the 16th century.
 They were involved in the Christian-Muslim conflicts, which further displaced them.
 Following the decline of the Adal Sultanate in the 16th century, the Afar established
their own sultanates, such as Awsa, Girrifo, Tadjourah, Rahaito, and Gobad.
o Awsa Sultanate, which succeeded the Imamate of Awsa, played a significant
role in the region.
o The Sultanate experienced several rises and declines, with notable leadership
from Kedafo (1734).

The Somali

 The Somali people practiced a pastoral economy and lived a nomadic life, likely due to
the need for sufficient pasture.
 The Somali society was governed by a council known as shir, where all adult males had
equal participation in decision-making.
 The guurti, a council of elders, played a central role in resolving conflicts.

53
  Merca, a town near the Shabele River, was a significant urban center in the 13th
century.
 The Somali were a key military force in the Imam Ahmed's army but returned to their
homeland after the Imam’s defeat in 1543.

5.3.2. Gadaa System and Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)

The Gadaa System

 By the early 16th century, the Gadaa system was well-established, suggesting that the
Oromo people had practiced it for much longer.
 Recent studies indicate that the Gadaa system evolved from earlier Cushitic age-set
social organizations.
 The Gadaa system is organized into eight-year periods, with each generation lasting 40
years.
 The system involved multiple eras such as Taya, Tasaa, and Munyo, leading to the later
Borana-Barentu Gadaa period around 1450 AD.
 The Gadaa system emphasized democratic principles like periodic succession, power
sharing, and the representation of various lineages and clans.
 It served as a mechanism for socialization, education, social cohesion, and the
maintenance of peace.

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The Age-Grades and Their Roles

The Gadaa system organized society into age-grades, where members assumed responsibilities
based on their age. A common age-grade structure included:

Gadaa Grade Age Range Role

Dabale Birth-8 years Socialization and education
Game 9-16 years
Folle 17-24 years Training, agriculture, etc.
Qondala 25-32 years Military service
Raba-Dori 33-40 years Candidates for political power
Luba 41-48 years Leaders of Gadaa government
Yuba I-IV 49-80 Senior advisors, educators, and ritual leaders

 The Luba held political power for eight years.

 The Abba-Gadaa (father of the period) led the government and was assisted by various
elected representatives, including leaders of specific functions like military, culture, and
law.
 The Qallu, or senior religious figures, played vital roles in legitimizing power transfers
and resolving conflicts.
 Women, particularly through the Sinqe institution, had significant power in matters like
power transfer, conflict resolution, and marriage commitments.

The Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)

The Oromo population movement, which spanned from 1522 to 1618, was influenced by both
natural and human-made factors. This movement had significant consequences for the social,
political, and cultural landscape of the Horn of Africa.

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Key Factors Influencing the Oromo Population Movement:

1. Natural Factors:
o Demographic Pressure: The growing Oromo population, along with an
increasing number of livestock, created a need for more land to sustain the
community.
o Climate and Environmental Pressures: Harsh environmental conditions likely
contributed to the necessity of relocating in search of more fertile land.
2. Man-Made Factors:
o Christian-Muslim Conflicts: The long-standing conflict between the Christian
Kingdom of Ethiopia and the Muslim Sultanates from the 13th to the 16th century
created a tense environment, pressuring many pastoral Oromo groups to migrate.
o Religious Rivalries: The religious conflict led to further displacement of the
Oromo, forcing them to seek refuge and new opportunities in different regions.

Oromo Confederacies and Their Movement:

 The Oromo people, organized under the Borana and Barentu confederacies, began their
movement from Madda Walabu, their central Gadaa region, and moved northward in
multiple stages.
 The movement took place under the leadership of successive Gogessa/Gadaa classes
between 1522 and 1618, with twelve different Butta wars marking key periods of
migration.

Key Events and Military Campaigns:

 Melba (1522-1530): The Oromo forces defeated the Christian regiment Batra Amora
led by Fasil and captured Bali.
 Mudena (1530-1538): The Oromo forces advanced to the edge of the Awash River.
 Kilole (1538-1546): The Oromo defeated the Christian regiment Adal Mabraq and
controlled Dawaro.
 Bifole (1546-1554): The Oromo advanced to Waj and Erer.

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  Michille (1554-1562): The Oromo scored victories over forces led by Hamalmal at
Dago and Jan Amora forces.
 Hambisa/Harmufa (1562-1570): The Oromo fought against Emperor Minas (1559-
1563) and occupied several territories, including Angot, Ganzyi, and Sayint.
 Robale Gadaa (1570-1578): Despite a defeat by Emperor Sartsa Dengel’s forces, the
Oromo regained control and expanded.
 Birmaji (1578-1586): The Oromo crossed Jama and overwhelmed Azmach Daragoti's
regiment.
 Mul’ata (1586-1594): The Oromo seized territories like Damot, Bizamo, Gafat, and
Dambiya.
 Dulo (1594-1602), Melba (1603-1610), Mudena (1610-1618): The Oromo continued
their expansion into western and northern parts of the Horn of Africa, while some groups
moved to Kenya and Somalia.

The Role of the Gadaa System:

 The Gadaa system, which had been in place long before the 16th century, played a crucial
role in the success of the Oromo movement.
 Gadaa Leadership: Various Gadaa centers were established during this period,
including:
o Oda Nabee (Tulama), Oda Roba (Arsi), Oda Bultum (Itu Humabenna), Oda
Bisil (Mecha), and Oda Bulluq (Jawwi Mecha).
o Other important centers included Gayo (Sabbo-Gona), Me’e Bokko (Guji), Oda
Dogi (Ilu), Oda Hulle (Jimma), and Oda Garado (Wollo).
 Gadaa Leaders: Leaders like Dawe Gobbo (Borana), Anna Sorra (Guji), Makko-Bili
(Mecha), and Babbo Koyye (Jimma) played important roles in consolidating power and
establishing laws in their respective areas.

Social Mechanisms for Integration:

1. Guddifacha: This system of fostering allowed non-biological children to enjoy the same
rights as biological children, promoting social cohesion.

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 2. Moggasa: The system of oath-taking and allegiance helped integrate different groups
into a single clan, providing them with both rights and obligations within the Oromo
society.

5.4 Ethnic and Religious Interaction and Integration

The expansion of both territory and religion by the Christian Kingdom and the Ethiopian
Orthodox Church helped spread Christianity from northern to southern Ethiopia. On the other
hand, the military campaigns of Imam Ahmed and the migration of Muslim communities like the
Argobba, Afar, and Somali led to the spread of Islam into the Christian highlands.

Consequences of the Oromo Movement:

o Control of Land: The Oromo expanded and took control of large parts of the region
without facing much resistance from the imperial army.
o Cultural Integration: The Oromo integrated people from different ethnic groups into
their society, and they were also integrated into other local communities.
o Socialization Systems (Gadaa System): The Oromo used two key methods to integrate
outsiders:

o Guddifacha: Adoption of a child, who would receive equal rights as a biological

child.
o Moggasa: Incorporating an outsider group into an Oromo clan through a formal
oath, giving them full membership rights and responsibilities.

o Cultural Exchange:There was mutual exchange of traditions:

o Neighboring communities adopted the Oromo language and the Gadaa system.
o The Oromo also adopted cultural traditions from the communities they
encountered.

o Political Transformation:

o Some Oromo groups, like the Gibe states, adopted monarchy systems.

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 o The Oromo gradually became part of the Christian kingdom’s political system,
though they retained their core culture and language.

o Rise of Oromo Elites:

o Integration led to the emergence of Oromo leaders, landowners (balabats), and

local dynasties.
o This process began effectively during the reign of Emperor Sertse Dengel.

o Means of Integration:
The Oromo joined the state through:

o Military service
o Political and family alliances
o Patronage systems

o Long-Term Impact:These integration processes continued during the Gonder period,

the Zemene Mesafint (Era of Princes), and into the formation of modern Ethiopia.

5.5 Peoples and States in Eastern, Central, Southern, and Western Regions

5.5.1 Peoples and States in the East – The Emirate of Harar

 Under Emir Nur Mujahid, Harar became a fortified city surrounded by walls.
 In 1647, Emir Ali ibn Da’ud established a new ruling dynasty that lasted over 250 years.
 The dynasty was later strengthened by rulers like Amir Abdul Shakur (ruled 1783–
1794).
 The Amir’s advisory council, known as the Majlis, helped manage religious institutions,
mosque lands, and waqf (charitable endowments).
 Over time, the Amirs extended their control over surrounding groups like the Afar,
Argobba, Oromo, and Somali through:
o Trade
o Intermarriage

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 o The spread of Islamic teachings

5.5.2 Peoples and States in Central and South Central Ethiopia

The Kingdom of Shewa

o The Kingdom of Shewa was founded by Negasi Kristos (r. 1696–1703), who came from
the district of Gera Meder in Menz. He claimed descent from Abeto Yacob, the son of
Emperor Lebne Dengel, and is traditionally regarded as the founder of the Shewa branch
of the Solomonic dynasty.
o After gaining power, Negasi ruled over Christian communities in places like Asendabo,
Debadebo, and Makfud, and formed alliances with Argobba Muslims living in the
lowlands of Yifat.
o Successive rulers included:

 Sebestie/Sebastyanos (r. 1703–1718), also known as Merid Azmatch.

 Abuye/Abiyye (r. 1718–1745), who made Haramba his capital and attempted to
subjugate the surrounding Oromo but was killed by the Karrayu Oromo.
 Amaha Iyesus (Amayyes) (r. 1745–1775), Negasi’s great-grandson, ruled over
Bulga, Efrata, Menz, and Tegulet. His capital moved from Doqaqit to
Ankober. He also tried—unsuccessfully—to control the Afar and Abitchu
Oromo.
 Asfa-Wosen (r. 1775–1808) expanded Shewa’s control to regions like Antsokia,
Asbo, Gedem, Gishe, Merhabete, Morat, and Shewa Meda.

o Shewa’s economy was mainly based on agriculture, supplemented by trade and craft.

The Gurage

o The Gurage people are grouped into Western and Northern Gurage.

 Western Gurage (Sebat Bet) includes: Chaha, Muher, Ezha, Gumer, Inamor,
Enner/Endegegna, and Gyeto.

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  Northern Gurage are also known as Kistane, Aymallal, or Soddo.
 Other groups: Dobbi, Gadabano, and Masqan.

o They developed traditional governance systems:

 Yajoka Qicha among the Sebat Bet.

 Gordanna Sera among the Kistane.

o There was no central leadership. Power was based on descent, clans, or lineages,
which had collective rights and influence. Gurage leaders held the titles abegaz and
azmach, combining both political and military roles.
o Their staple food crop is enset.

The Silte

o According to tradition, prominent figures like Hajji Aliye led movements from the
Chercher highlands (eastern Ethiopia) before the 16th century, bringing many Silte
followers with them.
o They settled in southern and southwestern Ethiopia during the wars between the
Christian kingdom and the Adal Sultanate, as well as during the Oromo movements.
o The ethnogenesis of the Silte likely resulted from the intermixing of peoples due to wars
and population movements.

 In highlands, enset was the main crop.

 In lowlands, cereals were more common.
 Cash crops included khat and berbere (red pepper).
 By the 19th century, Silte merchants were trading coffee from Sidama and
Shewa.

The Hadiya

o The Hadiya state dates back to the 13th century.

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 o After the wars between the Christian kingdom and Adal, and during the Oromo
movements, the population of Hadiya became more heterogeneous.
o Descendants of the original Hadiya can be found among:
 The Oromo, Sidama, Qebena, Halaba, and the Hadiya proper.
o Hadiya proper includes sub-groups like: Marko, Limu, Soro, Shashogo, and
Badowecha.
o Between the 13th and 16th centuries, Hadiya held considerable political importance due
to its large population and territory.
o In 1445, King Mahiqo rebelled against Emperor Zara Yaqob (r. 1434–1468) and was
replaced by his uncle Bamo.
o Despite occasional conflict, Hadiya’s relationship with the Christian state was mostly
stable especially after Zara Yaqob’s marriage to the Hadiya Princess Ite Jan Zela,
better known as Queen Eleni.

The Kambata

o By around 1550, four separate communities—Kambata, Dubamo, Donga, and

Tembaro joined to form the Kambata state.
o This unification was aided by Omotic and Semitic migrants entering the region at
various times.
o Among these groups, the Kambata Lamala (one of seven dominant clans) rose to
prominence by the late 16th century.
o They established a traditional administrative system called the Hambericho Council,
made up of seven members, each representing one of the clans.
o The king, together with the council, governed the region.
o The Kambata were enset cultivators, spoke Kambatissa, and shared a common
language and culture.

The Halaba

o The Halaba lived between the Bilan River and Lake Hawassa.

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 o Their indigenous administration was led by a Woma (king), with clan or village leaders
under him.
o The Halabi Oget, a council of village leaders, handled disputes and societal issues.
o Their judicial and administrative system was guided by Sera, a body of traditional laws
and values.
o The economy was based on subsistence agriculture and livestock.
o Main cash crops: red pepper, maize, and teff.
o Their key market town was Kolito, a major commercial center in the past.

5.5.3 Peoples and States in the South

Sidama

 The Sidama had an indigenous governance system led by a king known as the Mote, who
ruled in consultation with the Songo, a council of elders.
 Ritual matters such as sacrifices to spirits, circumcision, and marriage were managed by
the Woma.
 The society was structured into generation-sets called Luwa, each with five grades:
Darara, Fullassa, Hirbora, Wawassa, and Mogissa, each lasting eight years.
 Each generation-set had a leader called Gaden, responsible for settling disputes and
organizing defense.
 Social life was guided by the Sidama Sera, a moral code rooted in Halale (the ultimate
truth), which ensured justice without enforcement mechanisms. People followed it to
avoid curses or social exclusion.
 Enset was the staple food crop, while coffee served as an important cash crop.

Gedeo

 According to tradition, the Gedeo trace their ancestry to Daraso, the elder brother of
Gujo, father of the Guji Oromo.
 The seven major clans descended from Daraso’s sons were grouped into two houses:
Shole Batte (senior, 4 clans) and Sase Batte (junior, 3 clans).

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  Their traditional governance system, called Balle, was based on age classes with seven
ranks, each lasting ten years, forming a 70-year cycle.
 The Sasserogo was a federation of three areas—Sobbho, Ributa, and Rikuta—which
shared one Abba Gadaa, who rotated every eight years.
 Enset cultivation formed the backbone of the Gedeo economy.

Konso

 The Konso practiced a specialized, balanced, and integrated agricultural system.

 They developed advanced soil conservation techniques, especially terracing, to farm
rugged, hilly terrain.
 Konso farmers were skilled in selecting drought-resistant crops.
 Their economy also relied on beekeeping and crafts.
 The people lived in walled villages known as Paletas, divided into smaller units called
Kanta.
 Governance was led by a council of elders, the Hayyota, chosen directly by adult males.
 Council membership was not hereditary and rotated every eighteen years.

5.5.4 Peoples and States in the South-Western Part

Wolayta

 Wolayta was ruled by two successive dynasties: the Wolayta-Malla and the Tigre, from
the 13th to 19th centuries.
 The state reached its peak in the late 18th and early 19th centuries through successful
wars and territorial expansion.
 The Kawo (king) stood at the top of the power hierarchy, supported by a council of
advisors.
 Enset was the dominant food crop.
 Access to land was tied to royalty and social status; brave warriors and contributors to
the state were rewarded with land.
 Landholders (except royal estate workers) paid tribute to the king.
 Loyalty was secured through land grants or threats of dispossession.

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Yem

 Initially ruled by the Dida or Halmam-Gamma dynasty from their Tunta (palace) near
Oya.
 The last king, Oyokam/Amo Dasha, was deposed in the 14th century and replaced by
the Mowa (Howa) dynasty, centered at Angari.
 The Amno (king) also served as chief priest and held divine attributes.
 He was assisted by a 12-member council called Astessor.
 Beneath them were provincial governors (Erasho) and district governors (Gagna).
 The Yem had defensive traditions like digging ditches (Bero) and erecting tall wooden
or iron pillars at their central state location, Brisi Bita.
 Their economy combined agriculture, trade, and craftsmanship.

Dawuro

 Inhabited by three main clans: Malla, Dogolla, and Amara.

 The Kawuka dynasty formed a large state uniting many small chiefdoms by the 1700s.
 Famous rulers included Kati Irashu and Kati Halala.
 Dawuro is noted for defensive stone fortifications.

Gamo

 The Gamo lived between Lakes Chamo and Abaya and the Gughe Mountains.
 Their indigenous laws, known as Woga, regulated land use.
 In the highlands (Geze), enset was the main crop, while in the lowlands (Bazo), maize
and sweet potatoes were dominant.
 Subsistence activities also included pottery, tanning, and metalwork.
 From the 16th to 19th centuries, they lived in autonomous villages (Dere) with shared
features:
1. A hereditary ruler (Kawo), also a ritual leader.
2. Initiates (Halaqa).
3. Public assembly space (Dubusha) for discussions and dispute resolutions.
 Married men were elected as leaders (Huduga or Maga) by the assembly (Dulata).

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  Baira, a leadership role, was passed based on primogeniture.

Ari

 The Ari were divided into ten independent clans, each led by a hereditary chief (Babi).
 The chief had both political and ritual authority, supported by:
o Godimis (religious leaders),
o Zis (village heads),
o Tsoikis (intelligence agents).
 These officials played important roles in administration and governance.

Kafa

 The Kingdom of Kafa arose in the 14th century and flourished under the Minjo dynasty
after the mid-17th century.
 The Minjo dynasty had strong ties to the medieval Kingdom of Enarya, from which
Christianity and the royal title Tato (king) were introduced.
 The king was advised by a seven-member council, the Mikrecho, which also
participated in royal succession.
 Kafa had a well-organized administration with several tributary states.
 The political center was Andaracha.
 The economy relied on enset cultivation and trade in goods such as:
o Musk, coffee, slaves, ivory, gold, honey-wax, and civet musk.
 The Kafa also built deep defensive trenches (Erio).

5.5.5 Peoples and States in the West

Anywa

 The Anywa primarily lived along the Pibor, Sobat, Gila, Akobo, Agwei, Oboth, Baro,
and Alwero Rivers in and around Gambella.

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  According to local tradition, the southern Anywa state originated from a founding father
named Oshoda.
 Each Anywa village was governed by a chief (Kuaari), assisted by nobles (nyiye), who
managed land distribution, grazing areas, and settled disputes.

Majang

 Linguistic evidence suggests that the Majang originated from the Boma Plateau in
South Sudan.
 Over time, they expanded their settlement to areas near Dembi-Dollo in the north.
 Their livelihood included shifting cultivation, animal husbandry, beekeeping,
hunting, and fishing.

Nuer

 The Nuer inhabited the savannas and marshes of Bahr el-Ghazal and the Upper Nile
regions of Sudan.
 By the 19th century, many had settled in the Gambella plains along the Sobat and Baro
Rivers.
 They used an age-set system combining social and political roles.
 Boys underwent rigorous tests and initiation rites to enter adulthood.

Berta and Gumuz

 The Berta and Gumuz lived near the lower Abbay River.
 They had long-standing trade relations with northern Sudan, resulting in strong
Islamic influence.
 The gold deposits in their region attracted outsiders for centuries.

Kunama

 Also known as Baza, the Kunama are one of the ancient inhabitants of western Eritrea
and northwestern/western Tigray, residing near the Gash and Tekkeze Rivers.

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  Their customary institution, sanga-anene, handled administration, granted asylum to
newcomers, and performed reconciliation rituals, especially after homicides.
 Leadership was passed hereditarily among males through the matrilineal line, from
eldest to youngest brother.
 Their agriculture relied on tools like hoes, spades, sickles, and ox- or camel-drawn
ploughs.
 The staple crop was sorghum (kina), while other crops included millet (borta or beca),
pulses, and maize (afokina).
 They raised livestock, particularly goats, sheep, oxen, and camels.

5.6 The Gondarine Period and Zemene-Mesafint

5.6.1 The Gondarine Period

A. Political Developments

 The Gondarine period lasted about 130 years and is divided into three phases:
1. Foundation and Glory (1630–1706)
2. Insecurity (1706–1720)
3. Revival and Decline (1720–1780s)
 Gondar was established as a permanent royal capital following the royal court’s move
to the Lake Tana region.
 Emperor Sartsa-Dengle first set his capital at Enfranz in 1571.
 Emperor Susenyos also attempted to base his capital near Gondar (e.g., Qoga, Gorgora,
Danqaz, Azazo).
 Emperor Fasiledas officially founded Gondar as the permanent capital in 1636 to better
supervise trade routes (Red Sea–Lake Tana–Enarya).

Key Figures and Events

 Fasiledas (r. 1632–1667): Founded the capital, restored the Alexandrian faith, and
expelled the Jesuits.
 Iyasu I (r. 1682–1706), also known as Iyasu the Great:

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 o Restored state control over large territories.
o Gained vassalage of Musa, Naib of Massawa.
o Reached Enarya in the Gibe region and had influence in Shewa and Tigray.
o Introduced customs, tax, and land reforms.
o Considered the last powerful emperor before the rise of Tewodros II.

Period of Insecurity (1706–1720)

 Began with the assassination of Iyasu I in 1706 by his son, Tekle-Haymanot.

 Tekle-Haymanot was crowned before his father's death and later assassinated by
Tewoflos in 1708.
 Tewoflos, Yostos, Dawit III, and Bakafa all ruled within a short time, mostly through
intrigues and assassinations.
 The era was marked by factionalism, regionalism, and religious controversies.

Revival and Decline (1721–1780s)

 Bakafa (1721) tried to restore stability with the help of his consort Etege Mintewab
(Berhan Mogasa).
 Mintewab became a powerful political figure after 1728 and influenced major political
developments.

Rise of Factionalism

 After 1730, three major factions vied for control of the throne and the title ras
bitwedded (king-maker):
1. Qwara faction led by Mintewab and her relatives.
2. Oromo faction led by maternal uncles of Iyoas.
3. Tigray faction led by Ras Mikael Sehul.
 Mintewab arranged the marriage of her son Iyasu II (r. 1730–1755) to Wubit, an Oromo
woman from Wollo.
 Their son Iyoas became emperor in 1755 and brought his maternal uncles into court
politics.

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  To counter their influence, Mintewab invited Ras Mikael Sehul, who killed Iyoas and
placed Yohannis II on the throne.

The political crisis in Gondar was less about ethnic identity and more about regional power
struggles. The central issue was the attempt to control the emperor and claim the influential title
of ras bitwedded.

B. Cultural Achievements of the Gondarine Period

Gondar was the center of state administration, learning, commerce, education, art, and crafts for
over two centuries. It set the cultural tone for the region and experienced several significant
cultural developments. Some scholars even describe this era as the Ethiopian Renaissance due
to its achievements.

1. Architecture

 Gondarine kings built impressive secular and religious buildings such as castles,
bridges, residences, baths, libraries, towers, fortifications, and churches of various sizes
and styles.
 The most notable compound, Fasil Gebbi, includes several palaces built by Emperors
Fasiledas, Yohannis I, Iyasu I, Dawit III, Bakafa, and Queen Mintwab.
 Gondarine architecture likely began during Emperor Sartsa-Dengel’s reign, with his
castle at Guzara near Enfranz (built around 1586).
 Though the Bahir Gimb Mikael church was constructed under Lene Dengel, the pointed
oval dome is credited to Sertse Dengel.
 Castle and bridge constructions existed even before Fasiledas’s reign.
 Emperor Sartsa-Dengel also built a fine bridge over the Garno (Arno) River near
Guzara.
 Emperor Susenyos built a bridge over the Blue Nile at Alata.
 These achievements led to the development of a distinct Gondarine architectural style
that lasted from the late 16th century until Gondar's political decline in the mid-18th
century.

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2. Painting

 This period saw a flourishing of religious paintings on manuscripts, wood, ornaments,

weapons, and accessories.
 Churches built by Queen Mintwab were especially noted for their beautiful paintings,
crosses, and artworks.

3. Literature

 Both imperial and provincial scriptoria produced a large number of manuscripts.

 Beyond religious texts such as the Gospels, Miracles of Mary, Lives of Saints, and
Litanies, many illuminated manuscripts were created.
 There was a rich book-making tradition.
 Gondar also became known for its music and poetry.

4. Trade and Urbanization

 Gondar established the first daily market in Ethiopia.

 The city housed foreign communities such as Portuguese, Spanish (Iberians), Indians,
Greeks, and Armenians.
 It had a population estimated at 60,000–70,000.
 Gondar was a religious center for Christians, Muslims, and Bete-Israel.
 It also served as the headquarters of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, hosting the Abun
and Echege, until the mid-19th century.
 Churches functioned as centers of education, offering:
o Nebab Bet (Reading School)
o Qedasse Bet (Liturgy School)
o Higher-level schools like:
 Zema Bet (Music School)

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  Qene Bet (Poetry School)
 Metsehaf Bet (Scriptural Interpretation School)
 Churches were renowned for teaching Aqwaqwam (liturgical dance) and liturgical
chanting.

5.6.2. The Period of Zemene-Mesafint (1786–1853)

The Zemene-Mesafint was a time of political decentralization, marked by the rise of powerful
regional lords.

 It is dated from 1786 (the rise of Ras Ali I, founder of the Yejju Dynasty) to 1853
(defeat of Ras Ali II at the Battle of Ayshal by Dejjach Kassa Hailu, later Emperor
Tewodros II).
 The weakening of royal power began in 1769 when Ras Mikael deposed King Iyoas.
 His harsh actions against the nobility led to his defeat in 1771 by a coalition of lords from
Gojjam, Amhara, Lasta, and Wollo at Sarbakussa.

Key Developments

 Several powerful warlords emerged in regions like Tigray, Semen, Dembiya,

Begemidir, Lasta, Yejju, Wollo, Damot, Mecha, and Gojjam.
 The most dominant group was the Yejju (Warraseh) dynasty, based at Debre Tabor,
which controlled emperors in Gondar for nearly 70 years.
 Gugsa Marso (r.1803–1825) led struggles against Ras Wolde Sellassie of Enderta and
Dejjazmatch Sabagadis Woldu of Agame.
 His son, Yimam (r.1825–1828), defeated Hayle-Mariam Gebre of Simen in 1826.
 Marye, another son (r.1828–1831), fought Sabagadis at the Battle of May Aslamay
(Debre Abbay) in 1831; both died, but the Yejju emerged victorious.

Major Features of Zemene-Mesafint

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  Power shifted from central authority to a multi-centered political structure with no
effective central government.
 The emperor became a puppet king, symbolically reigning without real power.
 Regional lords fought for control of the emperor in Gondar.
 Religious conflicts led to Christological divisions within the church.
 The decline of classical Gondarine culture, including Ge’ez literature, painting, and
architecture.
 The military regimental system weakened, forcing emperors to depend on regional
lords.
 Some areas, like Shewa, consolidated peacefully into independent princedoms.
 Increasing contact between regional rulers and foreign powers, resulting in fragile
coalitions and alliances.
 The Yejju lords dominated other northern Ethiopian lords.

UNIT SIX

Internal Developments and External Relations of Ethiopia and the Horn,

1800–1941

6.1 The Nature of Interactions among Peoples and States of Ethiopia and the Horn

6.1.1 Peoples and States in South-Central, Southwestern, and Western Ethiopia

Qabena:

 Emerged as a strong political entity with elements of Hadiya-Gurage coalition in south-

central Ethiopia (second half of 19th century).
 Became a center of Muslim revivalist movement northeast of the Gibe River.
 Movement stirred by Muslim refugees from Wollo; possible connections to Mahdist
Sudan.
 Movement swept across the region, accompanied by rapid spread of Islam.

Five Gibe States:

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  Monarchical states emerged among Mecha Oromo in the southwest, replacing the Gadaa
system (early 19th century).
 War leaders (Abba-Dula) and powerful individuals accumulated wealth through control
and taxation of long-distance trade, establishing hereditary leadership.

The five Gibe States:

I. Limmu-Enarya:

 Abba Dulas like Tesso defeated rulers of Enarya (Badancho, Gu'amcho, Banaro).
 Bofo/Abba Gomol (r.1800–1825) established the Limmu-Enarya state.
 Bofo abdicated for his son Ibsa/Abba Bagiboo (r.1825–1861) — kingdom reached its
height, incorporated Hagalo, Badi-Folla, etc.
 Ibsa succeeded by Abba Bulgu (r.1861–1883).

II. Gumma:

 Jilcha Abba Bal’o of Chira killed Sarbaroda of Dagoye clan and began state formation.
 His son Oncho (r.1810–1830) completed state formation.
 Succeeded by Jawwe (r.1840–1854).

III. Gomma:

 Formed by Abba Bokee (r.1800–1829).

 Succeeded by his son Abba Manoo (r.1829–1840) who conquered Qattu.
 Muslim Ulama converted the Gomma people to Islam earlier than in other Gibe states.

IV. Jimma:

 Makahore, influential woman, emerged at Oda Hulle (18th century).

 First monarchy by Ose Kobi (Abba Faro).
 Succession: Dangila (Abba Magal) → Sanna/Abba Jifar I (r.1830–55) — consolidated
state.
 Successors: Abba Rebu (1855–59), Abba Boqa (r.1859–1861), Abba Gomol (r.1861–75).

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  Most famous monarch: Abba Jifar II (r.1875–1934).
 Jimma had iron mining and smelting centers at Dakkano and Kito.

V. Gera:

 State formation completed under Tullu Gunji (r.1835–38).

 Succeeded by Abba Rago I (r.1838–48).

Monarchical Officials in Gibe States:

 Abba Girmu (deputy king)

 Abba Mizan (treasurer and foreign minister)
 Abba Dango (immigration chief)
 Lammi (envoy)
 Abba Qoro (district governor)
 Abba Ganda (village chief)
 Abba Busi (tax head)
 Abba Jiga (murder case judge)
 Abba Qawe (bodyguard)

Taxation:

 Unlike Gadaa system (no taxation), monarchy forced farmers to pay taxes per crop.
 Measurement instruments: Buchano (15kg), later Guboo (25kg).

The Leqa States:

I. Leqa-Naqamte:

 Founded by Bakare Godana (1840).

 Reached its peak under Kumsa Moroda (Dejazmach Gebre-Egzi'abiher).
 Promoted handcrafts, gold washing, coffee planting, and game reserves.

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 II. Leqa-Qellam:

 Founded by Tullu.
 Became powerful under his son Jote, centered at Gidami, controlled Sayyo-Dambi
Dollo area.

Ilu:

 Tume clan leader Chali Shono (Abba Bor) set up the consolidated Ilu-Abba Bor state
(early 19th century).

Nilotic Sheikdoms:

 Established through Arabic-speaking Sudanese merchants merging with indigenous Berta

known as ‘Watawit’.
 Prominent Sheikdoms:
o Assosa (Aqoldi): Gained preeminence under Sheikh Khojale al-Hasan.
o Bela/Beni-Shangul: Became famous under Abd al Rahman Khojale.
o Khomosha: Reached zenith under Khojale Muhammad Wad Mahmud.
o Guba: Founded north of Abbay River along Ethio-Sudanese border.

Economy:

 Based on agriculture, gold mining, and frontier trade.

External Threats:

 Rich gold resources attracted Egyptians and Mahdists who tried to control the Sheikdoms
at different times.

6.1.2 Trade and Trade Routes

 19th century: Main trade routes of the Horn gained prominence due to revival of Red
Sea trade.
 First main route: Linked southwestern Ethiopia to the north.

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 o Major market centers: Bonga (Kafa), Hirmata (Jimma), Saqa (Limmu), Billo
(Leqa-Naqamte), Asandabo (Guduru), Basso-Yajube (Gojjam), Yifag and Darita
(Begemider), Gondar.
o From Gondar:
 One line west via Chilga to Matamma-Qallabat (Gallabat).
 Another line through Adwa, Asmara to Massawa.
 A third line split at Basso through Ancharro, Dawwe (Wollo), Awusa
(Afar) to Tajura, Obbok, Rahe’ita (Djibouti).
 Second major route: Started from Bonga via:
o Hirmata → Agabja-Andode Toli → Soddo (SW Shewa) → Rogge (near Yerer) →
Aliyu Amba/Abdul Rasul (N. Shewa) → east to Harar.
o From Harar:
 Branched to Zeila and Berbera (key Somali ports).
 Trade goods:
o Exports (mostly from SW regions): gold, ivory, rhinoceros horn, skins, civet,
musk, honey, wax, coffee, spices, slaves.
o Imports: mirrors, ironware.
 Mediums of exchange: salt bars (amole), iron bars, wines, cowries, beads, cotton cloth
(abujadi), Maria Theresa Thalers (MTT).
o Amole: mined in Afar plains (bordering E. Tigray), transported via Adwa and
Gondar to south/southwest.
o Mekelle prospered in salt trade under governor of Enderta (title: Balgada).
o MTT: silver coin introduced from Austria in late 18th century.
 Traders:
o Dominated by Muslim merchants: Jabarti (north), Jallaba (Sudanese), Afqala
(Muslim Oromo, SW Ethiopia).
o Argobba of Shewa: active between Harar and Somali coast.

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6.2 The Making of Modern Ethiopian State

The Processes of Territorial Unification

 Kasa Hailu of Quara ended the Zemene-Mesafint.

o Early career: aided half-brother Dejjazmach Kinfu (died 1839).
o Ras Ali II gave Quara to Etege Menen (his mother), angering Kasa.
o Kasa became a shifta (bandit), rose in fame, worried Yejju rulers.
o Married Tewabech (daughter of Ras Ali II); appointed governor of Quara.
o Felt mistreated; resumed shiftnet (banditry).

Battles and Rise

 Defeated:
o Dejjach Goshu Zewde (Gojjam) at Gur Amba (27 Nov 1852).
o Four Dejjazemaches (Birru Aligaz, Aben, Yazew, Belew) at Taqusa (12 April
1853).
o Ras Ali II at Ayshal (29 June 1853).
o Dejjazmach Wube (Simen, Tigray) at Deresge (8 Feb 1855).
 Crowned Emperor Tewodros II by Abune Salama at Deresge Mariam (9 Feb 1855).
 Marched into Wollo and Shewa aiming to centralize government.
 Resistance faced from:
o Tadla Gwalu (Gojjam), Agaw Neguse, Tessema Wolde Michael (Simen), Tasew
Gobeze (Walkayit), Amde Bashir (Wollo), Seifu and Abboyye (Shewa).
 Imprisoned Europeans → British Expedition → Battle of Maqdela (13 April 1868) →
Defeated → Committed suicide.

Power Struggles after Tewodros II

 Three contenders:
o Wagshum Gobeze of Lasta (Emperor Tekle-Giorgis II, 1868–71).
o Kassa Mircha of Tigray.
o Menelik of Shewa.

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  Battle at Assam (near Adwa), July 1871:
o Kassa Mircha victorious → Crowned Emperor Yohannis IV (Jan 1872).

Rule of Emperor Yohannis IV (1872–1889)

 Adopted decentralized administration:

o Recognized Menelik as Negus of Shewa (1878, Liche agreement).
o Ras Adal Tessemma as Negus Tekle-Haymanot of Gojjam and Kafa (1881).
 Religious Policy:
o Council of Boru-Meda (1878): declared Tewahdo as official EOC doctrine.
o Campaign for religious unity:
 Some Muslims (e.g., Mohammed Ali → Ras Michael, Amede Liben →
Dajjach Hayle-Mariam) converted.
 Others outwardly complied; secretly remained Muslims.
 Others fled or revolted (e.g., Sheikh Tola Jafar).
 External threats:
o Egyptians, Italians, Mahdists.
 Died at Battle of Metemma (9 March 1889).

Rise of Menelik II

 Mengesha Yohannis, designated heir, failed to claim throne due to internal divisions.
 Negus Menelik of Shewa became Emperor Menelik II (1889–1913).
 Ras Mengesha resisted; subdued by Menelik in 1889.
 Ras Mengesha appointed governor of Tigray after temporary rule by Ras Mekonnen
Wolde Mikael.

Territorial Expansion

In the nineteenth century, many emperors and regional leaders sought to expand their territories,
but Menelik of Shewa was the most successful. His success was largely due to his access to
modern firearms, control of resource-rich areas that allowed him to build military strength, and
the support of skilled generals.

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Phases of Menelik's Territorial Expansion

Menelik's territorial expansion can be divided into three key phases:

1. King of Shewa (1865–1889): Early territorial consolidation.

2. From Coronation to the Battle of Adwa (1889–1896): Increased military engagements.
3. Aftermath of Adwa (1896–1900): Continued expansion and consolidation.

Early Expansion Efforts (Before 1870s)

 Menelik had already integrated the Tulema and eastern Mecha Oromo territories by the
1870s. He achieved this by defeating local leaders such as Ashe Rufo of Salale, Dula
Ara’e of Gullale, Tufa Muna of Gimbichu, and Ture Galate of Soddo.
 Key Oromo leaders like Ras Gobena Dache, Fitawrari Habte-Giorgis Dinagde, and
Dejjach Balcha Safo supported Menelik's expansion efforts.

Key Territorial Campaigns

 In 1875-1876, Menelik's influence spread to the northern Gurage and Kistane regions.
These areas peacefully submitted to Menelik due to religious ties with Shewa and fear of
local Oromo rivals.
 The western Gurage, however, resisted Menelik's forces. Led by Hasan Enjamo of
Qabena, they fought fiercely until Ras Gobena crushed their resistance in 1888.
 In the south, Ras Adal Tessemma of Gojjam had control over Horro Guduru since the
mid-1870s. After several military engagements, including a battle at Chomman,
Menelik's forces defeated Ras Adal in 1882, leading to the peaceful submission of
regions like Leqa-Naqamte, Leqa-Qellem, and Jimma Abba Jifar, with Menelik
promising to maintain their autonomy.

Resistance and Campaigns

 The Leqa-Billo, Leqa-Horda, and other regions formed coalitions and initially defeated
Menelik's forces at Gurra Doba and Sambo Darro, but these resistance movements
were eventually crushed.

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  In the Gibe region, Firissa of Guma resisted Menelik’s forces from 1889 to 1901, and
similarly, Abba Bosso of Gomma fought until early 1900, when his forces were defeated
by Ras Demisew Nesibu.
 Ilu Abba Bor was incorporated after Ras Tessemma Nadew's victory at Qarsa Gogila.

The Arsi Oromo Resistance (1882-1886)

 One of the most intense resistance movements was led by the Arsi Oromo, who fought
fiercely against Menelik’s expansion from 1882 to 1886. The Arsi defeated Menelik’s
forces at Dodota and Qalata.
 However, in 1886, Ras Darge Sahile-Selassie led Menelik’s army to a victory at the
Battle of Azule, followed by the Anole incident of 1887, which severely weakened the
Arsi resistance.

Expansion in the East and South

 Menelik’s forces also clashed with forces in the east. In 1886, his commander, Dejjach
Wolde-Gabra'el, fought the Itu people and incorporated Chercher into his domain.
 In 1887, Emir Abdullahi of Harar and local Oromo leaders were defeated by Menelik’s
forces at Chalanqo. Following this victory, Menelik appointed Dejjach Makonnen
Wolde Mikael as governor of the region.
 The Great Famine of 1888-92 pushed Menelik's expansion further into southern
Ethiopia, including Dawuro, Konta, Kambata, and by the early 1890s, to Bale,
Sidama, Gamo Gofa, and Wolayta.

Wolayta and Final Campaigns

 Wolayta, under King Tona, resisted Menelik’s forces until 1894, when they were
defeated, marking the incorporation of Wolayta, Gedeo, Borana, and Konso into
Menelik's empire.
 After the Battle of Adwa in 1896, Menelik expanded further, incorporating Kafa, Beni-
Shangul, and Gambella.

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Centralization Under Menelik's Successors

 Following Menelik's reign, Teferi-Mekonnen (Haile Selassie I) continued the process of

centralizing power by dissolving regional autonomies. Regions like Wollo, Begemidir,
Gojjam, and Jimma were incorporated into a unitary state between 1916 and 1933.

Modernization Attempts

In the 19th and early 20th centuries, several Ethiopian emperors attempted to modernize the
country by introducing new governance structures, military reforms, and technological
advancements. These efforts, however, faced challenges due to internal and external factors.

Emperor Tewodros II

 Military Reforms: Tewodros II introduced military titles, such as Yasr Aleqa (corporal),
Yamsa Aleqa (sergeant), and Yeshi Aleqa (major), aiming to build a more organized
national army instead of relying on regional armies.
 Technological Advancements: He attempted to manufacture firearms at his Gafat
workshop near Debre Tabor, with the help of European artisans and missionaries. Around
35 cannons were produced here, the largest of which was named "Sebastopol."
 Infrastructure Development: Tewodros also sought to build Ethiopia’s first road
network, connecting Debre Tabor to Gondar, Gojjam, and Maqdela. He also began
constructing a small navy on Lake Tana.
 Social Reforms: His reforms included land redistribution and banning polygamy, which
conflicted with the Ethiopian Orthodox Church and contributed to his downfall.
 Literary Advances: The use of Amharic writing grew during his reign, with a traditional
library established at Maqdela and Tewodros writing letters to foreign powers in
Amharic.

Emperor Yohannis IV

 Foreign Relations: Yohannis was the first to appoint a foreign consul in London, which
marked a shift towards international diplomacy.

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  Modern Health Measures: He introduced a modern smallpox vaccine, replacing
traditional inoculation methods, and also focused on treating syphilis in several towns.
 Technical Support: He hired foreign professionals, including a French mechanic, a
Hungarian gunsmith, and an Italian builder, to support modernization efforts.

Post-Adwa Modernization

After the Battle of Adwa in 1896, Emperor Menelik II introduced several reforms aimed at
modernizing Ethiopia:

 Postal Service and Telecommunications: Menelik established a postal service and a

telephone-telegraph system, which improved communication across the empire.
 Transportation and Economy: The construction of a railway line from Djibouti to
Addis Ababa was one of the major infrastructural projects. Additionally, the opening of
the Bank of Abyssinia in 1905 marked a significant step in Ethiopia's economic
development.
 Government Reforms: Menelik adopted a European-style ministerial system in 1907,
appointing various ministers to handle the country's administration.

Emperor Lij Iyasu (1913-1916)

 Legal and Social Reforms: Lij Iyasu introduced reforms such as banning the Quragna
system (a method involving chaining individuals until a justice settlement was made),
and attempting to reform the Leba Shay (a system for detecting criminals).
 Economic and Industrial Growth: During his short reign, Lij Iyasu also initiated the
establishment of factories, including a flour mill, a sawmill, a tannery, and a soap factory.
 Modern Policing: He introduced a municipal police force called Tirnbulle and initiated
government audits.

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Dual Rule (Empress Zewditu and Ras Teferi)

 Differing Views on Modernization: Empress Zewditu and Ras Teferi (later Haile-
Selassie I) had contrasting views on modernization. Ras Teferi was more eager to adopt
western-style reforms.
 Ras Teferi’s Vision: Ras Teferi aimed to improve Ethiopia’s global standing through
modernization. This was reflected in Ethiopia’s entry into the League of Nations and his
grand tour of Europe in 1923-24.
 Key Reforms under Haile-Selassie I (1930):
o Centralization of Power: Following his coronation, Haile-Selassie I centralized
the government and introduced Ethiopia’s first constitution in 1931 (though with
limitations).
o Military Reforms: The Imperial Body Guard (Kebur Zebegna) was established
with Belgian military assistance in 1930. A military academy was also founded at
Holeta in 1934 with Swedish help.

These modernization attempts, though significant, were influenced by the complex social,
political, and international factors of the time, and their impacts varied throughout the country.

Socio-Economic Developments

The 19th and early 20th centuries in Ethiopia witnessed significant socio-economic changes.
These changes were driven by territorial expansions, the need for land, modernization efforts,
and the influence of foreign interactions.

6.4.1. Agriculture and Land Tenure

 Demand for Land: During this period, there was an increasing demand for farming and
grazing land, which played a key role in the local economy and politics. Territorial
expansions were partly driven by the need to control surplus-producing areas.
 Expansion under Menelik II: One of the key drivers of territorial expansion by Menelik
II in the late 19th century was the quest for land to settle and feed soldiers and their
families.

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  Changes in Access to Resources: As Menelik incorporated southern Ethiopia into the
imperial state, access to resources in these regions was redefined. Those who peacefully
submitted were able to self-administer but had to pay a fixed tax (qurt-gibir), while those
who resisted faced the naftegna-gabbar system.
 Naftegna-Gabbar System: The naftegna were northern soldiers stationed in southern
territories under the imperial banner. They imposed an exploitative system that led to
changes in settlement patterns and agricultural practices. This system created new social
classes, including landlords (ballabat), gabbar (workers), and tenants.
 Land Classification: To facilitate taxation, land was categorized into three types: lam
(cultivated), lam-taf (partly cultivated), and taf (uncultivated). This classification began
in the 1890s with the introduction of the qalad system (land measurement).
 Impact on Peasantry: The introduction of land categorization led to dispossession for
some local peasants, particularly in parts of southern Ethiopia, as certain social classes
gained access to land.

6.4.2. Slavery and Slave Trade

 Expansion of the Slave Trade: During the 19th century, there was an increased demand
for slaves in foreign markets, especially in the Middle East. Slaves were sold to countries
like Egypt, Arabia, Ottoman Turkey, Persia, and India through various ports in the Horn
of Africa.
 Sources of Slaves: Slaves were acquired through raiding, kidnapping, war captivity, debt
bondage, and purchase from open markets. The primary sources of slaves were southern
and southwestern Ethiopia.
 Attempts to End the Slave Trade: While Ethiopian emperors tried to stop the slave
trade in the mid-19th century, they did not abolish slavery itself. Ras Teferi, in 1923,
banned the slave trade and issued a decree in 1924 to emancipate slaves. The Office for
the Abolition of Slavery was established in 1932 under the supervision of Hakim
Warqineh Eshete.
 Abolition of Slavery: After the Italian occupation, the abolition of slavery was
proclaimed. In 1942, Emperor Haile Selassie issued a decree to abolish both the slave
trade and the institution of slavery in Ethiopia.

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6.4.3. Manufacturing

 Growth of Local Industries: With the opening of foreign legations in the post-Adwa
period, many expatriates brought skills and entrepreneurial capacity to develop local
manufacturing industries. Armenians, Greeks, Italians, and Indians played a significant
role in this development.
 Factory Establishment: Several modern manufacturing industries were established in
Ethiopia during this time, including the Holeta Grain Mill (1896) and the Massawa Salt
Processing plant (1904). By 1927, around 25 factories had been set up in cities like Addis
Ababa, Dire Dawa, Asmara, and Massawa. These included cement factories, tanneries,
breweries, soap and edible oil plants, and ammunition factories.
 Pre-Italian Occupation Industries: Before the Italian occupation, other industries such
as the Artistic Printing Press and the Ambo Mineral Water plant were established.
 Post-1928 Manufacturing: After 1928, more manufacturing industries were set up,
including those during the brief Italian occupation.

6.4.4. Urbanization

 Trade and Market Growth: The expansion of local and long-distance trade in the 19th
century transformed old markets and socio-political centers into bustling towns.
 Railway and Urban Growth: The operation of the railway linking Djibouti and Addis
Ababa, which began in 1917, played a significant role in the development of several new
towns such as Dire Dawa, Adama, Mojo, and Bishoftu.
 Evolution of Royal Camps into Towns: Many former "royal camps" evolved into
towns, including Addis Ababa, which grew significantly after Empress Taytu Betul chose
the location in 1886 for its hot springs (Fel-Wuha / Hora Finfinne).
 Southern Ethiopia: In southern Ethiopia, the establishment of garrison towns (katamas)
by Menelik's generals, such as Gobba, Ticho, Gore, and Arjo, helped to maintain control
over the newly conquered provinces. These towns also grew in size and importance.

These socio-economic developments significantly shaped Ethiopia's political and social

landscape during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. While modernization efforts progressed,

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they were also shaped by the dynamics of land, labor, and the evolving role of the state in
managing resources and industries.

6.5 External Relations

6.5.1 Agreements and Treaties

 Early Foreign Contacts: Starting in 1804, regional rulers in Ethiopia began making their
own foreign contacts and signing treaties. These relations were often initiated by travelers
who came to Ethiopia for adventure, scientific research, or trade, and sometimes with
hidden colonial motives.
 Henry Salt's Mission (1805): One of the first notable travelers was Henry Salt, who
reached Ras Wolde-Selassie’s court in Tigray in 1805. He came for scientific reasons but
claimed to establish a friendship between Great Britain and Ethiopia. He returned to
Ethiopia in 1809 and concluded an agreement with the Ras.
 Other Early Travelers: In the 1830s, travelers like Christian Kugler arrived. Later,
Captain W.C. Harris of Britain visited Shewa and signed a treaty with Negus Sahle-
Selassie in 1841.
 French and British Relations: The French also engaged in similar relations, with
Rochet d'Hericourt signing a forged treaty with Negus Sahle-Selassie in 1843. British
travelers John Bell and Walter Plowden came in the 1840s, with Plowden signing a treaty
with Ras Ali II in 1849.
 Relations with Egypt and the Middle East: Ethiopian lords, including Ras Ali and
Dejjazmach Wube, sent letters to Queen Victoria in the early 1850s, seeking support
against Egyptian threats to Ethiopian religious settlements in Jerusalem.
 Emperor Tewodros II's Relations: Tewodros II sought Western military support to
defend Ethiopia from foreign threats. Emperor Yohannis IV continued this trend, aiming
for European support to regain lost territories and maintain the sovereignty of the state.
 Treaty of Adwa (1884): In June 1884, Emperor Yohannis IV signed a treaty with Britain
to evacuate Egyptian troops trapped by the Mahdists in Sudan. In exchange, Ethiopia was
promised the restoration of Bogos, and Massawa was to be used as a free port.

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 Wuchale Treaty (1889): Emperor Menelik II signed the Wuchale Treaty with Italy in
1889, which was supposed to ensure peaceful relations between the two nations.
However, the treaty became controversial. The Italian version of Article XVII implied
that Ethiopia would rely on Italy for foreign affairs, while the Amharic version suggested
Ethiopia could use Italian help if needed. This led to a dispute, with Menelik rejecting the
Italian claim.
 Battle of Adwa (1896): The Italian attempt to colonize Ethiopia through the Wuchale
Treaty failed when Menelik publicly rejected it in 1893. This sparked resistance and led
to the historic Battle of Adwa in 1896, where Ethiopian forces defeated the Italians,
maintaining Ethiopia’s independence.
 Boundary Agreements: After the victory at Adwa, Ethiopia signed boundary
agreements with neighboring colonial powers. These agreements included:
o March 1897 with French Somaliland (now Djibouti)
o June 1897 with British Somaliland (now Somaliland)
o May 1902 with Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
o July 1900 with the Italian colony of Eritrea
o 1907 with British East Africa (now Kenya)
 Lij Iyasu’s Foreign Relations: During the First World War, Lij Iyasu, who was briefly
in power, tried to align Ethiopia with the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary,
and the Ottoman Empire) hoping that their victory would help Ethiopia push Italy out of
Eritrea and Somalia. He also befriended Somali nationalist leader Sayyid Mohammed
Abdille Hassan against Italy and Britain.
 League of Nations (1923): One of Ethiopia's key achievements in the early twentieth
century was its admission to the League of Nations in 1923, marking Ethiopia’s
increasing recognition on the global stage.
 Emperor Teferi’s European Tour (1924): A year later, Emperor Haile Selassie (Teferi)
made a grand tour of Europe, which influenced his vision for Ethiopia’s modernization.

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6.5.2. Major Battles Fought Against Foreign Aggressors and Patriotism

Ethiopian people fought numerous battles to defend their land and sovereignty from foreign
invaders during this period. Some of the major battles include:

Wad Kaltabu (1837)

 Kassa and Kinfu Hailu successfully defeated the Egyptians in eastern Sudan.

The Battle of Dabarki (1848)

 Fought between Kassa Hailu of Quara and Egyptian forces.

 Despite showing remarkable courage, Kassa's forces lost due to the superior military
organization, training, and artillery of the Egyptians.
 The battle taught Kassa the importance of modernizing his military forces.

The Battle of Maqdela (1868)

 In 1862, Tewodros II sought British assistance through Consul Cameron, but no help
came.
 Tewodros, suspecting Cameron of colluding with Egypt, imprisoned him and other
Europeans.
 After failed negotiations, the British sent 32,000 troops, led by Sir Robert Napier, to
confront Tewodros.
 On April 10, 1868, Tewodros’ forces were defeated by the British at the Battle of Aroge.
 Tewodros committed suicide on April 13, 1868, and the British burned his fortress,
looting valuable artifacts, including his crown.

The Battles of Gundet and Gura

 Egypt, aiming to control Northeast Africa and the Nile's source, invaded Ethiopia
multiple times in the 19th century.

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  In 1875, Egyptian forces were led by Khedive Ismail Pasha in an invasion from three
fronts. However, they were defeated by Emperor Yohannis IV and his general Ras Alula
at the Battle of Gundet on November 16, 1875.
 Despite this defeat, Egypt regrouped and sent reinforcements, but they were once again
defeated at the Battle of Gura (March 7-9, 1876).

The Battle of Dogali (1887)

 Italy, eager to expand its influence in the region, acquired the ports of Asseb and
Massawa in the late 19th century.
 In January 1887, Ras Alula led Ethiopian forces to decisively defeat the Italian invaders
at Dogali.
 Following this, Italy signed a neutrality treaty with Menelik II in October 1887 to isolate
Emperor Yohannis IV.

The Battle of Metemma (1889)

 Following the Hewett-Adwa Treaty, the Mahdists, led by Uthman Digna, attacked
Ethiopia.
 The first major clash occurred at Kufit, where Ras Alula fought the Mahdists in 1885.
 The Mahdists later defeated Ras Alula’s forces in 1886 at Sar-Wuha. However, the
Mahdists were later defeated by Ras Gobana Dache’s forces at Gute Dilli in October
1888.
 Ultimately, the Mahdists continued to pressure Ethiopia, and Nigus Menelik’s forces
clashed with them at Metemma in 1889, where Menelik died fighting.

The Battle of Adwa (1896)

 The Battle of Adwa was a significant confrontation between Ethiopia and Italy, triggered
by the Wuchale Treaty dispute.
 Italy had crossed the Mereb River to occupy Ethiopia, but Emperor Menelik II called for
a general mobilization, gathering around 100,000 troops.

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  Ethiopian forces, led by Fitawrari Gebeyehu, routed the Italians at Amba-Alage and
forced them to retreat to Mekelle.
 The Italians were eventually surrounded and besieged at Adwa, where, on March 1, 1896,
Ethiopian forces decisively defeated them.
 This victory resulted in the deaths of about 8,000 Italians, 1,500 wounded, and 3,000
captured. Around 4,000-6,000 Ethiopians also lost their lives.
 The Treaty of Addis Ababa, signed on October 26, 1896, forced Italy to recognize
Ethiopia's independence.

Impact of the Battle of Adwa

 The victory at Adwa became a symbol of pride not only for Ethiopians but for all
Africans and the global black community.
 The success inspired other African nations to resist colonialism and fight for
independence.
 Pan-Africanist leader Marcus Garvey used the victory in his "Back to Africa" movement,
emphasizing Ethiopia as a symbol of African pride and independence.

These battles, alongside Ethiopia's resilience in the face of foreign aggression, highlight the
patriotic spirit of its people and their determination to maintain sovereignty in the face of
colonial threats.

6.5.3 Italian Occupation (1936-1941) and the Patriotic Resistance

Background

 Fascist Italy’s Ambitions: Benito Mussolini, who led Italy from 1922, aimed to restore
the grandeur of the Roman Empire. This included seeking revenge for the 1896 defeat at
the Battle of Adwa, where Ethiopia had successfully repelled Italian forces.
 Italian Subversion: The Italians worked to undermine Ethiopian unity by spreading
discontent in regions like Tigray, Begemdir, Gojjam, and Wollo, and also established
consulates in towns such as Adwa, Gondar, Debre Markos, and Dessie. These consulates
played a significant role in spreading dissatisfaction and gathering military intelligence.

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  Rapprochement Policy: Italy's representative in Addis Ababa, Guiliano Cora, pursued a
policy of "rapprochement" (pseudo-reconciliation) in an attempt to normalize relations
with Ethiopia, illustrated by the signing of the 1928 Italo-Ethiopian Treaty of Peace and
Friendship.
 Mussolini’s Preparations: Despite diplomatic gestures, Mussolini had already prepared
for an invasion and was just waiting for an excuse, which came with the Walwal
Incident in December 1934.

The Walwal Incident

 Border Dispute: The incident arose due to a poorly demarcated border between Ethiopia
and Italy’s colony of Eritrea. On December 5, 1934, Italians occupied Walwal, and when
Ethiopian soldiers protested, Italy not only refused to return the area but also attacked the
Ethiopian forces.
 Diplomatic Tensions: Ethiopia presented the issue to the League of Nations, but
diplomatic efforts failed to resolve the dispute.

The 1935 Invasion and Its Aftermath

 The Invasion: On October 3, 1935, Italian forces crossed the Mereb River and began a
three-pronged invasion through Adigrat, Enticho, and Adwa, initiating full-scale conflict.
 Ethiopian Counteroffensive: Ethiopian commanders like Ras Emiru Haile-Sellassie,
Ras Kasa Hailu, Ras Seyoum Mengesha, and Ras Mulugeta Yigezu led the defense
efforts across different fronts. However, coordination issues hampered the effectiveness
of the Ethiopian army.
 Battles and Defeats:
o The first battle at Temben on January 24, 1936, saw a crushing defeat for
Ethiopia.
o The Ethiopian forces suffered another significant defeat at Amba-Aradom, where
Ras Mulugeta was killed.
o The second battle at Temben (February 27-29, 1936) led to another defeat for Ras
Kassa and Ras Seyoum.

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 o The northern Ethiopian forces were pushed back, and after some strong
resistance, the Italian forces advanced to Dessie and Addis Ababa.
 Southern Front: Led by Ras Desta Damtew, the Ethiopian forces in the south initially
had success but were eventually overpowered. Ethiopian troops joined by Eritrean
Askaris (local soldiers from Eritrea) helped bolster morale, though Ras Desta was
captured and executed in early 1937.
 The Fall of Addis Ababa: After Haile Selassie fled on May 2, 1936, the Italians entered
Addis Ababa on May 5, 1936. During this period, the city was subjected to destruction,
looting, and violence. The rich and foreigners found refuge in foreign embassies.
 Proclamation of Italian Control: Mussolini declared “Ethiopia is Italian!” after the
Italians successfully took over the capital. Ethiopia was merged with Italian Somaliland
and Eritrea to form Italian East Africa (IEA), governed by Italy.

The Structure of Italian East Africa

 The IEA was divided into six regions:

o Eritrea (including Tigray) with its capital at Asmara
o Amhara (including Begemidir, Gojjam, Wollo, and Northern Shewa) with its
capital at Gondar
o Oromo and Sidama (Southern and Southwestern provinces) with its capital at
Jimma
o Eastern Ethiopia with its capital at Harar
o Somalia (including Ogaden) with its capital at Mogadishu
o Addis Ababa, the capital of the entire IEA
 Governors:
o Marshal Badoglio (until May 1936)
o Marshal Graziani (until February 1937)
o Duke of Aosta (Amadeo Umberto) (after February 1937)

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Italian Administration and Legacy

 Corruption and Inefficiency: The Italian administration in Ethiopia was notorious for
its corruption and inefficiency. Marshal Badoglio was reported to have embezzled
significant funds, and a large portion of the IEA’s bureaucracy was deemed inept or
corrupt.
 Economic and Social Changes:
o Agricultural and Industrial Control: The Italians attempted to control
Ethiopia’s agricultural and industrial sectors. However, their efforts were more
successful in trade and industry than in agriculture.
o Infrastructure: The Italians introduced some modern infrastructure, including
roads, motor transport, electricity, and water facilities in urban areas.
o Cultural Changes: The Italian occupation introduced urban amenities, including
Italian-style architecture and the adoption of some European habits, like clothing,
food, and language. They also fostered ethnic and religious divisions to control
the population.

Resistance

Despite the military defeat, a patriotic resistance movement began in the Ethiopian countryside.
Many Ethiopians, especially from rural areas, engaged in guerrilla warfare against Italian forces,
making the occupation more costly and prolonged. However, Ethiopia’s resistance was
eventually crushed by the Italians, and the occupation lasted until 1941, when Ethiopian forces,
supported by British troops, liberated the country.

The Patriotic Resistance Movement

The Patriotic Resistance Movement was a key part of Ethiopia's fight against the Italian
occupation from 1936 to 1941. The movement consisted of multiple phases, starting with early
resistance efforts led by prominent commanders from the Southern Front.

1. Early Resistance and Key Leaders

The first phase of resistance was led by Southern Front commanders such as Ras Desta Damtew,

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Dejjach Beyene Merid, and Dejjach Gebre Maryam Gari. These leaders coordinated efforts to
drive back the Italians but faced challenges due to lack of coordination and military resources.

Other leaders, including Asfawesen and Aberra, Dejjach Balcha Safo, Balambaras Abebe
Aregay, and Dejjach Fikre-Mariam Yinnadu, also participated in resistance during the summer of
1936. However, their combined efforts were unsuccessful due to poor coordination, which
resulted in a failure to liberate Addis Ababa.

2. Abune Petros and Martyrdom

Abune Petros, an influential Ethiopian religious figure, became a symbol of resistance. He
supported the resistance movement and was executed by the Italians, becoming a martyr for the
cause.

3. The Attack on Graziani

On 19 February 1937, Abreha Deboch and Moges Asgedom attempted to assassinate the Italian
viceroy, Graziani, by throwing a bomb at him in the Genete-Le'ul palace compound. Although
Graziani survived, the attack triggered brutal retaliation from the Italians. The Italian forces,
particularly the Black Shirts, responded with extreme violence, killing an estimated 30,000
Ethiopians in just three days. The victims included educated Ethiopians and members of the
Ethiopian Orthodox Church (EOC). One notable act of violence was the execution of 297 monks
at the Debre Libanos Monastery on 21 May 1937.

4. Transition to Guerrilla Warfare

The Italian retaliation marked a shift from conventional resistance to guerrilla warfare. Despite
facing setbacks, the patriots continued their fight, led by various resistance figures such as
Woizero Lekyelesh Beyan, Woizero Kebedech Seyoum, and many others who led local
resistance movements. Woizero Lekyelesh Beyan even formed her own guerrilla unit, and
Woizero Kebedech Seyoum played a crucial role in maintaining peace and leading resistance
efforts in Salale.

5. Challenges and Divisions

Despite the widespread resistance, the movement faced significant challenges. One of the main
obstacles was the presence of collaborators known as "bandas," who supported the Italian forces.

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Furthermore, the resistance lacked a unified command structure, which led to internal divisions.
Many guerrilla groups engaged in infighting, spending more time fighting each other than
focusing on the enemy.

6. External Support from Britain

The resistance movement began to gain external support after Italy entered World War II in June
1940, aligning with Nazi Germany against France and Britain. The British government
recognized Emperor Haile Selassie as an ally on 12 July 1940 and provided military support to
the Ethiopian resistance. British forces, along with Ethiopian patriots, launched attacks on Italian
positions.

 Northern Front: General William Platt led the attack from Eritrea, targeting Italian
forces.
 Southern Front: Colonel Sandford and Major Wingate accompanied the Emperor from
Sudan into Gojjam, commanding Ethiopian and British troops (known as the Gedeon
force) in January 1941.
 Kenyan Front: General Cunningham led the attack from Kenya, which culminated in the
entry of British and Ethiopian forces into Addis Ababa on 6 March 1941.

7. Liberation and the Return of Haile Selassie

The combined efforts of the patriots and external British support led to the rapid demoralization
of the Italian forces. On 5 May 1941, Emperor Haile Selassie returned to Addis Ababa, marking
the end of Italian occupation and the restoration of Ethiopian sovereignty.

The Patriotic Resistance Movement was essential to Ethiopia's eventual victory over Italian
fascism. Despite facing numerous challenges, internal divisions, and external aggression, the
resistance persevered, ultimately contributing to the country’s liberation.

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