as Theme II — Shaping of the Earth's Surface

■ KEY CONCEPTS AT A GLANCE

◆ Plate Tectonics
◆ Interior of the Earth
◆ Weathering & Erosion — Agents of Gradation (Rivers, Waves, Wind, Glaciers, Underground Water)
◆ Landforms & Disasters: Earthquakes, Landslides, Avalanches, GLOF, Duststorms

1. PLATE TECTONICS

Definition & Core Idea

■ Plate Tectonics — explains how the Earth's surface is constantly changing due to movement of large
pieces of the outer layer called tectonic plates.
■ Plates move horizontally over the asthenosphere (semi-fluid layer beneath the lithosphere).
■ Plate interactions cause earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, mountain formation and ocean basin
creation.

Three Building-Block Theories

Continental Drift Theory Seafloor Spreading Theory

■ Proposed by Alfred Wegener (1912) ■ Proposed by Harry Hess & Robert S. Dietz
(1950s)

■ All continents were once a single landmass — ■ New oceanic crust forms at mid-ocean ridges due
Pangaea to volcanic activity

■ Evidence: matching coastlines, fossils, rock ■ Magma rises → solidifies → pushes older crust
formations away from ridge

■ Limitation: could NOT explain the mechanism ■ Evidence: magnetic striping on ocean floor
behind movement

Convection Currents Theory Modern Plate Tectonic Theory

■ Heat from Earth's core creates convection ■ Combines all above ideas
currents in the mantle

■ Hot material rises, cool material sinks → circular ■ Explains movement of both continental & oceanic
motion plates

■ This pushes and pulls tectonic plates

Types of Plate Boundaries (EXAM KEYWORD)

 Type Movement Result

Divergent Plates move APART New crust formed; ocean ridges

Convergent Plates COLLIDE Mountains, trenches, volcanoes

Transform Plates SLIDE past each other Earthquakes along fault lines

2. INTERIOR OF THE EARTH

■ Layered structure comprising: Crust → Mantle → Core

Layer Key Facts Exam Keywords

CRUST Thickness: 5–40 km Outermost layer

(Outermost) Thicker under continents; thinner under oceans Mohorovicic Discontinuity separates crust from mantle
Made of great variety of rocks
Sustains all life

MANTLE Average thickness: ~2,900 km Mohorovicic Discontinuity (Moho)

(Middle) Divided into upper & lower mantle Convection currents drive plate movement
Density increases with depth

CORE About 3,500 km thick Metallic core

(Innermost) Divided into Outer Core (liquid iron) & Inner Core (solid — nickel
Earth +acts
iron)
like a magnet due to nickel-iron
Densest layer Temperature rises 1°C per 32 m depth

3. WEATHERING & EROSION — AGENTS OF GRADATION

Definitions (Write these exactly in exams!)

Term Definition

Weathering Process by which rocks exposed on the surface get broken into smaller pieces IN SITU (at the same place)

Erosion Act of CARRYING AWAY the weathered particles from one place to another by rivers, glaciers, wind, waves

External Processes Natural processes occurring gradually on the Earth's surface — includes weathering, erosion, mass movements

Mass Movement Downward movement of earth materials due to GRAVITY — e.g., landslide, earth flow, mud flow

3 Types of Weathering
Physical Weathering Chemical Weathering Biological Weathering

Disintegration WITHOUT change in chemical Chemical

composition
reaction of water/air dissolves rock Animals
portions & plants break rocks

• Exfoliation — outer rock layers peel off due to

• Creates
heating/cooling
cavities, sinkholes, caverns • Plant roots cause cracks, produce acidic juices
• Frost action — water freezes in cracks, expands,
• Soluble
widens
minerals
cracks(rock-salt, limestone, sandstone)
• Burrowing
dissolve
animals (rabbits, rats)
• Human mechanical actions
Keyword: Exfoliation common in GRANITIC ROCKS Keyword: CHEMICAL decomposition, not disintegration
Keyword: BIOLOGICAL agents — roots, acids, organisms

Factors Influencing Weathering

■ Change in temperature and pressure — continuous heating/cooling breaks rocks

 ■ Action of water — collects in cracks, freezes and expands (frost action)
■ Wind loaded with sand — abrades rock surfaces like sandpaper
■ Plant roots — grow into cracks, widen them
■ Animals & humans — mechanical actions break rocks

Factors Affecting Rate of Erosion

■ (i) Rainfall at a place (ii) Temperature (iii) Slope of the land

■ (iv) Type of soil (v) Presence of vegetation cover (vi) Change in land use pattern

4. AGENTS OF DENUDATION (Gradation)

Denudation = making land nude/bare. Five main agents:

Agent Action & Landforms Created

1. RIVERS Transport broken rocks to lowlands

Erode land into gorges & valleys
Upper course: V-shaped valleys, gorges, waterfalls, rapids
Middle course: meanders, flood plains
Lower course: deltas, distributaries

2. RAINWATER / Seeps underground through fissures

Underground Water In limestone/salt regions → creates caves, sinkholes, springs

3. ICE / GLACIERS Moving mass of ice on mountains

Erodes V-shaped valley → U-shaped valley
Gives birth to rivers when they melt (e.g., Ganga, Yamuna)

4. SEA WAVES Cause coastal erosion

Work: Erosion + Transportation + Deposition

5. WINDS Most significant in DESERT areas (Thar — Rajasthan; Sahara — Africa)

Remove dry dust/sand particles; create sand dunes

Work of River — 3 Stages (EXAM FAVOURITE)

Stage Feature Landforms

Upper Course Steep slope; fast flow Gorges, V-shaped valleys

(Mountain Stage) Erosion + Transportation dominant Waterfalls (e.g., Angel Falls — 980 m, highest)
Rapids, cascades

Middle Course Gentle slope; slower flow Flood plains (fertile)

(Plain Stage) Fit for navigation & irrigation Meanders (big loops in flat plain)
Deposits alluvial sediments Oxbow lakes

Lower Course Slowest flow Deltas (fertile — alluvium/soil deposited)

(Delta Stage) Deposition dominant Fan-shaped delta at river mouth
River divides into distributaries

Glaciers — Mountain vs Continental

Mountain Glaciers Continental Glaciers

Move down mountain tops along valleys Comparatively BIGGER in size, SLOWER in movement
Movement retarded by valley floor Occupy large areas (thousands of sq. km)

Give birth to rivers when they melt Thick ice sheets covering entire land surface
(e.g., Ganga, Yamuna)

Erode V-shaped valley → U-shaped valley Generally occur in POLAR REGIONS

5. MAJOR LANDFORMS OF THE EARTH

Landform Definition Types / Key Examples

MOUNTAINS High landmass with sharply sloping surfaces;Fold

considerably
Mts: Himalayas,
higher than
Alps,surrounding
Appalachians,
areas
Ural
Block Mts: Rhine valley, Vosges
Volcanic Mts: Mt. Kilimanjaro (Africa), Mt. Fujiyama (Japan)

Young mts: Himalayas, Alps, Andes, Rockies (pointed peaks)

Old mts: Aravalli, Appalachian (low, rounded tops)

PLATEAUS Broad, more-or-less level stretch of upland rising

Deccan
sharply
Plateau
above
(India)
neighbouring
— thousands
lowland;
of kmalso called TABLELAND
Tibet Plateau — highest in world; called 'Roof of the World'
Rich in MINERAL DEPOSITS

PLAINS Relatively flat, low-lying vast expanse of landFormed by river deposits — very fertile
Great Northern Plain of India — river Ganga & tributaries
Hwang-Ho Plain (China), Nile Valley (Egypt)
Most suitable for human habitation — thickly populated

6. EARTHQUAKES

■ Definition: Sudden shaking of the earth due to sudden release of energy from instability within the Earth's
surface and interior.
■ Causes the trembling of everything on ground — buildings, trees, poles, dams.
■ Regarded as a 'sudden-onset hazard' — cannot be predicted.
■ Over 1 million earthquakes occur globally every year; underwater earthquakes generate tsunamis.
■ Instrument: Seismograph measures earthquake waves (P waves, S waves, Surface waves).

Typical Effects
Effects (Left) Effects (Right)

■ Panic: Vibratory waves cause panic — more ■ Public health: Pollution of water bodies, sewage
damage done by panic itself breakdown → epidemics

■ Physical damage: Collapse of buildings, cracks in ■ Civic services disrupted: Water pipes, electric
roads, bridges, dams, water tanks lines, roads, transmission towers collapse

■ Fire: Breakdown of containers of inflammable ■ Disruption of economic activities: Farming,

substances — gas, petrol, kerosene business, trade severely affected → civic unrest

Mitigation Strategies
Structural Non-Structural
 ■ Engineered structures designed to withstand ■ Public awareness & education about earthquake
ground shaking waves, dos & don'ts

■ Soil type analysed before construction; avoid soft ■ Building bylaws & codes — Bureau of Indian
soil Standards + IMD earthquake maps

7. LANDSLIDES

■ Definition: Sudden movement of masses of rock, earth or debris with force of their own weight down
mountain slopes or river banks.
■ Common in: Himalayas, Western Ghats, North Eastern region (Pooravanchal Mountains).
■ Major hazard: damage to life, property, crops, transportation, communication networks.
■ Also occur in floodplains during floods.
■ Triggers: Heavy rains, snowfall, earthquakes, floods, volcanoes.
■ Prediction: Difficult — most occur without prior warning. No clearly established warning systems.

Mitigation — Structural

■ Drainage corrections — most important; reduce water infiltration by allowing excess water to drain off
■ Engineered structures — strong foundations, flexible underground installations
■ Retaining walls — built along slopes to stop land from slipping (visible at hill stations like Shimla)
■ Vegetation cover — easiest & most effective; afforestation binds soil layers, prevents infiltration

Mitigation — Non-Structural

■ Land-use practices — ban deforestation, no grazing on mountain slopes, no blockage of natural drainage
■ Hazard mapping — locate regions prone to landslides; avoid construction in those areas
■ Awareness generation — forecast imminent danger so people take safety measures

8. AVALANCHES

■ Definition: Sudden and rapid flow of snow, ice, and sometimes rocks down a mountain slope.
■ One of the most dangerous natural hazards in mountainous regions with heavy snowfall.
■ Can occur naturally OR be triggered by human activities (skiing, snowmobiling, construction).

6 Causes of Avalanches
1. Heavy Snowfall Large amount of fresh snow in short time increases weight on existing layers → instability

2. Weak Snow Layers Weak layer beneath heavier layer collapses and triggers avalanche

3. Temperature Changes Rapid warming melts snow → loses bonding; sudden cooling creates fragile layers

4. Steep Slopes Most common on slopes between 30–45 degrees where gravity pulls snow downward

5. Human Activities Skiers, mountaineers, vehicles, construction activities disturb snowpack

6. Earthquakes / Vibrations Natural vibrations or loud sounds can initiate avalanches in unstable snow
Mitigation Strategies

■ 1. Monitoring & Early Warning Systems — snow condition observation, weather forecasting, avalanche
prediction
■ 2. Controlled Avalanches — authorities deliberately trigger small avalanches using explosives to prevent
large dangerous build-up
■ 3. Protective Structures — snow fences, retaining walls, avalanche barriers, diversion dams
■ 4. Land Use Planning — avoid construction in high-risk avalanche zones
■ 5. Afforestation — planting trees on mountain slopes stabilises snow
■ 6. Public Awareness & Training — avalanche beacons, probes, safety techniques improve survival

9. GLACIAL LAKE OUTBURST FLOOD (GLOF)

■ Definition: Sudden and massive release of water from a glacial lake when the natural dam holding it fails.
■ Glacial lakes form when melting glaciers accumulate water behind natural dams of ice or moraines.
■ GLOF risk has increased due to rising global temperatures and accelerating glacier melt.
■ Most dangerous in: Himalayas, Andes, and other glacier-fed regions.
■ Effect: Severe flooding, destruction of infrastructure, loss of life, environmental damage.

5 Causes of GLOFs

■ 1. Melting of Glaciers — climate change → rapid glacier melting → increased water volume → pressure on
dam
■ 2. Weak Moraine Dams — loose piles of rocks & debris are unstable and prone to collapse
■ 3. Ice Avalanches or Landslides — falling into the lake creates large waves that overtop/breach the dam
■ 4. Earthquakes — seismic activity weakens or cracks the natural dam → sudden water release
■ 5. Heavy Rainfall or Rapid Snowmelt — excess water raises levels beyond dam's capacity

Mitigation Strategies

■ 1. Regular Monitoring & Risk Assessment — satellite imagery, field surveys, remote sensing
■ 2. Early Warning Systems — sensors and alarms downstream to alert communities
■ 3. Controlled Drainage — drainage channels, tunnels, siphon systems to safely reduce water levels
■ 4. Strengthening Natural Dams — reinforce moraine dams with protective structures
■ 5. Land Use Planning — avoid construction in flood-prone downstream areas
■ 6. Community Awareness & Preparedness — educate about evacuation routes and emergency response

10. DUSTSTORMS

■ Definition: Severe environmental disasters occurring when strong winds lift large amounts of dust and
sand from dry, bare soil into the atmosphere.
■ Most common in arid and semi-arid regions; also occur in drought-affected areas.
■ Health risks: respiratory problems — asthma, bronchitis, eye infections.
 ■ Also reduce visibility on roads and at airports, disrupt transportation.
■ Damage crops, degrade soil fertility, contaminate water sources, contribute to air pollution.
■ Transport fine particles over long distances contributing to climate change.

Causes — Natural & Human-Induced

Natural Causes Human-Induced Causes

■ Prolonged drought, high temperatures, strong ■ Deforestation, overgrazing, poor agricultural

winds practices

■ Dry and loose soil conditions ■ Urbanization and excessive land clearing

■ Sparse vegetation in desert regions → soil ■ Soil erosion and desertification

exposure

■ Climate change → more frequent droughts, ■ Intensify frequency & severity of duststorms
degraded land

Mitigation Strategies

■ Afforestation & Reforestation — stabilize soil, act as windbreaks

■ Sustainable land management — crop rotation, conservation tillage, controlled grazing
■ Early warning systems & improved weather forecasting
■ Public awareness campaigns — staying indoors, using protective masks during storms
■ Regional cooperation — important since duststorms cross national boundaries

✦ QUICK REVISION — KEYWORDS & FACTS ✦

Topic Must-Know Keyword / Fact

Plate Tectonics proposed by Alfred Wegener (1912) — Continental Drift

Seafloor Spreading Theory by Harry Hess & Robert S. Dietz (1950s)

Engine of plate movement Convection currents in the mantle

Boundary between crust & mantle Mohorovicic Discontinuity (Moho)

Outer core state Liquid (mainly iron)

Inner core state Solid (nickel + iron)

Temperature rise inside Earth 1°C for every 32 metres

Weathering in same place In situ — breaking of rocks

Where Himalayas once stood A deep sea called 'Tethys'

V-shaped → U-shaped valley Glaciers

Exfoliation common in Granitic rocks

Highest waterfall in world Angel Falls, Venezuela — ~980 m

Loops formed in flat plains Meanders

River divides into distributaries Lower course / Delta stage

Tibet Plateau nickname Roof of the World

Instrument for earthquakes Seismograph

Earthquake + ocean = ? Tsunami

GLOF stands for Glacial Lake Outburst Flood

Landslide mitigation — most effective Vegetation cover / Afforestation

Avalanche common slope range 30–45 degrees

Duststorm health risk Asthma, bronchitis, eye infections

✦ EXERCISE ANSWER HINTS ✦

Question Answer

Outermost layer of Earth Crust

Boundary where plates move apart Divergent

Innermost layer Core

Mantle lies between Crust and Core

Outer core is Liquid

V-shaped valleys formed by Rivers

Breaking of rocks in situ Weathering

U-shaped valleys formed by Glaciers

Instrument to measure earthquakes Seismograph

Glacial lake burst flood GLOF

Avalanches occur mainly in Mountain regions

Plate tectonics proposed by (Continental Drift) Alfred Wegener

Movement of plates caused by Convection currents

Note: Always use these keywords in your answers: in situ, asthenosphere, Mohorovicic Discontinuity, convection
currents, exfoliation, meanders, distributaries, afforestation, moraines, sudden-onset hazard.