LECTURE EIGHTEEN
January 9, 2025
Overview
Complex Analysis
Laurent Series
Residue
Residue Theorem
Evaluation of real integrals
Laurent Series
I If a complex function f fails to be
analytic at a point z = z0 , then this
point is said to be a singularity or singular
point of the function.
Laurent Series
I If a complex function f fails to be
analytic at a point z = z0 , then this
point is said to be a singularity or singular
point of the function.
I For example, the complex numbers
z = 2i and z = −2i are singularity of the
function
z
f (z ) = 2 .
z −4
because f is discontinuous at each of
these points.
I If z = z0 is a singularity of a function f ,
then certainly f cannot be expanded in a
Laurent Series
I However, about an isolated singularity
z = z0, it is possible to represent f by
series involving both negative and
nonnegative integer powere of z − z0 ;
that is,
a−2 a−1
f (z ) = · · · + +
( z − z0 ) 2 z − z0
+a0 + a1(z − z0) + a2(z − z0)2 (1)
Laurent Series
I As a very simple example of (4), let us
1
consider the function f (z ) = (z −1) .
Laurent Series
I As a very simple example of (4), let us
1
consider the function f (z ) = (z −1) .
I As can be seen, the point z = 1 is an
isolated singularity of f and consequently
the function cannot be expanded in a
Taylor series centered at that point.
Laurent Series
I As a very simple example of (4), let us
1
consider the function f (z ) = (z −1) .
I As can be seen, the point z = 1 is an
isolated singularity of f and consequently
the function cannot be expanded in a
Taylor series centered at that point.
I Nevertheless, f can expanded in a series of
the form given in (1) that is valid for all z
near 1:
Laurent Series
0 1
f (z ) = · · · + +
( z − z0 ) 2 z − z0
+0 + 0.(z − z0) + 0.(z − z0)2 (2)
Residue
I We saw in the last part that if a complex
function f has an isolated singularity at a
point z0, then f has a Laurent series
representation
∞
X
f (z ) = an (z − z0)n
n=−∞
a−2 a−1
= ··· + +
(z − z0)2 z − z0
+ a 0 + a 1 ( z − z0 ) + a 2 ( z − z0 ) 2 + . . .
Residue
I Which coverges for all z near z0.
Residue
I Which coverges for all z near z0.
I More precisely, the representation is valid
in some deleted neighborhood of z0 or
punctured open disk 0 < |z − z0| < R
Residue
I Which coverges for all z near z0.
I More precisely, the representation is valid
in some deleted neighborhood of z0 or
punctured open disk 0 < |z − z0| < R
I Here, we focus on the coefficient a−1 and
its importance in the evaluation of
contour integral.
Residue
I Residue:
The coefficient a−1 of 1/(z − z0) in the
Laurent series is called the residue of the
function f at the isolated singularity z0.
Residue
I Residue:
The coefficient a−1 of 1/(z − z0) in the
Laurent series is called the residue of the
function f at the isolated singularity z0.
I We use the formula
a−1 = Res(f (z ), z0). (3)
Residue
I Consider z = 1 is a pole of order two of
the function f (z ) = (z −1)12(z −3) . Its
Laurent series is
1/2 -1/4 1 z − 1
f (z ) = + − − − ...
(z − 1)2 z − 1 8 16
Residue
I Consider z = 1 is a pole of order two of
the function f (z ) = (z −1)12(z −3) . Its
Laurent series is
1/2 -1/4 1 z − 1
f (z ) = + − − − ...
(z − 1)2 z − 1 8 16
I We see that the coefficient of 1/z − 1 is
a−1 = Res(f (z ), 1) = − 14
Residue
I If f has a simple pole at z = z0, then
Res(f (z ), z0) = lim (z − z0)f (z ). (4)
z →z0
Residue
I If f has a simple pole at z = z0, then
Res(f (z ), z0) = lim (z − z0)f (z ). (4)
z →z0
I If f has a pole of order n at z = z0, then
1 d m−1
Res(f (z ), z0) = lim
(n − 1) ! z →z0 dz n−1
(z − z0)n f (z ). (5)
Residue
I The function f (z ) = (z −1)12(z −3) has a
simple pole at z = 3 and a pole of order 2
at z = 1. Find the residues.
Solution
Since z = 3, then
Res(f (z ), 3) = lim (z − 3)f (z )
z →3
1 1
= lim = .
z →3 (z − 1)2 4
Residue
I Solution cont. . .
Now at the pole of order 2, it gives Sine
z = 3, then
1 d
Res(f (z ), 1) = lim (z − 1)2f (z )
1 ! z →3 dz
d 1
= lim
z →1 dz (z − 3)
−1 1
= lim = − .
z →1 (z − 3)2 4
Residue
I When f is not a rational function,
calculating residues by means of (4) or
(5) can sometimes be tedious.
Residue
I When f is not a rational function,
calculating residues by means of (4) or
(5) can sometimes be tedious.
I It is possible to devise alternative residue
formulas.
Residue
I When f is not a rational function,
calculating residues by means of (4) or
(5) can sometimes be tedious.
I It is possible to devise alternative residue
formulas.
I In particular, suppose a function f can be
written as a quontient f (z ) = gh((zz )) , where
g and h are analytic at z = z0.
Residue
I If g (z0) 6= 0 and if the function h has a
zero of order 1 at z0, then f has a simple
pole at z = z0 and
g (z0)
Res(f (z ), z0) = . (6)
h 0 ( z0 )
Residue Theorem
I We come now to the reason why the
residue concept is important.
Residue Theorem
I We come now to the reason why the
residue concept is important.
I The theorem states that under some
circumstances,
H we can evaluate complex
integrals C f (z )dz by summing the
residues at the isolated singularities of f
within the closed contour C .
Residue Theorem
Residue Theorem
Let D be a simply connected domain and C
a simple closed contour lying entirely with D .
If a function f is analytic on and within C ,
except at finite number of isolated singular
points z1, z2, . . . zn within C , then
I X n
f (z )dz = 2π i Res(f (z ), zk ). (7)
C k =1
Residue Theorem
Example
By using Residue Theorem evaluate
I
1
2 (z − 3)
dz , where
C ( z − 1)
(a) the contour C is the rectangle
defined by
x = 0, x = 4, y = −1, y = 1,
(b) and the contour C is the circle
|2| = 2.
Residue Theorem
Solution
(a) Since both z = 1 and z = 3 are
poles within the rectangle, then
I
1
2 (z − 3)
dz
C ( z − 1)
= 2π i [Res(f (z ), 1) + Res(f (z ), 3)]
According to previous example, it
gives
1 1
2π i − + =0
4 4
Residue Theorem
Solution
(b) Since only the pole z = 1 lies
within the circle |z | = 2, we have
I
1
2 (z − 3)
dz
C ( z − 1)
= 2π i Res(f (z ), 1)
Also according to previous example,
it gives
1 π
2π i − = − i.
4 2
Evaluation of real integrals
Residue Theorem can be used to evaluate
real integrals of the forms
Z 2π
F (cos θ, sin θ), (8)
Z0 ∞
f (x )dx , (9)
Z−∞∞
f (x ) cos αxdx (10)
Z−∞∞
f (x ) sin αxdx (11)
−∞
Evaluation of real integrals
Evaluation of real integrals
Evaluation of real integrals
Evaluation of real integrals
Evaluation of real integrals
Evaluation of real integrals
Evaluation of real integrals
Evaluation of real integrals