Unit

PHYSICS
I

Overview
Unit 1 deals with Scientific Measurements, Forces in Nature, Newtons’ Law of Motion,
Speed, Velocity, and Acceleration, Forms of Energy, Electricity and Magnetism as well as Energy
Transformation in Simple Machines.

Learning Objectives
At the end of the unit, I am able to:

1. Calculate problems involving Mass, Volume, Distance, and Time;

2. Differentiate Gravitational Force from Friction;
3. Enumerate Newton’s Laws of Motion;
4. Identify the different forms of Energy;
5. Explain Circuits and Electromagnets;
6. Apply the concept of energy in making simple machines.

Expanding Your Knowledge

Lesson 1. SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENTS

1.1 MASS

If you spend any time interacting with people at work or school and watch any kind of television-
style programming, it would be unusual for you to go even a full day without hearing at least one
of the words mass or weight. This is especially true of the latter, given the number of people at any
time who are attempting to slim their bodies through some combination of physical activity and
dietary modification.

Finding the mass and weight of objects in the modern world is easy enough: Find a suitably sized
scale, put the object on it, and read the digital or analog numbers that result. But calculating mass
from weight or conversely can be confusing because these terms are used incorrectly or
imprecisely in everyday language.

What Is Mass in Physics?

Mass is one of two fundamental quantities in physics, the other being length. By "fundamental,"
this means that all other units (e.g., velocity, force, acceleration and so on) are derived from one
or more of these units, whereas neither mass nor length is itself derived.

Mass is a measure of "stuff," apart from whatever influence gravity has on that stuff. At root level,
everything that has mass is made up of electrons, protons and neutrons (or if you want to be choosy,
subatomic particles). One key property of mass is that gravity does act on it if it is present, resulting
in a force called weight.

For reference, 1 kg = 2.204 lb, treating lb in the "everyday" Earth sense.

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What Is Weight in Physics?

Weight is the result of gravity acting on mass: w = mg. The value of g on Earth's surface is 9.8
m/s^2 with units of acceleration. To find the weight of something, simply multiply its mass by the
value of the local gravitational field, and you get a result in newtons (N). For example, if your
mass is 50 kg (about 110 pounds), then your weight is (50)(9.8).

The point that must be overwhelmingly emphasized is that weight is a force. Mass does not require
gravity for its own existence, whereas weight does. It is easy to conflate the two because it is rare
for anyone on Earth to operate in zero-gravity conditions.

For this reason, when you calculate your mass on a scale designed for use on Earth, weight is
already factored into the operation of the scale. Mass is not weight, but they are always directly
proportional to each other by the value of g, whatever it may be.

But what does this mean in terms of imperial (pounds and ounces) units? In fact, a unit of mass
exists in this scheme, called the slug, but it is ignored today. If someone says she weighs 110
pounds, think of this as her mass, which would be 50 kg in SI units.

Calculating Mass from Other Variables

Mass and length together give rise to an important variable called density. Volume, which is a
measurement of a "chunk" of three-dimensional space, is derived from length units, and in the
metric system, it has units of m3. Density is mass divided by volume and offers a sense of the
"heaviness" of an object in relation to its size.

Numerically, density ρ = m/V and has SI units of kg/m3, though units such as g/cm3 are more
common in science settings.

What is the mass of an 0.25-m^3 object with a density of 2.5 kg/m^3?

Since ρ = m/V, m = ρV. In this case, you have:

(0.25 m^3)(2.5 kg/m^3) = 0.625 kg.

Mass measures the resistance of a material to accelerate when a force acts upon it. According to
Newton's second law of motion (F = ma), the net force acting upon an object equals the product
of its mass times acceleration.

This formal definition of mass lets you put it in other contexts such as calculating energy,
momentum, centripetal force and gravitational force. Since gravity is very nearly the same over
the surface of the Earth, weight becomes a good indicator of mass. Increasing and decreasing
the amount of material measured increases and decreases the mass of the substance.

The Meaning of Mass

Though people generally use mass to refer to how much of a substance is present or how heavy
a substance is, the various ways people refer to masses of different scientific phenomena means
that mass needs a more unified definition that encompasses all of its uses.

Scientists typically talk about subatomic particles, such as electrons, bosons or photons, as
having a very small amount of mass. But the masses of these particles are actually just energy.
While the mass of protons and neutrons are stored in gluons (the material that keeps protons and
neutrons together), the mass of an electron is much more negligible given that electrons are about
2,000 times lighter than protons and neutrons.

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Gluons account for the strong nuclear force, one of the four fundamental forces of the universe
alongside electromagnetic force, gravitational force and the weak nuclear force, in keeping
neutrons and protons bound together.

1.2 VOLUME

Basic Formulas for Calculating Volume

Volume of Rectangle-Based Solids

Whereas the basic formula for the area of a rectangular shape is length × width, the basic
formula for volume is length × width × height.

How you refer to the different dimensions does not change the calculation: you may, for example,
use 'depth' instead of 'height'. The important thing is that the three dimensions are multiplied
together. You can multiply in which ever order you like as it won't change the answer.

A box with the dimensions 15cm width, 25cm length and 5 cm height has a volume of:
15 × 25 × 5 = 1875cm3

Volume of Prisms and Cylinders

This basic formula can be extended to cover the volume of cylinders and prisms too. Instead of a
rectangular end, you simply have another shape: a circle for cylinders, a triangle, hexagon or,
indeed, any other polygon for a prism.
Effectively, for cylinders and prisms, the volume is the area of one side multiplied by the depth or
height of the shape.
The basic formula for volume of prisms and cylinders is therefore:

Area of the end shape × the height/depth of the prism/cylinder.

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Volume of Cones and Pyramids

The same principle as above (width × length × height) holds for calculating the volume of a cone
or a pyramid except that, because they come to a point, the volume is only a proportion of the total
that it would be if they continued in the same shape right through.

The volume of a cone or pyramid is exactly one third of what it would be for a box or cylinder
with the same base.
The formula is therefore:
Area of the base or end shape × the height of the cone/pyramid × 1/3

For example, to calculate the volume of a cone with a radius of 5cm and a height of 10cm:
The area within a circle = πr2 (where π (pi) is approximately 3.14 and r is the radius of the
circle).
In this example, area of base (circle) = πr2 = 3.14 × 5 × 5 = 78.5cm2.
78.5 × 10 = 785785 × 1/3 = 261.6667cm3

Volume of a Sphere

As with a circle, you need π (pi) to calculate the volume of a sphere.

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The formula is 4/3 × π × radius3.
You may be wondering how you could work out the radius of a ball. Short of sticking a knitting
needle through it (effective, but terminal for the ball!), there is a simpler way.
You can measure the distance around the widest point of the sphere directly, for example, with a
tape measure. This circle is the circumference and has the same radius as the sphere itself.
The circumference of a circle is calculated as 2 x π x radius.
To calculate the radius from the circumference you:
Divide the circumference by (2 x π).

Worked Examples: Calculating Volume

Example 1

Calculate the volume of a cylinder with a length of 20cm, and whose circular end has a radius
of 2.5cm.
First, work out the area of one of the circular ends of the cylinder.
The area of a circle is πr2 (π × radius × radius). π (pi) is approximately 3.14.
The area of an end is therefore:
3.14 x 2.5 x 2.5 = 19.63cm2
The volume is the area of an end multiplied by the length, and is therefore:
19.63cm2 x 20cm = 392.70cm3

Example 2

Which is bigger by volume, a sphere with radius 2cm or a pyramid with base 2.5cm square and
height of 10cm?
First, work out the volume of the sphere.

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The volume of a sphere is 4/3 × π × radius3.
The volume of the sphere is therefore:
4 ÷ 3 x 3.14 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 33.51cm3
Then work out the volume of the pyramid.
The volume of a pyramid is 1/3 × area of base × height.
Area of base = length × breadth = 2.5cm × 2.5cm = 6.25cm2
Volume is therefore 1/3 x 6.25 × 10 = 20.83cm3
The sphere is therefore larger by volume than the pyramid.

Calculating the Volume of Irregular Solids

Just as you can calculate the area of irregular two-dimensional shapes by breaking them down into
regular ones, you can do the same to calculate the volume of irregular solids. Just split the solid
up into smaller parts until you reach only solids that you can work with easily.

Worked example

Calculate the volume of a water cylinder with total height 1m, diameter of 40cm, and whose top
section is semi-spherical.

You first divide the shape into two sections, a cylinder and a semi-sphere (half a sphere).

The volume of a sphere is 4/3 × π × radius3. In this example the radius is 20cm (half the diameter).
Because the top is semi-spherical, its volume will be half that of a full sphere. The volume of this
section of the shape therefore:

0.5 × 4/3 × π × 203 = 16,755.16cm3

The volume of a cylinder is area of the base × height. Here, the height of the cylinder is the total
height less the radius of the sphere, which is 1m – 20cm = 80cm. The area of the base is πr2.

The volume of the cylindrical section of this shape is therefore:

80 × π × 20 × 20 = 100,530.96cm3

The total volume of this water container is therefore:

100,530.96 + 16,755.16 = 117,286.12cm3.

This is quite a large number, so you may prefer to convert it to 117.19 litres by dividing by 1,000
(since there are 1000cm3 in a litre). However, it is quite correct to express it as cm3 since the
problem does not ask for the answer to be expressed in any particular form.

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1.3 DISTANCE

Distance is an important concept both in mathematics and the real world. Of course, measuring
real-world distances is typically easier than distances in math; all that you have to do is use a tool
like a ruler or odometer to get the actual distance measurement. Given that scales can vary,
however, the same technique won't work when measuring distances mathematically. The formula
used to calculate distance depends on whether you're measuring distance over time or a distance
between two points on a plane.

Distance Over Time

If you need to calculate the distance between two locations while traveling, this means you're
calculating distance over time. The calculation assumes that you're moving at a constant rate and
that your movement will occur over a set period of time. If you know these two elements, the
distance traveled over that period of time is simply a matter of multiplying the two.

Distance Over Time Formula

The formula to calculate distance over a period of time is:

distance=rate×time

To give an example of this, if you're traveling 60 miles per hour (mph) and drive for two and a
half hours (2.5 h), you can calculate the distance traveled as:

distance=60×2.5=150 miles

This gives a total distance of 150 miles (since miles per hour is essentially a fraction of m/h and
hours can be shown as a fraction of h/1, the two time factors cancel out and leave only miles). You
can also use this formula to calculate rate or time as needed, transforming it to:

rate=distance/time

1.4 TIME
Every measurement of time involves measuring a change in some physical quantity. It may be a
number on a digital clock, a heartbeat, or the position of the Sun in the sky. In physics, the
definition of time is simple— time is change, or the interval over which change occurs. It is
impossible to know that time has passed unless something changes.
The amount of time or change is calibrated by comparison with a standard. The SI unit for time is
the second, abbreviated s. We might, for example, observe that a certain pendulum makes one full
swing every 0.75 s. We could then use the pendulum to measure time by counting its swings or,
of course, by connecting the pendulum to a clock mechanism that registers time on a dial. This
allows us to not only measure the amount of time, but also to determine a sequence of events.
How does time relate to motion? We are usually interested in elapsed time for a particular motion,
such as how long it takes an airplane passenger to get from his seat to the back of the plane. To
find elapsed time, we note the time at the beginning and end of the motion and subtract the two.
For example, a lecture may start at 11:00 A.M. and end at 11:50 A.M., so that the elapsed time
would be 50 min. Elapsed time Δt is the difference between the ending time and beginning time,
Δt = tf − t0,
where Δt is the change in time or elapsed time, tf is the time at the end of the motion, and t0 is the
time at the beginning of the motion. (As usual, the delta symbol, Δ, means the change in the
quantity that follows it.)

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Life is simpler if the beginning time t0 is taken to be zero, as when we use a stopwatch. If we were
using a stopwatch, it would simply read zero at the start of the lecture and 50 min at the end. If t0
= 0, then Δt = tf ≡ t.
In this text, for simplicity’s sake,motion starts at time equal to zero (t0= 0) the symbol t is used for
elapsed time unless otherwise specified (Δt = tf ≡ t)

Distance Speed Time Formula

Speed is a measure of how quickly an object moves from one place to another. It is equal to the
distance traveled divided by the time. It is possible to find any of these three values using the other
two. This picture is helpful:

The positions of the words in the triangle show where they need to go in the equations. To find the
speed, distance is over time in the triangle, so speed is distance divided by time. To find distance,
speed is beside time, so distance is speed multiplied by time.

s = speed (meters/second)
d = distance traveled (meters)
t = time (seconds)

Distance Speed Time Formula Questions:

1) A dog runs from one side of a park to the other. The park is 80.0 meters across. The dog takes
16.0 seconds to cross the park. What is the speed of the dog?
Answer: The distance the dog travels and the time it takes are given. The dog’s speed can be found
with the formula:

s = 5.0 m/s
The speed of the dog is 5.0 meters per second.

2) A golf cart is driven at its top speed of 27.0 km/h for 10.0 minutes. In meters, how far did the
golf cart travel?

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Answer: The first step solve this problem is to change the units of the speed and time so that the
answer found will be in meters, since this is what the question asks for. The speed is:
s = 27.0 km/h

s = 7.50 m/s
Converting the units, the speed is 7.50 m/s. The time the cart traveled for was:
t = 10.0 min

t = 600s

The speed of the cart and the time of travel are given, so the distance traveled can be found using
the formula:
d = st
d = (7.50 m/s)(600 s)
d = 4500 m
The golf cart traveled 4500 m, which is equal to 4.50 km.

BRAIN SQUEEZERS!

Problem Set 1: Mass

1. Convert 500 grams to kilograms.
2. A box weighs 2.5 kilograms. What is its mass in grams?
3. If an object has a mass of 0.75 kilograms and another object has a mass of 750 grams,
which one is heavier?

Problem Set 2: Volume

1. Convert 2.5 liters to milliliters.
2. A container holds 500 milliliters of water. How much is this in liters?
3. The volume of a cube-shaped box is 27 cubic centimeters. What is the length of each side
of the cube?

Problem Set 3: Distance

1. Convert 3 kilometers to meters.
2. A car travels 250 meters. How many kilometers is this?
3. If you walk 5 miles and your friend walks 8 kilometers, who walked the farthest?

Problem Set 4: Time

1. Convert 2 hours to minutes.
2. A movie is 2 hours and 30 minutes long. How many minutes is that?
3. If you leave your house at 8:15 AM and arrive at your destination at 10:45 AM, how long
was the journey?

Mixed Problem Set:

1. A water tank has a capacity of 5000 liters. If it is filled to 80% of its capacity, how many
liters of water are there in the tank?
2. You are driving at a speed of 60 miles per hour. How many kilometers will you travel in
3.5 hours? (1 mile is approximately equal to 1.60934 kilometers)
3. A rectangular box measures 12 cm in length, 8 cm in width, and 6 cm in height. Calculate
its volume in cubic centimeters.
4. A train travels a distance of 240 kilometers in 4 hours. What is its average speed in
kilometers per hour?

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 LESSON 2. FORCES IN NATURE

2.1 GRAVITATIONAL FORCE

Gravitational force surrounds us. It is what decides how much we weigh and how far a basketball
will travel when thrown before it returns to the surface. The gravitational force on Earth is equal
to the force the Earth exerts on you. At rest, on or near the surface of the Earth, the gravitational
force equals your weight. On a different astronomical body like Venus or the Moon, the
acceleration of gravity is different than on Earth, so if you were to stand on a scale, it would show
you that you weigh a different amount than on Earth.
When two objects are gravitational locked, their gravitational force is centered in an area that is
not at the center of either object, but at the barycenter of the system. The principle is similar to that
of a see-saw. If two people of very different weights sit on opposite sides of the balance point, the
heavier one must sit closer to the balance point so that they can equalize each others mass. For
instance, if the heavier person weighs twice as much as the lighter one, they must sit at only half
the distance from the fulcrum. The balance point is the center of mass of the see-saw, just as the
barycenter is the balance point of the Earth-Moon system. This point that actually moves around
the Sun in the orbit of the Earth, while the Earth and Moon each move around the barycenter, in
their orbits.
Each system in the galaxy, and presumably, the universe, has a barycenter. The push and pull of
the gravitational force of the objects is what keeps everything in space from crashing into one
another.

Gravitational Force Formula

Every object in the universe attracts every other object. The gravitational force formula, also
known as Newton's Law of Gravitation, defines the magnitude of the force between any two
objects. The formula for the gravitational force includes the gravitational constant, which has a
value . The unit of the gravitational force is Newtons (N).

Fg = gravitational force between two objects ( )

G = gravitational constant ( )
m1 = mass of the first object (kg)
m2 = mass of the second object (kg)
r = distance between objects (m)
Gravitational Force Formula Questions:

1) Two satellites orbiting Earth pass close to each other. For a moment, they are 100 m apart. The
masses of the satellites are 300 kg and 20.0 kg. What is the magnitude of the force of gravity
between these satellites?
Answer: The magnitude of the force of gravity between the satellites can be found using the
gravitational force formula:

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The magnitude of the gravitational force between the two satellites when they are 100 m apart is
4.00 x 10-11 N (Newtons).
2) An experiment to measure the force of gravity is set up, using two large spheres. The spheres
are both 1000.0 kg, and their centers of mass are 2.000 m apart. What is the force of gravity
between these two spheres?
Answer: The magnitude of the force of gravity between the spheres can be found using the
gravitational force formula:

The magnitude of the gravitational force between the two spheres is 1.6675 x 10-5 N (Newtons).

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 2.2 FRICTION
Friction is the force that resists motion when the surface of one object comes in contact with the
surface of another. The mechanical advantage of a machine is reduced by friction, or in other
words, the ratio of output to input is reduced because of friction. An automobile uses one-quarter
of its energy on limiting the friction. Yet, it is also friction in the tires that allows the car to stay
on the road and friction in the clutch that makes it possible to drive. From matches to machines to
molecular structures, friction is one of the most significant phenomena in the physical world. In
this article, let us discuss frictional force and its different types.
What is Frictional Force?
Frictional force refers to the force generated by two surfaces that contacts and slide against each
other.
A few factors affecting the frictional force:
1. These forces are mainly affected by the surface texture and amount of force impelling them
together.
2. The angle and position of the object affect the amount of frictional force.
3. If an object is placed flat against an object, then the frictional force will be equal to the
weight of the object.
4. If an object is pushed against the surface, then the frictional force will be increased and
becomes more than the weight of the object.
Calculating the Force of Friction
The maximum amount of friction force that a surface can apply upon an object can be easily
calculated with the use of the given formula:

Ffrict = µ • Fnorm
To help you calculate the frictional force, here we have provided methodical steps to follow while
calculating the force of friction.
Find the Normal Force
The normal force is the support force exerted upon an object that is in contact with another stable
object. The normal force can be simply described in most cases by the following formula:
N = mg
In this formula, m describes the mass of the object, and g stands for the acceleration due to gravity.
In case of an inclined surface, the strength of the normal surface is reduced the more the surface is
inclined, hence the formula becomes:
N = mg cos(θ)
θ represents the angle the surface is inclined to. In a simple calculation, you would calculate the
normal force of a 2-kg block of wood sitting on a surface as N = 2 kg × 9.8 N/kg = 19.6 N.
Finding the Right Co-efficient
The co-efficient that you would choose depends on the object and the specific situation. If the
object isn’t moving across the surface, you use the coefficient of static frictionμstatic, but if the
object under consideration is moving you use the coefficient of sliding friction μslide. The type of
materials used also affects the co-efficient. For example, if a block wood was on a brick surface,
the coefficient would be 0.6, but if it were on a block of clean wood, it would range from 0.25 to
0.5.

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Calculating Frictional Force
As discussed, the formula for frictional force is given by F = μN.
As an example, let us consider the block of wood that weighs 2-kg resting on a table to be pushed
from rest. In this case, we consider the static friction co-efficient. 0.5 is the static co-efficient of
wood.
With the given details, we can calculate the normal force as N = 2 kg × 9.8 N/kg = 19.6 N Now
that we have the values of normal force and static friction co-efficient, we can calculate the
frictional force as follows:
F = 0.5 × 19.6 N = 9.8 N

Are there Different Types of Frictional Force?

Yes, there are different types of frictional forces. The friction that takes place between solid surfaces is classified
as Static, Kinetic, Rolling, and Sliding Friction. The friction that takes place between fluids and gases are
termed as fluid friction. Hence, friction is broadly classified as:

• Dry Friction
o Static Friction
o Kinetic Friction
o Rolling Friction
o Sliding Friction
• Fluid Friction

Dry Friction
Dry friction describes the reaction between two solid bodies in contact when they are in motion
(kinetic friction) and when they are not (static friction). Both static and kinetic friction is
proportional to the normal force exerted between the solid bodies. The interaction of different
substances is modeled with different coefficients of friction. By this, we mean that certain
substances have a higher resistance to movement than others for the same normal force between
them. Each of these values are experimentally determined.

Static Friction Kinetic Friction

Rolling Friction Sliding Friction

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What is Static Friction?
Static friction is a force that keeps an object at rest. Static friction definition can be written as:
The friction experienced when individuals try to move a stationary object on a surface, without
actually triggering any relative motion between the body and the surface which it is on.
It can be explained as the force of friction which precisely balances the applied force for the
duration of the stationary state of the body.

The static frictional force is a self-regulating force, i.e. static friction will at all times be equivalent
and opposite to the force applied. R is the reaction force because of the weight W. The external
force is F and fr is the friction. F = -fr when no motion takes place.

Static Friction Examples

Some real-life examples of static friction are given in the points below.

• Papers on a tabletop
• A towel hanging on a rack
• A bookmark in a book
• A car parked on a hill

What is Kinetic Friction?

Kinetic friction is defined as a force that acts between moving surfaces. A body moving on the
surface experiences a force in the opposite direction of its movement. The magnitude of the force
will depend on the coefficient of kinetic friction between the two material.
Friction is easily defined as the force that holds back a sliding object. The kinetic friction is a part
of everything and it interferes motion of two or more objects. The force acts in the opposite
direction to the way an object wants to slide. If a car has to stop, we apply brakes and that is exactly
where the friction comes into play. While walking, when one wants to suddenly come to a halt,
friction is to thank again. But when we have to stop in the middle of a puddle, things get harder
since friction is less there and cannot aid one so much.

A Model for Kinetic Friction

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Kinetic Friction Formula
The coefficient of kinetic friction is denoted by the Greek letter “mu” (μ), with a subscript “k”.
The force of kinetic friction is μk times the normal force on a body. It is expressed in Newtons
(N). The kinetic friction equation can be written as:
Force of kinetic friction = (coefficient of kinetic friction)(normal force)

Fk= μk η
Where,

• Fk = force of kinetic friction

• μk = coefficient of kinetic friction
• η = normal force (Greek letter “eta”)

What is Rolling Friction?

For a moving solid body, there are two principal types of friction that act upon it:

• The force resisting the motion of a rolling body on a surface is known as rolling friction or
rolling resistance. Rolling of ball or wheel on the ground is an example of Rolling friction.
• The other type of friction is sliding friction. In this type of friction, there is a restriction on
the body’s movement as only one side of the body is in contact with the surface. Pushing
a box across the table is an example of Sliding friction.
Rolling friction is considerably weaker than sliding friction.

Laws of Rolling Friction

There are three laws of rolling friction:

• With the increase in smoothness, the force of rolling friction decreases.

• Rolling friction is expressed as a product of load and constant to the fractional power.

F = kLn

• Rolling friction force is directly proportional to load and inversely proportional to the
radius of curvature.

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 F=μ×Wr

Cause of Rolling Friction

When an object is rolled on a surface, certain things happen:

1. The object is deformed at the point of contact with the surface.

2. The surface is deformed at the point of contact with the object.
3. The motion is created below the surface as a result of the above-mentioned points.

The primary cause of this friction is that the energy of deformation is greater than the energy of
recovery. Also, there is an adhesive force between the two surfaces which needs to be overcome
constantly. The amount of friction is based on a variety of factors such as:

• The quality of the sliding body

• The quality of the surface
• Load
• The diameter of the rolling object
• The surface area of the body

Rolling Friction Examples

• A basketball rolled on the court will eventually come to a halt because of rolling friction.
• A bike with a broad tire will burn more fuel because of the increased rolling friction.
• A ball rolled on a field will go lesser distance than a ball rolling on a concrete floor because
it will experience greater rolling friction on the former surface.

What is Sliding Friction?

We can define sliding friction as the resistance created by any two objects when sliding against
each other. This friction is also known as kinetic friction and is defined as the force that is needed
to keep a surface sliding along another surface. It depends on two variables- one is material and
the other is the weight of the object. Any change in the surface area in contact does not change the
sliding friction. In most of the materials, sliding friction is less than static friction. There are
exceptions that include metals having static and sliding friction coefficients and are essentially the
same with small surfaces where molecular attraction forces take over.

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Sliding Friction Formula
The equation for sliding force includes the coefficient of sliding friction times the normal force.
FS = μSFn
Where,
FS = force of sliding friction
μS = Coefficient of sliding friction
Fn = normal force

Factors affecting sliding friction

• The surface deformation of objects.

• The roughness or smoothness of the surface of the objects.
• The original speed of either object.
• The size of the object.
• Finally, the amount of pressure on either object.

Examples of Sliding Friction

• Rubbing both the hands together to create heat.

• A child sliding down through a slide in a park.
• A coaster sliding against a table.
• A washing machine pushed along with the floor.
• The frame and the edge of the door sliding against one another.
• A block being slid across the floor.
• Two cards in a deck sliding against each other.
Sliding can occur between two objects of arbitrary shape whereas the rolling friction is the
frictional force that is associated with the rotational movement. The rolling friction is usually less
than the one associated with sliding kinetic friction. The values for the coefficient of rolling friction
are quite less than that of sliding friction. It usually produces greater sound and thermal bi-
products. For example- Movement of braking motor vehicle tires on a roadway.

What is the difference between Rolling Friction and Sliding Friction?

Following is the table with rolling friction vs sliding friction:

Rolling friction Sliding friction

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 Rolling friction takes place when an object Sliding friction takes place when two
rolls on the surface. surfaces are rubbed against each other.

Rolling friction takes place due to the Sliding friction takes place due to
deformation of surfaces. interlocking between microscopic surfaces.

The coefficient of rolling friction is dependent The coefficient of sliding friction depends
on the radius of the rolling object, the depth to on the texture of the surface and temperature
which the object can sink, and the toughness of to a certain extent. It is independent of
the surface. external factors.

Coefficient of rolling friction: Coefficient of sliding friction:

Fr = μrN Fk = μrN

Fluid Friction
Fluid Friction is the force that obstructs the flow of fluid. It is a situation where the fluid provides
resistance between the two surfaces. If both the surfaces offer high resistance then it is known as
high viscous and, generally, we call them greasy.

Examples of Fluid Friction

1. To avoid creaking sounds from doors, we lubricate the door hinges which leads to the
smooth functioning of door hinges.
2. When you drop the ball in a full bucket of water, water splashes out of the bucket and is
all because of buoyancy of fluid.

Problems on Frictional Force

1. A large block of ice is being pulled across a frozen lake. The block of ice has a mass of 300
kg. The coefficient of friction between two ice surfaces is small: μk = 0.05. What is the force
of friction that is acting on the block of ice?
Solution: On a flat surface, the normal force on an object is given by N = mg.
With this, we can find the force of friction as follows:
Ff =μN
Ff =μmg
Substituting the values in the above equation we get,
Ff =0.05 × 300 kg × 9.8 m/s2
= 147 kg-m/s2 or 147 N.
The force of friction acting in the opposite direction as the block of ice is pulled across the lake
is 147 N.
2. A man has to push his boat on the shore across the mud to get to the water. The coefficient
of friction between the boat and the mud is given by μ = 0.400. If the boat has a mass of 40
kg, calculate the magnitude of the force of friction acting on the boat.
Solution: On a flat surface, the normal force on an object is N = mg.
Using this, we can calculate the force of friction as follows:
F = μN F = μ mg Substituting the values in the equation, we get F = (0.400)(40.0 kg)(9.80 m/s2)
F = 156.8 N
The frictional force acting on the boat is 156.8 N.

18
 BRAIN SQUEEZERS!

Problem Set 1: Gravitational Force

1. Calculate the gravitational force between two objects with masses of 100 kg and 150 kg,
separated by a distance of 5 meters. (Use the gravitational constant G = 6.67 x 10^-11 N
m^2/kg^2)
2. An astronaut with a mass of 60 kg is standing on the surface of a planet with a mass of 5.97
x 10^24 kg and a radius of 6,371 km. Calculate the gravitational force on the astronaut.
3. Two spheres with masses 10 kg and 15 kg are placed 4 meters apart. Determine the
gravitational force between them.
Problem Set 2: Friction
1. A 50 kg object is sliding on a horizontal surface with a coefficient of kinetic friction of 0.3.
Calculate the frictional force acting on the object.
2. An object of mass 20 kg is being pushed with a force of 100 N on a surface with a
coefficient of static friction of 0.4. Will the object move?
3. A block is sliding down a frictionless inclined plane with an acceleration of 2 m/s^2. What
is the angle of the incline?
Mixed Problem Set:
1. A car with a mass of 1200 kg is traveling at a speed of 25 m/s. Calculate the stopping
distance if the coefficient of kinetic friction between the tires and the road is 0.5.
2. Two objects, A and B, have masses of 5 kg and 10 kg, respectively. The distance between
them is 2 meters. What is the gravitational force between them? Will they attract or repel
each other?
3. A box is being pushed across the floor with a force of 30 N, but it experiences a frictional
force of 15 N. What is the net force acting on the box?
4. An elevator with a mass of 800 kg is descending at a constant speed. The tension in the
supporting cable is 7000 N. Calculate the force of friction acting on the elevator.

19
 LESSON 3. NEWTONS’ LAW OF MOTION
3.1 Newtons’ First Law of Motion
Newton's first law of motion is often stated as
An object at rest stays at rest and an object in motion stays in motion with the same speed and in
the same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.
Two Clauses and a Condition
There are two clauses or parts to this statement - one that predicts the behavior of stationary objects
and the other that predicts the behavior of moving objects. The two parts are summarized in the
following diagram.

The behavior of all objects can be described by saying that

objects tend to "keep on doing what they're doing" (unless
acted upon by an unbalanced force). If at rest, they will
continue in this same state of rest. If in motion with an
eastward velocity of 5 m/s, they will continue in this same
state of motion (5 m/s, East). If in motion with a leftward
velocity of 2 m/s, they will continue in this same state of motion (2 m/s, left). The state of motion
of an object is maintained as long as the object is not acted upon by an unbalanced force. All
objects resist changes in their state of motion - they tend to "keep on doing what they're doing."
There is an important condition that must be met in order for the first law to be applicable to any
given motion. The condition is described by the phrase "... unless acted upon by an unbalanced
force." As the long as the forces are not unbalanced - that is, as long as the forces are balanced -
the first law of motion applies.
Everyday Applications of Newton's First Law
There are many applications of Newton's first law of motion. Consider some of your experiences
in an automobile. Have you ever observed the behavior of coffee in a coffee cup filled to the rim
while starting a car from rest or while bringing a car to rest from a state of motion? Coffee "keeps
on doing what it is doing." When you accelerate a car from rest, the road provides an unbalanced
force on the spinning wheels to push the car forward; yet the coffee (that was at rest) wants to stay
at rest. While the car accelerates forward, the coffee remains in the same position; subsequently,
the car accelerates out from under the coffee and the coffee spills in your lap. On the other hand,
when braking from a state of motion the coffee continues forward with the same speed and in the
same direction, ultimately hitting the windshield or the dash. Coffee in motion stays in motion.

20
Have you ever experienced inertia (resisting changes in
your state of motion) in an automobile while it is braking
to a stop? The force of the road on the locked wheels
provides the unbalanced force to change the car's state of
motion, yet there is no unbalanced force to change your
own state of motion. Thus, you continue in motion,
sliding along the seat in forward motion. A person in
motion stays in motion with the same speed and in the
same direction ... unless acted upon by the unbalanced
force of a seat belt. Yes! Seat belts are used to provide safety for passengers whose motion is
governed by Newton's laws. The seat belt provides the unbalanced force that brings you from a
state of motion to a state of rest. Perhaps you could speculate what would occur when no seat belt
is used.

3.2 Newtons’ Second Law of Motion

Newton's first law of motion predicts the behavior of objects for which all existing forces are
balanced. The first law - sometimes referred to as the law of inertia - states that if the forces acting
upon an object are balanced, then the acceleration of that object will be 0 m/s/s. Objects
at equilibrium (the condition in which all forces balance) will not accelerate. According to
Newton, an object will only accelerate if there is a net or unbalanced force acting upon it. The
presence of an unbalanced force will accelerate an object - changing its speed, its direction, or both
its speed and direction.

Newton's second law of motion pertains to the behavior of objects for which all existing forces
are not balanced. The second law states that the acceleration of an object is dependent upon two
variables - the net force acting upon the object and the mass of the object. The acceleration of an
object depends directly upon the net force acting upon the object, and inversely upon the mass of
the object. As the force acting upon an object is increased, the acceleration of the object is
increased. As the mass of an object is increased, the acceleration of the object is decreased.

The BIG Equation

Newton's second law of motion can be formally stated as follows:

21
The acceleration of an object as produced by a net force is directly proportional to the magnitude
of the net force, in the same direction as the net force, and inversely proportional to the mass of
the object.
This verbal statement can be expressed in equation form as follows:
a = Fnet / m
The above equation is often rearranged to a more familiar form as shown below. The net force is
equated to the product of the mass times the acceleration.
Fnet = m • a
In this entire discussion, the emphasis has been on the net force. The acceleration
is directly proportional to the net force; the net force equals mass times
acceleration; the acceleration in the same direction as the net force; an
acceleration is produced by a net force. The NET FORCE. It is important to
remember this distinction. Do not use the value of merely "any 'ole force" in the
above equation. It is the net force that is related to acceleration. As discussed in
an earlier lesson, the net force is the vector sum of all the forces. If all the
individual forces acting upon an object are known, then the net force can be
determined.
Consistent with the above equation, a unit of force is equal to a unit of mass times a unit of
acceleration. By substituting standard metric units for force, mass, and acceleration into the above
equation, the following unit equivalency can be written.
1 Newton = 1 kg • m/s2

The definition of the standard metric unit of force is stated by the above equation. One Newton is
defined as the amount of force required to give a 1-kg mass an acceleration of 1 m/s/s.
Sample Problems
1. Determine the accelerations that result when a 12-N net force is applied to a 3-kg object and
then to a 6-kg object.
A 3-kg object experiences an acceleration of 4 m/s/s. A 6-kg object experiences an acceleration of
2 m/s/s.
2. A net force of 15 N is exerted on an encyclopedia to cause it to accelerate at a rate of 5 m/s2.
Determine the mass of the encyclopedia.
Use Fnet= m * a with Fnet = 15 N and a = 5 m/s/s.
So (15 N) = (m)*(5 m/s/s)
And m = 3.0 kg

3.3 Newton's Third Law of Motion

A force is a push or a pull that acts upon an object as a results of its interaction with another object.
Forces result from interactions! As discussed in Lesson 2, some forces result from contact
interactions (normal, frictional, tensional, and applied forces are examples of contact forces) and
other forces are the result of action-at-a-distance interactions (gravitational, electrical, and
magnetic forces). According to Newton, whenever objects A and B interact with each other, they
exert forces upon each other. When you sit in your chair, your body exerts a downward force on
the chair and the chair exerts an upward force on your body. There are two forces resulting from
this interaction - a force on the chair and a force on your body. These two forces are
called action and reaction forces and are the subject of Newton's third law of motion. Formally
stated, Newton's third law is:
For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

22
The statement means that in every interaction, there is a pair of forces acting on
the two interacting objects. The size of the forces on the first object equals the size
of the force on the second object. The direction of the force on the first object
is opposite to the direction of the force on the second object. Forces always come
in pairs - equal and opposite action-reaction force pairs.

Examples of Interaction Force Pairs

A variety of action-reaction force pairs are evident in nature. Consider the propulsion of a fish
through the water. A fish uses its fins to push water backwards. But a push on the water will only
serve to accelerate the water. Since forces result from mutual interactions, the water must also be
pushing the fish forwards, propelling the fish through the water. The size of the force on the water
equals the size of the force on the fish; the direction of the force on the water (backwards) is
opposite the direction of the force on the fish (forwards). For every action, there is an equal (in
size) and opposite (in direction) reaction force. Action-reaction force pairs make it possible for
fish to swim.
Consider the flying motion of birds. A bird flies by use of its wings. The
wings of a bird push air downwards. Since forces result from mutual
interactions, the air must also be pushing the bird upwards. The size of the
force on the air equals the size of the force on the bird; the direction of the
force on the air (downwards) is opposite the direction of the force on the
bird (upwards). For every action, there is an equal (in size) and opposite
(in direction) reaction. Action-reaction force pairs make it possible for
birds to fly.
Consider the motion of a car on the way to school. A car is equipped with wheels that spin. As the
wheels spin, they grip the road and push the road backwards. Since forces result from mutual
interactions, the road must also be pushing the wheels forward. The size of the force on the road
equals the size of the force on the wheels (or car); the direction of the force on the road (backwards)
is opposite the direction of the force on the wheels (forwards). For every action, there is an equal
(in size) and opposite (in direction) reaction. Action-reaction force pairs make it possible for cars
to move along a roadway surface.
Sample Problem
1. While driving down the road, a firefly strikes the windshield of a bus and makes a quite obvious
mess in front of the face of the driver. This is a clear case of Newton's third law of motion. The
firefly hit the bus and the bus hits the firefly. Which of the two forces is greater: the force on the
firefly or the force on the bus?
Each force is the same size. For every action, there is an equal ... (equal!). The fact that the firefly
splatters only means that with its smaller mass, it is less able to withstand the larger acceleration
resulting from the interaction. Besides, fireflies have guts and bug guts have a tendency to
be splatterable. Windshields don't have guts. There you have it.
2. For years, space travel was believed to be impossible because there was nothing that rockets
could push off of in space in order to provide the propulsion necessary to accelerate. This inability
of a rocket to provide propulsion is because ...
a. ... space is void of air so the rockets have nothing to push off of.
b. ... gravity is absent in space.
c. ... space is void of air and so there is no air resistance in space.
d. ... nonsense! Rockets do accelerate in space and have been able to do so for a long time.

Answer: D
It is a common misconception that rockets are unable to accelerate in space. The fact is that rockets
do accelerate. There is indeed nothing for rockets to push off of in space - at least nothing which
is external to the rocket. But that's no problem for rockets. Rockets are able to accelerate due to

23
the fact that they burn fuel and push the exhaust gases in a direction opposite the direction which
they wish to accelerate.
BRAIN SQUEEZERS!

Problem Set 1: Newton's First Law

1. A car is traveling to the east with a constant velocity of 20 m/s. What force is required to
bring the car to a complete stop in 5 seconds? (Assume the car's mass is 1000 kg)
2. A book is placed on a table and remains at rest. Calculate the net force acting on the book
if the frictional force is 8 N to the left and an external force of 10 N is applied to the right.

Problem Set 2: Newton's Second Law

1. An object with a mass of 5 kg experiences an acceleration of 2 m/s². Calculate the net force
acting on the object.
2. A force of 20 N is applied to an object, and it experiences an acceleration of 4 m/s². What
is the mass of the object?

Problem Set 3: Newton's Third Law

1. Two cars, Car A and Car B, collide head-on. Car A has a mass of 1500 kg, and Car B has
a mass of 2000 kg. If the impact force between them is 20,000 N, what is the acceleration
of each car after the collision?
2. A ball is thrown against a wall with a force of 50 N. If the wall exerts a reaction force of
50 N back on the ball, what is the ball's acceleration?

Mixed Problem Set:

1. A rocket is accelerating upwards with a force of 10,000 N. The rocket's mass is 1000 kg.
Calculate the acceleration of the rocket.
2. A skater with a mass of 60 kg is initially at rest. He pushes against the ground with a force
of 120 N to move forward. What is the skater's acceleration? (Assume no frictional forces
are present)
3. A 500 kg car is moving to the right at 15 m/s. The driver applies the brakes, causing the
car to decelerate at 3 m/s². What is the net force acting on the car during braking?

24
 LESSON 4. SPEED, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION
Just as distance and displacement have distinctly different meanings (despite their similarities), so
do speed and velocity. Speed is a scalar quantity that refers to "how fast an object is moving."
Speed can be thought of as the rate at which an object covers distance. A fast-moving object has a
high speed and covers a relatively large distance in a short amount of time. Contrast this to a slow-
moving object that has a low speed; it covers a relatively small amount of distance in the same
amount of time. An object with no movement at all has a zero speed.

4.1 Velocity as a Vector Quantity

Velocity is a vector quantity that refers to "the rate at which an object changes its position."
Imagine a person moving rapidly - one step forward and one step back - always returning to the
original starting position. While this might result in a frenzy of activity, it would result in a zero
velocity. Because the person always returns to the original position, the motion would never result
in a change in position. Since velocity is defined as the rate at which the position changes, this
motion results in zero velocity. If a person in motion wishes to maximize their velocity, then that
person must make every effort to maximize the amount that they are displaced from their original
position. Every step must go into moving that person further from where he or she started. For
certain, the person should never change directions and begin to return to the starting position.
Velocity is a vector quantity. As such, velocity is direction aware. When evaluating the velocity
of an object, one must keep track of direction. It would not be enough to say that an object has a
velocity of 55 mi/hr. One must include direction information in order to fully describe the velocity
of the object. For instance, you must describe an object's velocity as being 55 mi/hr, east. This is
one of the essential differences between speed and velocity. Speed is a scalar quantity and does
not keep track of direction; velocity is a vector quantity and is direction aware.

Determining the Direction of the Velocity Vector

The task of describing the direction of the velocity vector is easy. The direction
of the velocity vector is simply the same as the direction that an object is
moving. It would not matter whether the object is speeding up or slowing
down. If an object is moving rightwards, then its velocity is described as being
rightwards. If an object is moving downwards, then its velocity is described as
being downwards. So an airplane moving towards the west with a speed of
300 mi/hr has a velocity of 300 mi/hr, west. Note that speed has no direction
(it is a scalar) and the velocity at any instant is simply the speed value with a
direction.

Calculating Average Speed and Average Velocity

As an object moves, it often undergoes changes in speed. For example, during an average trip to
school, there are many changes in speed. Rather than the speed-o-meter maintaining a steady
reading, the needle constantly moves up and down to reflect the stopping and starting and the
accelerating and decelerating. One instant, the car may be moving at 50 mi/hr and another instant,
it might be stopped (i.e., 0 mi/hr). Yet during the trip to school the person might average 32 mi/hr.
The average speed during an entire motion can be thought of as the average of all speedometer
readings. If the speedometer readings could be collected at 1-second intervals (or 0.1-second
intervals or ... ) and then averaged together, the average speed could be determined. Now that
would be a lot of work. And fortunately, there is a shortcut.

The average speed during the course of a motion is often computed using the following formula:

25
In contrast, the average velocity is often computed using this formula

Let's begin implementing our understanding of these formulas with the following problem:

Q: While on vacation, Lisa Carr traveled a total distance of 440 miles. Her trip took 8 hours.
What was her average speed?
To compute her average speed, we simply divide the distance of travel by the time of travel.

That was easy! Lisa Carr averaged a speed of 55 miles per hour. She may not have been traveling
at a constant speed of 55 mi/hr. She undoubtedly, was stopped at some instant in time (perhaps for
a bathroom break or for lunch) and she probably was going 65 mi/hr at other instants in time. Yet,
she averaged a speed of 55 miles per hour. The above formula represents a shortcut method of
determining the average speed of an object.
4.2 Acceleration
The final mathematical quantity discussed in Lesson 1 is acceleration. An often confused quantity,
acceleration has a meaning much different than the meaning associated with it by sports
announcers and other individuals. The definition of acceleration is:
• Acceleration is a vector quantity that is defined as the rate at which an object changes
its velocity. An object is accelerating if it is changing its velocity.
Sports announcers will occasionally say that a person is accelerating if
he/she is moving fast. Yet acceleration has nothing to do with going fast. A
person can be moving very fast and still not be accelerating. Acceleration
has to do with changing how fast an object is moving. If an object is not
changing its velocity, then the object is not accelerating. The data at the right
are representative of a northward-moving accelerating object. The velocity
is changing over the course of time. In fact, the velocity is changing by a
constant amount - 10 m/s - in each second of time. Anytime an object's
velocity is changing, the object is said to be accelerating; it has an acceleration.
The Meaning of Constant Acceleration
Sometimes an accelerating object will change its velocity by the same amount each second. As
mentioned in the previous paragraph, the data table above show an object changing its velocity by
10 m/s in each consecutive second. This is referred to as a constant acceleration since the velocity
is changing by a constant amount each second. An object with a constant acceleration should not
be confused with an object with a constant velocity. Don't be fooled! If an object is changing its
velocity -whether by a constant amount or a varying amount - then it is an accelerating object. And
an object with a constant velocity is not accelerating. The data tables below depict motions of
objects with a constant acceleration and a changing acceleration. Note that each object has a
changing velocity.

26
Since accelerating objects are constantly changing their velocity, one can say that the distance
traveled/time is not a constant value. A falling object for instance usually accelerates as it falls. If
we were to observe the motion of a free-falling object (free fall motion will be discussed in detail
later), we would observe that the object averages a velocity of approximately 5 m/s in the first
second, approximately 15 m/s in the second second, approximately 25 m/s in the third second,
approximately 35 m/s in the fourth second, etc. Our free-falling object would be constantly
accelerating. Given these average velocity values during each consecutive 1-second time interval,
we could say that the object would fall 5 meters in the first second, 15 meters in the second second
(for a total distance of 20 meters), 25 meters in the third second (for a total distance of 45 meters),
35 meters in the fourth second (for a total distance of 80 meters after four seconds). These numbers
are summarized in the table below.

Total Distance
Time Velocity ChangeAve. VelocityDistance TraveledTraveled from
Interval During Interval During Interval During Interval 0 s to End of
Interval
0 – 1.0 s 0 to ~10 m/s ~5 m/s ~5 m ~5 m
1.0 – 2.0 s ~10 to 20 m/s ~15 m/s ~15 m ~20 m
2.0 – 3.0 s ~20 to 30 m/s ~25 m/s ~25 m ~45 m
3.0 – 4.0 s ~30 to 40 m/s ~35 m/s ~35 m ~80 m

Note: The ~ symbol as used here means approximately.

This discussion illustrates that a free-falling object that is accelerating at a constant rate will cover
different distances in each consecutive second. Further analysis of the first and last columns of the
data above reveal that there is a square relationship between the total distance traveled and the
time of travel for an object starting from rest and moving with a constant acceleration. The total
distance traveled is directly proportional to the square of the time. As such, if an object travels for
twice the time, it will cover four times (2^2) the distance; the total distance traveled after two
seconds is four times the total distance traveled after one second. If an object travels for three times
the time, then it will cover nine times (3^2) the distance; the distance traveled after three seconds
is nine times the distance traveled after one second. Finally, if an object travels for four times the
time, then it will cover 16 times (4^2) the distance; the distance traveled after four seconds is 16
times the distance traveled after one second. For objects with a constant acceleration, the distance
of travel is directly proportional to the square of the time of travel.

Calculating the Average Acceleration

The average acceleration (a) of any object over a given interval of time (t) can be calculated using
the equation

27
This equation can be used to calculate the acceleration of the object whose motion is depicted by
the velocity-time data table above. The velocity-time data in the table shows that the object has an
acceleration of 10 m/s/s. The calculation is shown below.

Acceleration values are expressed in units of velocity/time.

Typical acceleration units include the following:
m/s/s
mi/hr/s
km/hr/s
m/s2
These units may seem a little awkward to a beginning physics student. Yet they are very reasonable
units when you begin to consider the definition and equation for acceleration. The reason for the
units becomes obvious upon examination of the acceleration equation.

Since acceleration is a velocity change over a time, the units on acceleration are velocity units
divided by time units - thus (m/s)/s or (mi/hr)/s. The (m/s)/s unit can be mathematically simplified
to m/s2.
The Direction of the Acceleration Vector
Since acceleration is a vector quantity, it has a direction associated with it. The direction of the
acceleration vector depends on two things:
• whether the object is speeding up or slowing down
• whether the object is moving in the + or - direction
The general principle for determining the acceleration is:
If an object is slowing down, then its acceleration is in the opposite
direction of its motion.
This general principle can be applied to determine whether the sign of the
acceleration of an object is positive or negative, right or left, up or down,
etc. Consider the two data tables below. In each case, the acceleration of
the object is in the positive direction. In Example A, the object is moving
in the positive direction (i.e., has a positive velocity) and is speeding up. When an object is
speeding up, the acceleration is in the same direction as the velocity. Thus, this object has
a positive acceleration. In Example B, the object is moving in the negative direction (i.e., has a
negative velocity) and is slowing down. According to our general principle, when an object is
slowing down, the acceleration is in the opposite direction as the velocity. Thus, this object also
has a positive acceleration.

28
This same general principle can be applied to the motion of the objects represented in the two data
tables below. In each case, the acceleration of the object is in the negative direction. In Example
C, the object is moving in the positive direction (i.e., has a positive velocity) and is slowing down.
According to our principle, when an object is slowing down, the acceleration is in the opposite
direction as the velocity. Thus, this object has a negative acceleration. In Example D, the object
is moving in the negative direction (i.e., has a negative velocity) and is speeding up. When an
object is speeding up, the acceleration is in the same direction as the velocity. Thus, this object
also has a negative acceleration.

Observe the use of positive and negative as used in the discussion above (Examples A - D). In
physics, the use of positive and negative always has a physical meaning. It is more than a mere
mathematical symbol. As used here to describe the velocity and the acceleration of a moving
object, positive and negative describe a direction. Both velocity and acceleration are vector
quantities and a full description of the quantity demands the use of a directional adjective. North,
south, east, west, right, left, up and down are all directional adjectives. Physics often borrows from
mathematics and uses the + and - symbols as directional adjectives. Consistent with the
mathematical convention used on number lines and graphs, positive often means to the right or up
and negative often means to the left or down. So to say that an object has a negative acceleration
as in Examples C and D is to simply say that its acceleration is to the left or down (or in whatever
direction has been defined as negative). Negative accelerations do not refer acceleration values
that are less than 0. An acceleration of -2 m/s/s is an acceleration with a magnitude of 2 m/s/s that
is directed in the negative direction.

Sample Problem
To test your understanding of the concept of acceleration, consider the following problems and the
corresponding solutions. Use the equation for acceleration to determine the acceleration for the
following two motions.

(Practice A) Answer: a = 2 m/s/s

Use a = (vf - vi) / t and pick any two points.
a = (8 m/s - 0 m/s) / (4 s)
a = (8 m/s) / (4 s)
a = 2 m/s/s

(Practice B) Answer: a = -2 m/s/s

Use a = (vf-vi) / t and pick any two points.
a = (0 m/s - 8 m/s) / (4 s)
a = (-8 m/s) / (4 s)
a = -2 m/s/s

29
 BRAIN SQUEEZERS!

Problem Set 1: Velocity

1. A car travels a distance of 240 kilometers in 3 hours. Calculate its average velocity.
2. An object moves 100 meters north in 20 seconds. Calculate its average velocity.
3. A train travels from one station to another, covering 500 meters in 25 seconds. Calculate
its velocity.

Problem Set 2: Acceleration

1. A car increases its speed from 20 m/s to 40 m/s in 10 seconds. Calculate its acceleration.
2. An object is moving with a velocity of 10 m/s, and after 5 seconds, its velocity decreases
to 2 m/s. Calculate its acceleration.
3. A skateboarder slows down from a speed of 6 m/s to rest in 2 seconds. Calculate the
acceleration.

Mixed Problem Set:

1. A ball is thrown upward with an initial velocity of 25 m/s. If the acceleration due to
gravity is 9.8 m/s², calculate the maximum height the ball will reach.
2. A car accelerates from rest at a rate of 2 m/s² for 8 seconds. How far does the car travel
during this time?
3. An airplane decelerates with an acceleration of -5 m/s² to come to a stop on the runway.
If its initial velocity was 150 m/s, how long does it take to stop?
4. A train traveling at a speed of 30 m/s applies brakes and comes to a stop in 20 seconds.
Calculate its acceleration.

30
 LESSON 5 FORMS OF ENERGY (SCREAM)
S- Sound Energy- is produced when an object is made to vibrate. Sound energy travels out as
waves in all directions. Sound needs a medium to travel through, such as air, water, wood, and
even metal!
Examples: Voices, whistles, horns and musical instruments.
C- Chemical Energy - is really a form of potential energy and is the energy stored in food, gasoline
or chemical combinations.
Examples: Striking a match, combining vinegar and baking soda to form CO2 Gas, breaking light
sticks releases chemical energy.
R- Radiant Energy - is a combination of heat and light energy. Light energy, like sound energy,
travels out in all directions in waves.
Examples: A light bulb, the glowing coils on a toaster, the sun, and even headlights on cars.
E- Electrical Energy - Energy produced by electrons moving through a substance is known as
electrical energy. We mostly see electric energy in batteries and from the outlets in our homes.
Electrical energy lights our homes, run motors, and makers our TVs and radios work.
Examples: CD players, TVs and Video games.
A- Atomic Energy - is produced when you split atoms. A tremendous amount of energy is released
when this happens.
Examples: Atomic bombs, nuclear power plants, nuclear submarines, and the sun.
M- Mechanical Energy - is moving energy. It is the form that we most see around us. All moving
objects produce mechanical energy. The movements within machines is also mechanical energy.
Examples: People, a rolling bicycle, moving gears, and running cars.

5.1 Properties of Sound Waves

Sound is a wave. More specifically, sound is defined to be a disturbance of matter that is

transmitted from its source outward. A disturbance is anything that is moved from its state of
equilibrium. Some sound waves can be characterized as periodic waves, which means that the
atoms that make up the matter experience simple harmonic motion.

A vibrating string produces a sound wave as illustrated in Figure 14.2, Figure 14.3, and Figure
14.4. As the string oscillates back and forth, part of the string’s energy goes into compressing and
expanding the surrounding air. This creates slightly higher and lower pressures. The higher
pressure... regions are compressions, and the low pressure regions are rarefactions. The pressure
disturbance moves through the air as longitudinal waves with the same frequency as the string.
Some of the energy is lost in the form of thermal energy transferred to the air. You may recall from
the chapter on waves that areas of compression and rarefaction in longitudinal waves (such as
sound) are analogous to crests and troughs in transverse waves.

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Figure 14.2 A vibrating string moving to the right compresses the air in front of it and expands
the air behind it.

Figure 14.3 As the string moves to the left, it creates another compression and rarefaction as the
particles on the right move away from the string.

Figure 14.4 After many vibrations, there is a series of compressions and rarefactions that have
been transmitted from the string as a sound wave. The graph shows gauge pressure (Pgauge) versus
distance x from the source. Gauge pressure is the pressure relative to atmospheric pressure; it is
positive for pressures above atmospheric pressure, and negative for pressures below it. For
ordinary, everyday sounds, pressures vary only slightly from average atmospheric pressure.

The amplitude of a sound wave decreases with distance from its source, because the energy of the
wave is spread over a larger and larger area. But some of the energy is also absorbed by objects,
such as the eardrum in Figure 14.5, and some of the energy is converted to thermal energy in the
air. Figure 14.4 shows a graph of gauge pressure versus distance from the vibrating string. From
this figure, you can see that the compression of a longitudinal wave is analogous to the peak of a
transverse wave, and the rarefaction of a longitudinal wave is analogous to the trough of a
transverse wave. Just as a transverse wave alternates between peaks and troughs, a longitudinal
wave alternates between compression and rarefaction.

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Figure 14.5 Sound wave compressions and rarefactions travel up the ear canal and force the
eardrum to vibrate. There is a net force on the eardrum, since the sound wave pressures differ from
the atmospheric pressure found behind the eardrum. A complicated mechanism converts the
vibrations to nerve impulses, which are then interpreted by the brain.

The Speed of Sound

The speed of sound varies greatly depending upon the medium it is traveling through. The speed
of sound in a medium is determined by a combination of the medium’s rigidity (or compressibility
in gases) and its density. The more rigid (or less compressible) the medium, the faster the speed of
sound. The greater the density of a medium, the slower the speed of sound. The speed of sound in
air is low, because air is compressible. Because liquids and solids are relatively rigid and very
difficult to compress, the speed of sound in such media is generally greater than in gases. Table
14.1 shows the speed of sound in various media. Since temperature affects density, the speed of
sound varies with the temperature of the medium through which it’s traveling to some extent,
especially for gases.

Medium vw (m/s)

Gases at 0 °C

Air 331

Carbon dioxide 259

Oxygen 316

Helium 965

Hydrogen 1290

Liquids at 20 °C

Ethanol 1160

Mercury 1450

Water, fresh 1480

Sea water 1540

Human tissue 1540

Solids (longitudinal or bulk)

Vulcanized rubber 54

Polyethylene 920

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 Medium vw (m/s)

Marble 3810

Glass, Pyrex 5640

Lead 1960

Aluminum 5120

Steel 5960
Table14.1 Speed of Sound in Various Media

The Relationship Between the Speed of Sound and the Frequency and Wavelength of a
Sound Wave

Figure 14.6 When fireworks explode in the sky, the light energy is perceived before the sound
energy. Sound travels more slowly than light does. (Dominic Alves, Flickr)

Sound, like all waves, travels at certain speeds through different media and has the properties of
frequency and wavelength. Sound travels much slower than light—you can observe this while
watching a fireworks display (see Figure 14.6), since the flash of an explosion is seen before its
sound is heard.

The relationship between the speed of sound, its frequency, and wavelength is the same as for all
waves:

v=fλ,v=fλ,

where v is the speed of sound (in units of m/s), f is its frequency (in units of hertz), and λλ is its
wavelength (in units of meters). Recall that wavelength is defined as the distance between adjacent
identical parts of a wave. The wavelength of a sound, therefore, is the distance between adjacent
identical parts of a sound wave. Just as the distance between adjacent crests in a transverse wave
is one wavelength, the distance between adjacent compressions in a sound wave is also one
wavelength, as shown in Figure 14.7. The frequency of a sound wave is the same as that of the
source. For example, a tuning fork vibrating at a given frequency would produce sound waves that
oscillate at that same frequency. The frequency of a sound is the number of waves that pass a point
per unit time.

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Figure 14.7 A sound wave emanates from a source vibrating at a frequency f, propagates at v, and
has a wavelength λλ .

One of the more important properties of sound is that its speed is nearly independent of frequency.
If this were not the case, and high-frequency sounds traveled faster, for example, then the farther
you were from a band in a football stadium, the more the sound from the low-pitch instruments
would lag behind the high-pitch ones. But the music from all instruments arrives in cadence
independent of distance, and so all frequencies must travel at nearly the same speed.

Recall that v=fλv=fλ, and in a given medium under fixed temperature and humidity, v is constant.
Therefore, the relationship between f and λλ is inverse: The higher the frequency, the shorter the
wavelength of a sound wave.

The speed of sound can change when sound travels from one medium to another. However, the
frequency usually remains the same because it is like a driven oscillation and maintains the
frequency of the original source. If v changes and f remains the same, then the wavelength λλ must
change. Since v=fλv=fλ, the higher the speed of a sound, the greater its wavelength for a given
frequency.

Sample Problem

Calculate the wavelengths of sounds at the extremes of the audible range, 20 and 20,000 Hz, in
conditions where sound travels at 348.7 m/s.

Solution: To find wavelength from frequency, we can use v = fλ.

(1) Identify the knowns. The values for v and f are given.
(2) Solve the relationship between speed, frequency and wavelength for λ. λ = v / f.
(3) Enter the speed and the minimum frequency to give the maximum wavelength.
λmax =348.7m/s / 20 Hz =17 m≈20 m (1 sig. figure)
(4) Enter the speed and the maximum frequency to give the minimum wavelength.
λmin =348.7m/s / 20,000 Hz =0.017 m≈2 cm (1 sig. figure)

Discussion

Because the product of f multiplied by λ equals a constant velocity in unchanging conditions, the
smaller f is, the larger λ must be, and vice versa. Note that you can also easily rearrange the same
formula to find frequency or velocity.

5.2 Chemical Energy

Chemical energy is the energy stored within chemicals, which makes its energy inside atoms and
molecules. Most often, it's considered the energy of chemical bonds, but the term also includes
energy stored in the electron arrangement of atoms and ions. It's a form of potential energy that
you won't observe until a reaction occurs. Chemical energy can be changed into other forms of
energy through chemical reactions or chemical changes. Energy, often in the form of heat, is
absorbed or released when chemical energy is converted to another form.

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Chemical Energy Examples

• Chemical energy is a form of potential energy found within chemical bonds, atoms, and
subatomic particles.
• Chemical energy can be observed and measured only when a chemical reaction occurs.
• Any matter considered to be a fuel contains chemical energy.
• The energy can be released or absorbed. For example, combustion releases more energy
than is needed to initiate the reaction. Photosynthesis absorbs more energy than it releases.

Examples of Chemical Energy

Basically, any compound contains chemical energy that can be released when its chemical bonds
are broken. Any substance that can be used as a fuel contains chemical energy. Examples of matter
containing chemical energy include:

• Coal: Combustion reaction converts chemical energy into light and heat.
• Wood: Combustion reaction converts chemical energy into light and heat.
• Petroleum: Can be burned to release light and heat or changed into another form of
chemical energy, such as gasoline.
• Chemical batteries: Store chemical energy to be changed into electricity.
• Biomass: Combustion reaction converts chemical energy into light and heat.
• Natural gas: Combustion reaction converts chemical energy into light and heat.
• Food: Digested to convert chemical energy into other forms of energy used by cells.
• Cold packs: Chemical energy is absorbed in a reaction.
• Propane: Burned to produce heat and light.
• Hot packs: Chemical reaction produces heat or thermal energy.
• Photosynthesis: Changes solar energy into chemical energy.
• Cellular respiration: A set of reactions that changes the chemical energy in glucose into
chemical energy in ATP, a form our bodies can use.

5.3 Radiant Energy

The term radiant energy refers to energy that travels by waves or particles, particularly
electromagnetic radiation such as heat or x-rays. Radiant energy is created through electromagnetic
waves and was discovered in 1885 by Sir William Crookes. Fields in which this terminology is
most often used are telecommunications, heating, radiometry, lighting, and in terms of energy
created from the sun. Radiant energy is measured in joules.

Everyday Examples of Radiant Energy

Virtually anything that has a temperature gives off radiant energy. Some examples of radiant
energy include:

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 • The heat emitted from a campfire
• Emission of heat from a hot sidewalk
• X-rays give off radiant energy
• Microwaves utilize radiant energy
• Space heaters produce radiant energy
• Heat created by the body can be radiant energy
• Lighting fixtures
• Home heating units
• Fixtures that convert solar energy to heat
• Visible light
• Gamma rays
• Radio waves
• Electricity
• A surface heated by the sun converts the energy of the light into infrared energy which is
a form of radiant energy
• Cell phones utilize radiant energy to function
• Magnetic motor generators that utilize neodymium magnets create radiant energy
• Audio signals that come to home or cars via radio waves
• Ultraviolet light
• Infrared radiation
• The light emitted from a campfire
• The light generated from a light bulb
• A heated brake disc giving off heat
• The heat from a grill used for cooking
• Water can reflect or absorb radiant energy
• Soil can absorb radiant energy
• Light from the sun
• Heat emitted from a bunsen burner
• Heat from an overused computer
• Heat caused by friction
• Heat emitted from a dryer
• The heat generated by a light bulb
• Heat generated through reflection of visible light
• A window reflects radiant energy
• Heat created from a stove or oven
• Heat emitted from a washing machine

Understanding Radiant Energy

Radiant energy is a form of kinetic energy. Kinetic energy refers to the movement of the energy
whether is is of atoms, molecules, waves, substances or objects. Other forms of kinetic energy
include thermal energy, sound, motion energy and electrical energy. Without radiant energy, like
that from the sun, life on Earth would not be possible.

Radiant energy is the result of a change in configuration of electrons. It can travel through any
substance including air, liquid, glass, and space. However, matter is not necessary for transmission
of radiant energy. Even in a vacuum environment, radiant energy can move.

Radiant energy moves in a straight line at a very high speed and can be absorbed, transmitted or
reflected. Radiant energy is reflected if the object receiving the energy cannot absorb it. If the
energy is only partially able to penetrate the object, then it is absorbed. The energy is transmitted
if an object cannot absorb it.

Good and bad conductors of Heat

Thermal conductivity of a substance is the ability of that substance to conduct heat.

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A measure of the “goodness” or the ”badness” of a substance for the flow of heat through
conduction is provided by its thermal conductivity.

Good Conductors

Materials that allow heat to pass through them easily are called good conductors of heat.

Bad Conductors

Materials that do not conduct heat as easily and quickly as metals do are bad conductors.

5.4 Electrical Energy

Electrical energy is an important concept in science, yet one that is frequently misunderstood.
What exactly is electrical energy, and what are some of the rules applied when using it in
calculations?

What Is Electrical Energy?

Electrical energy is a form of energy resulting from the flow of electric charge. Energy is the ability
to do work or apply force to move an object. In the case of electrical energy, the force is electrical
attraction or repulsion between charged particles. Electrical energy may be either potential
energy or kinetic energy, but it's usually encountered as potential energy, which is energy stored
due to the relative positions of charged particles or electric fields. The movement of charged
particles through a wire or other medium is called current or electricity. There is also static
electricity, which results from an imbalance or separation of the positive and negative charges on
an object. Static electricity is a form of electrical potential energy. If sufficient charge builds up,
the electrical energy may be discharged to form a spark (or even lightning), which has electrical
kinetic energy.

By convention, the direction of an electric field is always shown pointing in the direction a positive
particle would move if it was placed in the field. This is important to remember when working
with electrical energy because the most common current carrier is an electron, which moves in the
opposite direction compared with a proton.

How Electrical Energy Works

The British scientist Michael Faraday discovered a means of generating electricity as early as the
1820s. He moved a loop or disc of conductive metal between the poles of a magnet. The basic
principle is that electrons in copper wire are free to move. Each electron carries a negative
electrical charge. Its movement is governed by attractive forces between the electron and positive
charges (such as protons and positively-charged ions) and repulsive forces between the electron
and like-charges (such as other electrons and negatively-charged ions). In other words, the electric
field surrounding a charged particle (an electron, in this case) exerts a force on other charged

38
particles, causing it to move and thus do work. Force must be applied to move two attracted
charged particles away from each other.

Any charged particles may be involved in producing electrical energy, including electrons,
protons, atomic nuclei, cations (positively-charged ions), anions (negatively-charged ions),
positrons (antimatter equivalent to electrons), and so on.

Examples

Electrical energy used for electric power, such as wall current used to power a light bulb or
computer, is energy that is converted from electric potential energy. This potential energy is
converted into another type of energy (heat, light, mechanical energy, etc). For a power utility, the
motion of electrons in a wire produces the current and electric potential.

A battery is another source of electrical energy, except the electrical charges may be ions in a
solution rather than electrons in a metal.

Biological systems also use electrical energy. For example, hydrogen ions, electrons, or metal ions
may be more concentrated on one side of a membrane than the other, setting up an electrical
potential that can be used to transmit nerve impulses, move muscles, and transport materials.

Specific examples of electrical energy include:

• Alternating current (AC)

• Direct current (DC)
• Lightning
• Batteries
• Capacitors
• Energy generated by electric eels

Units of Electricity

The SI unit of potential difference or voltage is the volt (V). This is the potential difference between
two points on a conductor carrying 1 ampere of current with the power of 1 watt. However, several
units are found in electricity, including:

Unit Symbol Quantity

Volt V Potential difference, voltage (V), electromotive force (E)
Ampere (amp) A Electric current (I)
Ohm Ω Resistance (R)
Watt W Electric power (P)
Farad F Capacitance (C)
Henry H Inductance (L)
Coulomb C Electric charge (Q)
Joule J Energy (E)
Kilowatt-hour kWh Energy (E)
Hertz Hz Frequency f)

Relation Between Electricity and Magnetism

Always remember, a moving charged particle, whether it be a proton, electron, or ion, generates a
magnetic field. Similarly, changing a magnetic field induces an electric current in
a conductor (e.g., a wire). Thus, scientists who study electricity typically refer to it
as electromagnetism because electricity and magnetism are connected to each other.

Conductors of Electricity

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Electric conductors possess movable electrically charged particles, referred to as "electrons" in
metals. When an electric charge is applied to a metal at certain points, the electrons will move
and allow electricity to pass through. Materials with high electron mobility are good conductors
and materials with low electron mobility are not good conductors, instead referred to as
"insulators."

Copper, Silver, Aluminum, Gold, Steel and Brass are common conductors of electricity. While
silver and gold are both effective, they are too expensive for common use. Individual properties
make each ideal for specific purposes.

Copper and Silver Are Most Common

Silver is the best conductor of electricity because it contains a higher number of movable atoms
(free electrons). For a material to be a good conductor, the electricity passed through it must be
able to move the electrons; the more free electrons in a metal, the greater its conductivity.
However, silver is more expensive than other materials and is not normally used unless it is
required for specialized equipment like satellites or circuit boards. Copper is less conductive
than silver but is cheaper and commonly used as an effective conductor in household appliances.
Most wires are copper-plated and electromagnet cores are normally wrapped with copper wire.
Copper is also easy to solder and wrap into wires, so it is often used when a large amount of
conductive material is required.

Aluminum Works Well, But Has Risks

Aluminum, when compared by unit weight, is actually more conductive than copper and costs
less. Aluminum material is used in household products or in wiring but it is not a common choice
because it has several structural flaws. For example, aluminum has the tendency to form an
electrically resistant oxide surface in electrical connections, which may cause the connection to
overheat. Aluminum is instead used for high-voltage transmission lines (such as overhead phone
cables) which can be encased in steel for additional protection.

Gold Is Effective But Expensive

Gold is a good electric conductor and does not tarnish like other metals when exposed to the air
-- for example, steel or copper may oxidize (corrode) when in prolonged conduct with oxygen.
Gold is especially expensive and is only used for certain materials, such as circuit board
components or small electrical connectors. Some materials may receive gold plating as an
electric conductor, or use a small amount of gold which is then platedg in another material to
reduce manufacturing costs.

Steel and Brass Alloys Have Special Uses

Steel is an alloy of iron, which is also a conductor, and is an inflexible metal which is highly
corrosive when exposed to air. It is difficult to cast and is not used in small products or machines ;
instead, steel is used to encase other conductors or for large structure. Brass, which is also an
alloy, is a tensile metal which makes it easy to bend and mold into different parts for smaller
machines. It is less corrosive than steel, slightly more conductive, cheaper to purchase and still
retains value after use, while steel alloy is only valuable when first bought.

5.5 Atomic Energy

Nuclear energy, also called atomic energy, energy that is released in significant amounts in
processes that affect atomic nuclei, the dense cores of atoms. It is distinct from the energy of other
atomic phenomena such as ordinary chemical reactions, which involve only the orbital electrons of
atoms. One method of releasing nuclear energy is by controlled nuclear fission in devices
called reactors, which now operate in many parts of the world for the production of electricity.
Another method for obtaining nuclear energy, controlled nuclear fusion, holds promise but has not

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been perfected by 2020. Nuclear energy has been released explosively by both nuclear fusion and
nuclear fission. See also nuclear power.

nuclear fission and nuclear fusion

Diagram showing the difference between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. Nuclear fission is
used in nuclear reactors to produce energy for electrical power and similar applications. It also was
used to create the atomic bomb. Fusion is used to create thermonuclear weapons and holds promise
for the production of electricity.
In nuclear fission the nucleus of an atom, such as that of uranium or plutonium. breaks up into two
lighter nuclei of roughly equal mass. The process may take place spontaneously in some cases or
may be induced by the excitation of the nucleus with a variety of particles (e.g., neutrons, protons,
deuterons, or alpha particles) or with electromagnetic radiation in the form of gamma rays. In the
fission process a large quantity of energy is released, radioactive products are formed, and
several neutrons are emitted. These neutrons can induce fission in a nearby nucleus of fissionable
material and release more neutrons that can repeat the sequence, causing a chain reaction in which
a large number of nuclei undergo fission and an enormous amount of energy is released. If
controlled in a nuclear reactor, such a chain reaction can provide power for society’s benefit. If
uncontrolled, as in the case of the so-called atomic bomb, it can lead to an explosion of awesome
destructive force.

nuclear power plant

The Tianwan nuclear power plant, using pressurized-water reactors, in Lianyungang, Jiangsu
province, China. © Craig Hanson/[Link]

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Nuclear fusion is the process by which nuclear reactions between light elements form heavier
elements. In cases where the interacting nuclei belong to elements with low atomic numbers
(e.g., hydrogen [atomic number 1] or its isotopes deuterium and tritium), substantial amounts of
energy are released. The vast energy potential of nuclear fusion was first exploited
in thermonuclear weapons, or hydrogen bombs, which were developed in the decade immediately
following World War II. The potential peaceful applications of nuclear fusion, especially in view
of the essentially limitless supply of fusion fuel on Earth, have encouraged an immense effort to
harness this process for the production of power. Although practical fusion reactors have not been
built yet, the necessary conditions of plasma temperature and heat insulation have been largely
achieved, suggesting that fusion energy for electric-power production is now a serious possibility.
Commercial fusion reactors promise an inexhaustible source of electricity for countries
worldwide.

5.6 Mechanical Energy

If a barbell is displaced from ground level to a height above a weightlifter's head, then the
weightlifter is supplying a force to do work on the barbell. In all instances, an object that possesses
some form of energy supplies the force to do the work. In the instances described here, the objects
doing the work (a student, a tractor, a pitcher, a motor/chain) possess chemical potential
energy stored in food or fuel that is transformed into work. In the process of doing work, the object
that is doing the work exchanges energy with the object upon which the work is done. When the
work is done upon the object, that object gains energy. The energy acquired by the objects upon
which work is done is known as mechanical energy.
Mechanical energy is the energy that is possessed by an object due
to its motion or due to its position. Mechanical energy can be
either kinetic energy (energy of motion) or potential
energy (stored energy of position). Objects have mechanical
energy if they are in motion and/or if they are at some position
relative to a zero potential energy position (for example, a brick
held at a vertical position above the ground or zero height
position). A moving car possesses mechanical energy due to its
motion (kinetic energy). A moving baseball possesses mechanical
energy due to both its high speed (kinetic energy) and its vertical
position above the ground (gravitational potential energy). A
World Civilization book at rest on the top shelf of a locker possesses mechanical energy due to its
vertical position above the ground (gravitational potential energy). A barbell lifted high above a
weightlifter's head possesses mechanical energy due to its vertical position above the ground
(gravitational potential energy). A drawn bow possesses mechanical energy due to its stretched
position (elastic potential energy).

Mechanical Energy as the Ability to Do Work

An object that possesses mechanical energy is able to do work.
In fact, mechanical energy is often defined as the ability to do
work. Any object that possesses mechanical energy - whether it
is in the form of potential energy or kinetic energy - is able to do
work. That is, its mechanical energy enables that object to apply
a force to another object in order to cause it to be displaced.
Numerous examples can be given of how an object with mechanical energy can harness that energy
in order to apply a force to cause another object to be displaced. A classic example involves the
massive wrecking ball of a demolition machine. The wrecking ball is a massive object that is
swung backwards to a high position and allowed to swing forward into building structure or other
object in order to demolish it. Upon hitting the structure, the wrecking ball applies a force to it in
order to cause the wall of the structure to be displaced. The diagram below depicts the process by
which the mechanical energy of a wrecking ball can be used to do work.
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A hammer is a tool that utilizes mechanical energy to do work. The
mechanical energy of a hammer gives the hammer its ability to apply
a force to a nail in order to cause it to be displaced. Because the
hammer has mechanical energy (in the form of kinetic energy), it is
able to do work on the nail. Mechanical energy is the ability to do
work.

Another example that illustrates how mechanical

energy is the ability of an object to do work can
be seen any evening at your local bowling alley.
The mechanical energy of a bowling ball gives the ball the ability to apply a
force to a bowling pin in order to cause it to be displaced. Because the massive
ball has mechanical energy (in the form of kinetic energy), it is able to do
work on the pin. Mechanical energy is the ability to do work.

A dart gun is still another example of how mechanical

energy of an object can do work on another object. When a
dart gun is loaded and the springs are compressed, it
possesses mechanical energy. The mechanical energy of the
compressed springs gives the springs the ability to apply a
force to the dart in order to cause it to be displaced. Because
of the springs have mechanical energy (in the form of elastic potential energy), it is able to do work
on the dart. Mechanical energy is the ability to do work.
A common scene in some parts of the countryside is a "wind
farm." High-speed winds are used to do work on the blades
of a turbine at the so-called wind farm. The mechanical
energy of the moving air gives the air particles the ability to
apply a force and cause a displacement of the blades. As the
blades spin, their energy is subsequently converted into
electrical energy (a non-mechanical form of energy) and
supplied to homes and industries in order to run electrical
appliances. Because the moving wind has mechanical
energy (in the form of kinetic energy), it is able to do work
on the blades. Once more, mechanical energy is the ability
to do work.
The Total Mechanical Energy
As already mentioned, the mechanical energy of an object can be the result of its motion
(i.e., kinetic energy) and/or the result of its stored energy of position (i.e., potential energy). The
total amount of mechanical energy is merely the sum of the potential energy and the kinetic energy.
This sum is simply referred to as the total mechanical energy (abbreviated TME).

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TME = PE + KE
As discussed earlier, there are two forms of potential energy discussed in our course - gravitational
potential energy and elastic potential energy. Given this fact, the above equation can be rewritten:
TME = PEgrav + PEspring + KE
The diagram below depicts the motion of Lee Ben Fardest (esteemed American ski jumper) as he
glides down the hill and makes one of his record-setting jumps.

The total mechanical energy of Lee Ben Fardest is the sum of the potential and kinetic energies.
The two forms of energy sum up to 50 000 Joules. Notice also that the total mechanical energy of
Lee Ben Fardest is a constant value throughout his motion. There are conditions under which the
total mechanical energy will be a constant value and conditions under which it will be a changing
value. This is the subject of Lesson 2 - the work-energy relationship. For now, merely remember
that total mechanical energy is the energy possessed by an object due to either its motion or
its stored energy of position. The total amount of mechanical energy is merely the sum of these
two forms of energy. And finally, an object with mechanical energy is able to do work on another
object.

BRAIN SQUEEZERS!

Direction: Provide well-researched and comprehensive responses, citing relevant examples and
sources to support your answers/arguments on the following:

1. Properties of Sound Waves: a. Discuss the nature of sound waves and their characteristics, including
wavelength, frequency, amplitude, and speed. Explain how these properties influence the perception of sound
by the human ear. b. Explore the concept of sound propagation and the factors that affect the speed of sound
in different media. Provide real-world examples to illustrate the applications of sound waves in various fields.
2. Chemical Energy: a. Define chemical energy and explain how it is stored within chemical bonds. Discuss the
process of chemical reactions that release or absorb energy and the concept of energy conservation during
these reactions. b. Explore the importance of chemical energy as a source of power in various energy systems,
such as fossil fuels, batteries, and food digestion. Discuss the environmental implications of using chemical
energy as a primary energy source.
3. Radiant Energy: a. Define radiant energy and its various forms, including visible light, ultraviolet, infrared,
and electromagnetic radiation. Discuss the wave-particle duality of light and its behavior as both a wave and
a stream of photons. b. Examine the applications of radiant energy in technology, communication, and
medical imaging. Discuss the role of radiant energy from the Sun as a primary driver of Earth's climate and
ecosystems.
4. Electrical Energy: a. Explain the concept of electrical energy and how it relates to the movement of charged
particles. Discuss the principles of voltage, current, and resistance in electrical circuits. b. Explore the
generation, transmission, and distribution of electrical energy in power grids. Discuss the importance of
renewable energy sources in transitioning to a more sustainable electrical energy system.
5. Atomic Energy: a. Define atomic energy and the process of nuclear fission and fusion. Discuss the release of
energy from atomic reactions and the potential applications of nuclear energy as a power source. b. Analyze
the advantages and disadvantages of nuclear energy, including safety concerns and the management of
nuclear waste. Discuss the role of nuclear energy in the context of addressing climate change and global
energy demands.
6. Mechanical Energy: a. Describe mechanical energy and its relationship to kinetic and potential energy.
Discuss the principle of conservation of mechanical energy and provide examples of situations where it
applies. b. Explore the applications of mechanical energy in various mechanical systems, such as simple
machines, engines, and energy storage devices.

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 LESSON 6. Electricity and Magnetism

Electricity and magnetism are separate yet interconnected phenomena associated with
the electromagnetic force. Together, they form the basis for electromagnetism, a key physics
discipline.

Except for behavior due to the force of gravity, nearly every occurrence in daily life stems from
the electromagnetic force. It is responsible for the interactions between atoms and the flow between
matter and energy. The other fundamental forces are the weak and strong nuclear force, which
govern radioactive decay and the formation of atomic nuclei.

Since electricity and magnetism are incredibly important, it's a good idea to begin with a basic
understanding of what they are and how they work.

Basic Principles of Electricity

Electricity is the phenomenon associated with either stationary or moving electric charges. The
source of the electric charge could be an elementary particle, an electron (which has a negative
charge), a proton (which has a positive charge), an ion, or any larger body that has an imbalance
of positive and negative charge. Positive and negative charges attracts each other (e.g., protons are
attracted to electrons), while like charges repel each other (e.g., protons repel other protons and
electrons repel other electrons).

Familiar examples of electricity include lightning, electrical current from an outlet or battery, and
static electricity. Common SI units of electricity include the ampere (A) for current, coulomb (C)
for electric charge, volt (V) for potential difference, ohm (Ω) for resistance, and watt (W) for
power. A stationary point charge has an electric field, but if the charge is set in motion, it also
generates a magnetic field.

Basic Principles of Magnetism

Magnetism is defined as the physical phenomenon produced by moving electric charge. Also, a
magnetic field can induce charged particles to move, producing an electric current. An
electromagnetic wave (such as light) has both an electric and magnetic component. The two
components of the wave travel in the same direction, but oriented at a right angle (90 degrees) to
one another.

Like electricity, magnetism produces attraction and repulsion between objects. While electricity is
based on positive and negative charges, there are no known magnetic monopoles. Any magnetic
particle or object has a "north" and "south" pole, with the directions based on the orientation of the
Earth's magnetic field. Like poles of a magnet repel each other (e.g., north repels north), while
opposite poles attract one another (north and south attract).

Familiar examples of magnetism include a compass needle's reaction to Earth's magnetic field,
attraction and repulsion of bar magnets, and the field surrounding electromagnets. Yet, every
moving electric charge has a magnetic field, so the orbiting electrons of atoms produce a magnetic
field; there is a magnetic field associated with power lines; and hard discs and speakers rely on
magnetic fields to function. Key SI units of magnetism include the tesla (T) for magnetic flux
density, weber (Wb) for magnetic flux, ampere per meter (A/m) for magnetic field strength, and
henry (H) for inductance.

The Fundamental Principles of Electromagnetism

The word electromagnetism comes from a combination of the Greek works elektron, meaning
"amber" and magnetis lithos, meaning "Magnesian stone," which is a magnetic iron ore. The
ancient Greeks were familiar with electricity and magnetism, but considered them to be two
separate phenomena.

45
The relationship known as electromagnetism wasn't described until James Clerk Maxwell
published A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism in 1873. Maxwell's work included twenty
famous equations, which have since been condensed into four partial differential equations. The
basic concepts represented by the equations are as follows:

1. Like electric charges repel, and unlike electric charges attract. The force of attraction or
repulsion is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
2. Magnetic poles always exist as north-south pairs. Like poles repel like and attract unlike.
3. An electric current in a wire generates a magnetic field around the wire. The direction of
the magnetic field (clockwise or counterclockwise) depends on the direction of the current.
This is the "right hand rule," where the direction of the magnetic field follows the fingers
of your right hand if your thumb is pointing in the current direction.
4. Moving a loop of wire toward or away from a magnetic field induces a current in the wire.
The direction of the current depends on the direction of the movement.

Maxwell's theory contradicted Newtonian mechanics, yet experiments proved Maxwell's

equations. The conflict was finally resolved by Einstein's theory of special relativity.

6.1 Circuits

You might have been wondering how charges can continuously flow in a uniform direction
through wires without the benefit of these hypothetical Sources and Destinations. In order for the
Source-and-Destination scheme to work, both would have to have an infinite capacity for charges
in order to sustain a continuous flow!
Using the marble-and-tube analogy from the previous page on conductors, insulators, and electron
flow, the marble source and marble destination buckets would have to be infinitely large to contain
enough marble capacity for a “flow” of marbles to be sustained.
What Is a Circuit?
The answer to this paradox is found in the concept of a circuit: a never-ending looped pathway for
charge carriers. If we take a wire, or many wires, joined end-to-end, and loop it around so that it
forms a continuous pathway, we have the means to support a uniform flow of charge without
having to resort to infinite Sources and Destinations:

Each charge carrier advancing clockwise in this circuit pushes on the one in front of it, which
pushes on the one in front of it, and so on, and so on, just like a hula-hoop filled with marbles.
Now, we have the capability of supporting a continuous flow of charge indefinitely without the
need for infinite supplies and dumps. All we need to maintain this flow is a continuous means of
motivation for those charge carriers, which we’ll address in the next section of this chapter
on voltage and current.

46
What Does It Mean When a Circuit Is Broken?
Continuity is just as important in a circuit as it is in a straight piece of wire. Just as in the example
with the straight piece of wire between the Source and Destination, any break in this circuit will
prevent charge from flowing through it:

An important principle to realize here is that it doesn’t matter where the break occurs. Any
discontinuity in the circuit will prevent charge flow throughout the entire circuit. Unless there is a
continuous, unbroken loop of conductive material for charge carriers to flow through, a sustained
flow simply cannot be maintained.

Requirements of a Circuit
Suppose that you were given a small light bulb, an electrochemical cell and a bare copper wire and
were asked to find the four different arrangements of the three items that would result in the
formation of an electric circuit that would light the bulb. What four arrangements would result in
the successful lighting of the bulb? And more importantly, what does each of the four arrangements
have in common that would lead us into an understanding of the two requirements of an electric
circuit?
The activity itself is a worthwhile activity and if not performed before, one ought to try it before
reading further. Like many lab activities, there is power in the actual engagement in the activity
that cannot be replaced by simply reading about it. When this activity is performed in the physics

47
classroom, there are numerous observations that can be made by watching a class full of students
eager to find the four arrangements. The following arrangements are often tried and do not result
in the lighting of the bulb.

After a few minutes of trying, several healthy chuckles, and an occasional exclamation of how hot
the wire is getting, a couple of students become successful at lighting the bulb. Unlike the above
attempts, the first successful attempt is characterized by the production of a complete
conducting loop from the positive terminal to the negative terminal, with both the
battery and the light bulb being part of the loop. As shown in the diagram at the right,
the base of the light bulb connects to the positive terminal of the cell and the wire
extends from the ribbed sides of the light bulb down to the negative terminal of the
cell. A complete conducting loop is made with the light bulb being part of the loop.
A circuit exists and charge flows along the complete conducting path, lighting the
bulb in the process. Compare the arrangement of the cell, bulb and wire at the right
to the unsuccessful arrangements shown above. In attempt A, the wire does not loop back to the
negative terminal of the cell. In attempt B, the wire does form a loop but not back to the negative
terminal of the cell. In attempt C, there is no complete loop at all. Attempt D resembles attempt B
in that there is a loop but not from the positive terminal to the negative terminal. And in attempt
E, there is a loop and it does go from positive terminal to negative terminal; this is a circuit but the
light bulb is not included as part of it. CAUTION: Attempt E will cause your fingers to get hot as
you hold the bare wire and charge begins to flow at a high rate between the positive and negative
terminals.

6.2 Light Bulb Anatomy

Once one group of students successfully lights the bulb, many
other lab groups quickly follow suit. But then the question emerges
as to what other ways that the cell, bulb and bare wire can be
arranged in such a manner as to light the bulb. Often a short light
bulb anatomy lesson prompts the lab groups into a quick discovery
of one or more of the remaining arrangements.
A light bulb is a relatively simple device consisting of a filament
resting upon or somehow attached to two wires. The wires and the
filament are conducting materials that allow charge to flow through
them. One wire is connected to the ribbed sides of the light bulbs.
The other wire is connected to the bottom base of the light bulb.
The ribbed edge and the bottom base are separated by an insulating
material that prevents the direct flow of charge between the bottom
base and the ribbed edge. The only pathway by which charge can
make it from the ribbed edge to the bottom base or vice versa is the
pathway that includes the wires and the filament. Charge can either
enter the ribbed edge, make the pathway through the filament and exit out the bottom base; or it
can enter the bottom base, make the pathway through the filament and exit out the ribbed edge. As
such, there are two possible entry points and two corresponding exit points.
The successful means of lighting the bulb as shown above involved placing the bottom base of the
bulb on the positive terminal and connecting the ribbed edge to the negative terminal using a wire.
Any charge that enters the light bulb at the bottom base exits the bulb at the location where the
48
wire makes contact with the ribbed edge. Yet the bottom base does not have to be the part of the
bulb that touches the positive terminal. The bulb will light just as easily if the ribbed edge is placed
on top of the positive terminal and the bottom base is connected to the negative terminal using a
wire. The final two arrangements that lead to a lit light bulb involve placing the bulb at the negative
terminal of the cell, either by making contact to it with the ribbed edge or with the bottom base. A
wire must then connect the other part of the bulb to the positive terminal of the cell.

6.3 The Requirement of a Closed Conducting Path

There are two requirements that must be met to establish an electric circuit. The first is clearly
demonstrated by the above activity. There must be a closed conducting path that extends from the
positive terminal to the negative terminal. It is not enough that there is simply a closed conducting
loop; the loop itself must extend from the positive terminal to the negative terminal of the
electrochemical cell. An electric circuit is like a water circuit at a water park. The flow of charge
through wires is similar to the flow of water through the pipes and along the slides at a water park.
If a pipe gets plugged or broken such that water cannot make the complete path through the circuit,
then the flow of water will soon cease. In an electric circuit, all connections must be made and
made by conducting materials capable of carrying charge. As the cell, bulb and wire experiment
continues, some students explore the capability of various materials to carry a charge by inserting
them in their circuit. Metallic materials are conductors and can be inserted into the circuit to
successfully light the bulb. On the other hand, paper and plastic materials are typically insulators
and their insertion within the circuit will hinder the flow of charge to such a degree that the current
ceases and the bulb no longer lights. There must be a closed conducting loop from the positive to
the negative terminal in order to establish a circuit and to have a current.

With an understanding of this first requirement of an electric circuit, it becomes clear what is
happening when an incandescent light bulb in a table lamp or floor lamp no longer works. Over
time, a light bulb filament becomes weak and brittle can often break or simply become loose.
When this occurs, the circuit is opened and a closed conducting loop no longer exists. Without a
closed conducting loop, there can be no circuit, no charge flow and no lit bulb. Next time you find
a broken bulb in a lamp, safely remove it and inspect the filament. Often times, shaking the
removed bulb will cause a rattle; the filament has likely fallen off the supporting posts that it
normally rests upon to the bottom of the glass globe. When shook, you will hear the rattle of the
filament hitting the glass globe.

49
The Requirement of an Energy Supply
The second requirement of an electric circuit that is common in each of the successful attempts
demonstrated above is that there must be an electric potential difference across the two ends of the
circuit. This is most commonly established by the use of an electrochemical cell, a pack of cells
(i.e., a battery) or some other energy source. It is essential that there is some source of energy
capable of increasing the electric potential energy of a charge as it moves from the low energy
terminal to the high energy terminal. As discussed in Lesson 1,
it takes energy to move a positive test charge against the
electric field. As applied to electric circuits, the movement of
a positive test charge through the cell from the low energy
terminal to the high energy terminal is a movement against the
electric field. This movement of charge demands that work be
done on it in order to lift it up to the higher energy terminal.
An electrochemical cell serves the useful role of supplying the energy to do work on the charge in
order to pump it or move it through the cell from the negative to the positive terminal. By doing
so, the cell establishes an electric potential difference across the two ends of the electric circuit.
(The concept of an electric potential difference and its application to electric circuits was discussed
in detail in Lesson 1.)
In household circuits, the energy is supplied by a local utility company that is responsible for
making sure that the hot and the neutral plates within the circuit panel box of your home always
have an electric potential difference of about 110 Volts to 120 Volts (in the United States). In
typical lab activities, an electrochemical cell or group of cells (i.e., a battery) is used to establish
an electric potential difference across the two ends of the external circuit of about 1.5 Volts (a
single cell) or 4.5 Volts (three cells in a pack). Analogies are often made between an electric circuit
and the water circuit at a water park or a roller coaster ride at an amusement park. In all three cases,
there is something that is moving through a complete loop -
that is, through a circuit. And in all three cases, it is essential
that the circuit include a section where energy is put into the
water, the coaster car or the charge in order to move
it uphill against its natural direction of motion from a low
potential energy to a high potential energy. A water park ride
has a water pump that pumps the water from ground level to
the top of the slide. A roller coaster ride has a motor-driven
chain that carries the train of coaster cars from ground level to the top of the first drop. And an
electric circuit has an electrochemical cell, battery (group of cells) or some other energy supply
that moves the charge from ground level (the negative terminal) to the positive terminal. By
constantly supplying the energy to move the charge from the low energy, low potential terminal
to the high energy, high potential terminal, and a continuous flow of charge can be maintained.
By establishing this difference in electric potential, charge is able to flow downhill through the
external circuit. This motion of the charge is natural and does not require energy. Like the
movement of water at a water park or a roller coaster car at an amusement park, the downhill
motion is natural and occurs without the need for energy from an external source. It is the
difference in potential - whether gravitational potential or electric potential - that causes the water,

50
the coaster car and the charge to move. This potential difference requires the input of energy from
an external source. In the case of an electric circuit, one of the two requirements to establish an
electric circuit is an energy source.

In conclusion, there are two requirements that must be met in order to establish an electric circuit.
The requirements are
1. There must be an energy supply capable doing work on charge to move it from a low energy
location to a high energy location and thus establish an electric potential difference across the
two ends of the external circuit.
2. There must be a closed conducting loop in the external circuit that stretches from the high
potential, positive terminal to the low potential, negative terminal.

Sample Problem

The diagram at the right shows a light bulb connected to a 12-V car battery. The + and - terminals
are shown.
a. As a + charge moves through the battery from D to A, it ________ (gains, loses)
potential energy and ________ (gains, loses) electric potential. The point of
highest energy within a battery is the ______ (+, -) terminal.
b. As a + charge moves through the external circuit from A to D, it ________
(gains, loses) potential energy and ________ (gains, loses) electric potential. The
point of highest energy within the external circuit is closest to the ______ (+, -)
terminal.
c. Use >, <, and = signs to compare the electric potential (V) at the four points of the circuit.
VA VB VC VD
Answer:

a. As a positive charge moves through the battery from D to A, it gains potential energy
and gains electric potential. The point of highest energy within a battery is the positive terminal.
b. As a positive charge moves through the external circuit from A to D, it loses potential energy
and loses electric potential. The point of highest energy within the external circuit is closest to
the positive terminal.
c.

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6.4 Circuit Symbols and Circuit Diagrams
Electric circuits, whether simple or complex, can be described in a variety of ways. An electric
circuit is commonly described with mere words. Saying something like "A light bulb is
connected to a D-cell" is a sufficient amount of words to describe a simple circuit. On many
occasions in Lessons 1 through 3, words have been used to describe simple circuits. Upon
hearing (or reading) the words, a person grows accustomed to quickly picturing the circuit in
their mind. But another means of describing a circuit is to simply draw it. Such drawings provide
a quicker mental picture of the actual circuit. Circuit drawings like the one below have been used
many times in Lessons 1 through 3.
Describing Circuits with Words Describing Circuits with
Drawings
"A circuit contains a light bulb and a 1.5-
Volt D-cell."

A final means of describing an electric circuit is by use of conventional circuit symbols to

provide a schematic diagram of the circuit and its components. Some circuit symbols used in
schematic diagrams are shown below.

A single cell or other power source is represented by a long and a short parallel line. A collection
of cells or battery is represented by a collection of long and short parallel lines. In
both cases, the long line is representative of the positive terminal of the energy
source and the short line represents the negative terminal. A straight line is used to
represent a connecting wire between any two components of the circuit. An electrical
device that offers resistance to the flow of charge is generically referred to as a
resistor and is represented by a zigzag line. An open switch is generally represented
by providing a break in a straight line by lifting a portion of the line upward at a diagonal. These
circuit symbols will be frequently used throughout the remainder of Lesson 4 as electric circuits
are represented by schematic diagrams. It will be important to either memorize these symbols or
to refer to this short listing frequently until you become accustomed to their use.

As an illustration of the use of electrical symbols in schematic diagrams, consider the following
two examples.
Example 1:
Description with Words: Three D-cells are placed in a battery pack to power a circuit containing
three light bulbs.

Using the verbal description, one can acquire a mental picture of the circuit being described. This
verbal description can then be represented by a drawing of three cells and three light bulbs
connected by wires. Finally, the circuit symbols presented above can be used to represent the
same circuit. Note that three sets of long and short parallel lines have been used to represent the
battery pack with its three D-cells. And note that each light bulb is represented by its own
individual resistor symbol. Straight lines have been used to connect the two terminals of the
battery to the resistors and the resistors to each other.

52
The above circuits presumed that the three light bulbs were connected in such a way that the
charge flowing through the circuit would pass through each one of the three light bulbs in
consecutive fashion. The path of a positive test charge leaving the positive terminal of the battery
and traversing the external circuit would involve a passage through each one of the three
connected light bulbs before returning to the negative terminal of the battery. But is this the only
way that three light bulbs can be connected? Do they have to be connected in consecutive
fashion as shown above? Absolutely not! In fact, example 2 below contains the same verbal
description with the drawing and the schematic diagrams being drawn differently.
Example 2:
Description with Words: Three D-cells are placed in a battery pack to power a circuit containing
three light bulbs.

Using the verbal description, one can acquire a mental picture of the circuit being described. But
this time, the connections of light bulbs is done in a manner such that there is a point on the
circuit where the wires branch off from each other. The branching location is referred to as
a node. Each light bulb is placed in its own separate branch. These branch wires eventually
connect to each other to form a second node. A single wire is used to connect this second node to
the negative terminal of the battery.

These two examples illustrate the two common types of connections made in electric circuits.
When two or more resistors are present in a circuit, they can be connected in series or in parallel.

6.5 Two Types of Connections

When there are two or more electrical devices present in a circuit with an energy source, there are
a couple of basic means by which to connect them. They can be connected in series or
connected in parallel. Suppose that there are three light bulbs connected together in the same
circuit. If connected in series, then they are connected in such a way that an individual charge
would pass through each one of the light bulbs in consecutive fashion. When in series, charge
passes through every light bulb. If connected in parallel, a single charge passing through the
external circuit would only pass through one of the light bulbs. The light bulbs are placed within
a separate branch line, and a charge traversing the external circuit will pass through only one of
the branches during its path back to the low potential terminal. The means by which the resistors
are connected will have a major effect upon the overall resistance of the circuit, the total current
in the circuit, and the current in each resistor. In Lesson 4, we will explore the effect of the type of
connection upon the overall current and resistance of the circuit.
A common physics lab activity involves constructing both types of circuits with bulbs connected
in series and bulbs connected in parallel. A comparison and contrast is made between the two
circuits.

53
Exploring Series Connections
In conducting the lab activity, distinctly different observations are made for the two types of
circuits. A series circuit can be constructed by connecting light bulbs in such a manner that there
is a single pathway for charge flow; the bulbs are added to the same line with no branching point.
As more and more light bulbs are added, the brightness of each bulb gradually decreases. This
observation is an indicator that the current within the circuit is decreasing.

So for series circuits, as more resistors are added the overall current within
the circuit decreases. This decrease in current is consistent with the
conclusion that the overall resistance increases.
A final observation that is unique to series circuits is the effect of removing
a bulb from a socket. If one of three bulbs in a series circuit is unscrewed
from its socket, then it is observed that the other bulbs immediately go out.
In order for the devices in a series circuit to work, each device must work.
If one goes out, they all go out. Suppose that all the appliances in a
household kitchen were all connected in series. In order for the refrigerator
to work in that kitchen, the toaster oven, dishwasher, garbage disposal and
overhead light would all have to be on. In order for one device in series to work, they all must
work. If current is cut from any one of them, it is cut from all of them. Quite obviously, the
appliances in the kitchen are not connected in series.
Exploring Parallel Connections
Using the same collection of wires, D-cells and bulbs, parallel circuits can be explored in the same
manner. The effect of the number of resistors upon the overall current and the overall resistance
can be investigated. The diagrams below depict the usual means of constructing the circuit with
parallel connections of light bulbs. One will note that a study of the overall current for parallel
connections requires the addition of an indicator bulb. The indicator bulb is placed outside of the
branches and allows one to observe the effect of additional resistors upon the overall current. The
bulbs that are placed in the parallel branches only provide an indicator of the current through that
particular branch. So if investigating the effect of the number of resistors upon the overall current
and resistance, one must make careful observations of the indicator bulb, not the bulbs that are
placed in the branches. The diagram below depicts the typical observations.

54
It is clear from observing the indicator bulbs in the above diagrams that the addition of more
resistors causes the indicator bulb to get brighter. For parallel circuits, as the number of resistors
increases, the overall current also increases. This increase in current is consistent with a decrease
in overall resistance. Adding more resistors in a separate branch has the unexpected result of
decreasing the overall resistance!
If an individual bulb in a parallel branch is unscrewed from its
socket, then there is still current in the overall circuit and current in
the other branches. Removing the third bulb from its socket has the
effect of transforming the circuit from a three-bulb parallel circuit to
a two-bulb parallel circuit. If the appliances in a household kitchen
were connected in parallel, then the refrigerator could function
without having to have the dishwasher, toaster, garbage disposal and
overhead lights on. One appliance can work without the other
appliances having to be on. Since each appliance is in its own separate branch, turning that
appliance off merely cuts off the flow of charge to that branch. There will still be charge flowing
through the other branches to the other appliances. Quite obviously, the appliances in a home are
wired with parallel connections.

6.6 Electromagnets

Electromagnets are a different from permanent magnets. Electromagnets are made of coils of
wire with electricity passing through them. Moving charges create magnetic fields, so when the
coils of wire in an electromagnet have an electric current passing through them, the coils behave
like a magnet. When the electricity stops flowing, the coils don’t act like a magnet anymore.
Electromagnets are used in a lot of electronic devices when magnetic forces are only needed for
short periods of time.

[Link] [Link]-
[Link]

55
The Sticking Power of Electromagnets

A simple electromagnet
HOWSTUFFWORKS

As we mentioned in the introduction, basic electromagnets aren't all that complicated; you
can construct a simple version of one yourself using materials you probably have lying around the
house. A conductive wire, usually insulated copper, is wound around a metal rod. The wire will
get hot to the touch, which why insulation is important. The rod on which the wire is wrapped is
called a solenoid, and the resulting magnetic field radiates away from this point. The strength of
the magnet is directly related to the number of times the wire coils around the rod. For a stronger
magnetic field, the wire should be more tightly wrapped.

OK, there’s a little more to it than that. The tighter the wire is wound around the rod, or core, the
more loops the current makes around it, increasing the strength of the magnetic field. In addition
to how tightly the wire is wound, the material used for the core can also control the strength of
the magnet. For example, iron is a ferromagnetic metal, meaning it is highly permeable
[source: Boston University]. Permeability is another way of describing how well the material can
support a magnetic field. The more conductive a certain material is to a magnetic field, the higher
its permeability.

All matter, including the iron rod of an electromagnet, is composed of atoms. Before the solenoid
is electrified, the atoms in the metal core are arranged randomly, not pointing in any particular
direction. When the current is introduced, the magnetic field penetrates the rod and realigns the
atoms. With these atoms in motion, and all in the same direction, the magnetic field grows. The
alignment of the atoms, small regions of magnetized atoms called domains, increases and
decreases with the level of current, so by controlling the flow of electricity, you can control the
strength of the magnet. There comes a point of saturation when all of the domains are in alignment,
which means adding additional current will not result in increased magnetism.

By controlling the current, you can essentially turn the magnet on and off. When the current is
turned off, the atoms return to their natural, random state and the rod loses its magnetism
(technically, it retains some magnetic properties but not much and not for very long).

With a run-of-the-mill permanent magnet, like the ones holding the family dog’s picture to the
refrigerator, the atoms are always aligned and the strength of the magnet is constant. Did you know
that you can take away the sticking power of a permanent magnet by dropping it? The impact can

56
actually cause the atoms to fall out of alignment. They can be magnetized again by rubbing a
magnet on it.

The electricity to power an electromagnet has to come from somewhere, right? In the next section,
we’ll explore some of the ways these magnets get their juice.

Putting the “Electro” in “Electromagnet”

Here's what the magnetic fields look like in a basic electromagnet.

HEMERA/THINKSTOCK

Since an electrical current is required to operate an electromagnet, where does it come from? The
quick answer is that anything that produces a current can power an electromagnet. From the small
AA batteries used in your TV remote to large, industrial power stations that pull electricity directly
from a grid, if it stores and transfers electrons, then it can power an electromagnet.

Let’s start with a look at how household batteries function. Most batteries have two easily
identifiable poles, a positive and a negative. When the battery isn't in use, electrons collect at the
negative pole. When the batteries are inserted into a device, the two poles come into contact with
the sensors in the device, closing the circuit and allowing electrons to flow freely between the
poles. In the case of your remote, the device is designed with a load, or exit point, for the energy
stored in the battery [source: Grossman]. The load puts the energy to use operating the remote
control. If you were to simply connect a wire directly to each end of a battery with no load, the
energy would quickly drain from the battery.

While this is happening, the moving electrons also create a magnetic field. If you take the batteries
out of your remote, it will likely retain a small magnetic charge. You couldn’t pick up a car with
your remote, but maybe some small iron filings or even a paper clip.

On the other end of the spectrum is the Earth itself. By the definition we discussed earlier, an
electromagnet is created when electrical currents flow around some ferromagnetic core. The
Earth’s core is iron, and we know it has a North Pole and a South Pole. These aren't just
geographical designations but actual opposing magnetic poles. The dynamo effect, a phenomenon

57
that creates massive electrical currents in the iron thanks to the movement of liquid iron across the
outer core, creates an electrical current. This current generates a magnetic charge, and this
natural magnetism of the Earth is what makes a compass work. A compass always points north
because the metal needle is attracted to the pull of the North Pole.

Clearly, there's a wide range of electromagnet applications between small, homemade science
experiments and the Earth itself. So, where do these devices pop up in the real world? In the next
section, we’ll take a look at how our everyday lives are affected by electromagnetism.

Electromagnets All Around Us

Engineers install a giant magnet inside the Large Hadron Collider, an enormous particle
accelerator.
FABRICE COFFRINI/AFP/GETTY IMAGES

Many electromagnets have an advantage over permanent magnets because they can be easily
turned on and off, and increasing or decreasing the amount of electricity flowing around the core
can control their strength.

Modern technology relies heavily on electromagnets to store information using magnetic recording
devices. When you save data to the hard drive in your computer, for example, tiny, magnetized
pieces of metal are embedded onto a disk in a pattern specific to the saved information. This data
started life as binary digital computer language (0s and 1s). When you retrieve this information,
the pattern is converted into the original binary pattern and translated into a usable form. So what
makes this an electromagnet? The current running through the computer’s circuitry magnetizes
those tiny bits of metal. This is the same principal used in tape recorders, VCRs and other tape-
based media (and yes, some of you still own tape decks and VCRs). This is why magnets can
sometimes wreak havoc on the memories of these devices.

Advertisement

58
 Electromagnets also paved the way for really harnessing the potential of electricity in the first
place. In electrical appliances, the motor moves because the current flowing from your wall socket
produces a magnetic field. It’s not the electricity itself powering the motor, but the charge created
by the magnet. The force of the magnet creates rotational movement, which means they rotate
around a fixed point, similar to the way a tire rotates around an axle.

So, why not skip this process and just use the outlet to power the motor in the first place? Because
the current required to power an appliance is quite large. Have you ever noticed how turning on a
large appliance such as a television or a washing machine can sometimes cause the lights in your
home to flicker? This is because the appliance is drawing a lot of energy initially, but that large
amount is only needed to get the motor started. Once that happens, this cycle of electromagnetic
induction takes over.

From household appliances, we're moving up to some of the most complex machinery ever built
to see how electromagnets are being used to unlock the origins of the universe. Particle accelerators
are machines that propel charged particles toward one another at incredibly high speeds in order
to observe what happens when they collide. These beams of subatomic particles are very precise
and controlling their trajectory is critical so they don’t go off course and damage the machinery.
This is where electromagnets come in. The magnets are positioned along the path of the colliding
beams, and their magnetism is actually used to control their speed and trajectory [source: NOVA
Teachers].

Not a bad resume for our friend the electromagnet, huh? From something you can create in your
garage to operating the tools that scientists and engineers are using to decipher the origins of the
universe, electromagnets have a pretty important role in the world around us.

Ready to try out some electromagnetic experiments of your own? Click over to the next page for
some fun ideas.

DIY Electromagnets and Experiments to Try

Electromagnets are easy to make; just a few pieces of hardware and a power supply gets you on
your way. First, you'll need the following items:

• one iron nail, at least 6 inches (15 centimeters) in length

• a length of 22-gauge insulated copper wire
• one D-cell battery
Once you have these items, remove the insulation from each end of the copper wire, just enough
to provide a good connection with the battery. Wrap the wire around the nail; the tighter you can
wrap it, the more powerful the magnetic field will be. Finally, connect the battery by attaching one
end of the wire to the positive terminal and one to the negative terminal (it doesn’t matter which

59
end of the wire gets paired with which terminal). Presto! A working electromagnet
[source: Jefferson Lab].

BRAIN SQUEEZERS!
Problem Set 1: Electric Fields and Charges

1. Calculate the electric field intensity between two point charges. Given: q1 = +4 μC, q2 = -
6 μC, and the distance between them is 0.5 meters.

2. A sphere carries a charge of +8 nC. Determine the electric field strength at a distance of 10
cm from the sphere's center.

3. Two charges, q1 = +2 mC and q2 = -3 mC, are located 8 cm apart. Find the point between
them where the electric field is zero.

Problem Set 2: Electric Potential and Capacitance

1. A 5 μF capacitor is connected to a 12 V battery. Calculate the charge stored on the

capacitor.

2. Two capacitors, 8 μF, and 12 μF, are connected in series to a 24 V battery. Determine the
total electric potential energy stored in the capacitors.

3. Find the equivalent capacitance of three capacitors connected in parallel: 2 μF, 3 μF, and 4
μF.

Problem Set 3: Magnetism and Magnetic Fields

1. A long straight wire carries a current of 3 A. Calculate the magnetic field strength at a
distance of 5 cm from the wire.

2. A circular loop of wire with a radius of 10 cm carries a current of 5 A. Determine the

magnetic field strength at the center of the loop.

3. Two parallel wires, each carrying 2 A current, are 10 cm apart. Calculate the force per unit
length between them.

Problem Set 4: Electromagnetic Induction

1. A coil with 200 turns and an area of 0.02 m² is exposed to a magnetic field changing at a
rate of 0.5 T/s. Calculate the induced emf in the coil.

2. A conducting loop is moved out of a magnetic field at a constant rate of 2 m/s. If the
magnetic flux changes from 0.03 Wb to 0.01 Wb, find the induced emf in the loop.

3. A transformer has 1000 turns in the primary coil and 500 turns in the secondary coil. If the
input voltage is 220 V, calculate the output voltage when the transformer is 90% efficient.

60
References:

1. Beck, Kevin. "How to Calculate Mass & Weight" [Link],

[Link] 7 February 2021.
2. Hussain, S.. "How Are Density, Mass & Volume Related?" [Link],
[Link] 7 February
2021.
3. © SkillsYouNeed (2017) Calculating Volume. Retrieved from
[Link]
4. Gerard, Jack. "What's the Distance Formula?" [Link],
[Link] 7 February
2021.
5. [Link]
6. [Link]
7. Coffey, Jerry. Oct 8, 2010. Universe Today Space and Astronomy News.
Retrieved from [Link]
force/#:~:text=The%20gravitational%20force%20on%20Earth,gravitational%20f
orce%20equals%20your%20weight.
8. [Link]
20to%20the,of%20force%20impelling%20them%20together.
9. The Physics Classroom, 1996-2021. Retrieved from
[Link]
10. Paul Peter Urone, Roger Hinrichs. Mar 26, 2020. Physics. OpenStax. Retrieved
from [Link]
wavelength
11. Helmenstine, Anne Marie, Ph.D. (2020, August 28). 12 Examples of Chemical
Energy. Retrieved from [Link]
energy-609260
12. [Link]
13. Helmenstine, Anne Marie, Ph.D. "How Does Electrical Energy Work?"
ThoughtCo, Aug. 29, 2020, [Link]/electrical-energy-definition-and-
examples-4119325.
14. [Link]
15. Gorski, Victoria. "What Metals Make Good Conductors of Electricity?"
[Link], [Link]
[Link]. 8 February 2021.
16. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. 2021. Retrieved from
[Link]
17. The Physics Classroom, 1996-2021. Retrieved from
[Link]
Energy#:~:text=Mechanical%20energy%20is%20the%20energy,(stored%20energ
y%20of%20position).
18. Helmenstine, Anne Marie, Ph.D. (2020, August 27). The Relationship Between
Electricity and Magnetism. Retrieved from
[Link]
19. EETech Media, LLC. Retrieved from
[Link]
circuits/#:~:text=A%20circuit%20is%20an%20unbroken,flow%20cannot%20occ
ur%20in%20it.
20. The Physics Classroom, 1996-2021. Retrieved from
[Link]
Circuit
21. The Physics Classroom, 1996-2021. Retrieved from
[Link]
22. [Link]

61
 UNIT 2-GEOLOGY – Part 1
Weathering and Erosion

Overview

Geomorphology is the study of the nature and origin of landforms, particularly of the formative
processes of weathering and erosion that occur in the atmosphere and hydrosphere. These processes
continually shape the Earth's surface, and generate the sediments that circulate in the Rock Cycle.
Landforms are the result of the interactions among the geosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere.

Learning Objectives

At the end of the unit, I am able to:

1. Explain the processes of weathering and erosion.

2. Differentiate mechanical weathering and chemical weathering.
3. Enumerate the forces of erosion and factors impacting erosion.
4. Identify the different measures in controlling erosion.

Answer the following questionnaire. Put a check in the column that best describes your knowledge
on the particular concept/term.

PART 1

CONCEPT CHECKING I am deeply I am fairly I have a No

knowledgeable knowledgeable familiarity idea/knowledge
about the about the with the about the
concept. concept. concept concept at all

1. Weathering
2. Mechanical Weathering
3. Cryofracturing
4. Bornhardts
5. Haloclasty
6. Chemical Weathering
7. Hydration
8. Hydrolysis
9. Weathered mountains
10. Spheroidal Weathering
11. Erosion
12. Physical Erosion
13. Rill Erosion

62
 14. Valley Erosion
15. Coastal Erosion
16. Thermal Erosion
17. Mass Wasting
18. River Deltas

PROCESSES THAT SHAPE THE EARTH’S SURFACE

LESSON 1. WEATHERING

Weathering describes the breaking down or dissolving of rocks and minerals on the surface of the
Earth. Water, ice, acids, salts, plants, animals, and changes in temperature are all agents of
weathering.

Once a rock has been broken down, a process called erosion transports the bits of rock and mineral
away. No rock on Earth is hard enough to resist the forces of weathering and erosion. Together,
these processes carved landmarks such as the Grand Canyon, in the U.S. state of Arizona. This
massive canyon is 446 kilometers (277 miles) long, as much as 29 kilometers (18 miles) wide, and
1,600 meters (1 mile) deep.

Weathering and erosion constantly change the rocky landscape of Earth. Weathering wears away
exposed surfaces over time. The length of exposure often contributes to how vulnerable a rock is
to weathering. Rocks, such as lavas, that are quickly buried beneath other rocks are less vulnerable
to weathering and erosion than rocks that are exposed to agents such as wind and water.

As it smoothes rough, sharp rock surfaces, weathering is often the first step in the production
of soils. Tiny bits of weathered minerals mix with plants, animal remains, fungi, bacteria, and other
organisms. A single type of weathered rock often produces infertile soil, while weathered materials
from a collection of rocks is richer in mineral diversity and contributes to more fertile soil. Soils
types associated with a mixture of weathered rock include glacial till, loess,
and alluvial sediments.

Weathering is often divided into the processes of mechanical weathering and chemical
weathering. Biological weathering, in which living or once-living organisms contribute to
weathering, can be a part of both processes.

63
 1.1 Mechanical Weathering

Mechanical weathering, also called physical weathering and disaggregation, causes rocks to
crumble.

Water, in either liquid or solid form, is often a key agent of mechanical weathering. For instance,
liquid water can seep into cracks and crevices in rock. If temperatures drop low enough, the
water will freeze. When water freezes, it expands. The ice then works as a wedge. It slowly
widens the cracks and splits the rock. When ice melts, liquid water performs the act of erosion by
carrying away the tiny rock fragments lost in the split. This specific process (the freeze-thaw
cycle) is called frost weathering or cryofracturing.

Temperature changes can also contribute to mechanical weathering in a process called thermal
stress. Changes in temperature cause rock to expand (with heat) and contract (with cold). As this
happens over and over again, the structure of the rock weakens. Over time, it crumbles. Rocky
desert landscapes are particularly vulnerable to thermal stress. The outer layer of desert rocks
undergo repeated stress as the temperature changes from day to night. Eventually, outer layers
flake off in thin sheets, a process called exfoliation.

Exfoliation contributes to the formation of bornhardts, one of the most dramatic features in
landscapes formed by weathering and erosion. Bornhardts are tall, domed, isolated rocks often
found in tropical areas. Sugarloaf Mountain, an iconic landmark in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, is a
bornhardt.

Changes in pressure can also contribute to exfoliation due to weathering. In a process called
unloading, overlying materials are removed. The underlying rocks, released from overlying
pressure, can then expand. As the rock surface expands, it becomes vulnerable to fracturing in a
process called sheeting.

64
Another type of mechanical weathering occurs when clay or other materials near rock absorb
water. Clay, more porous than rock, can swell with water, weathering the surrounding, harder
rock.

Salt also works to weather rock in a process called haloclasty. Saltwater sometimes gets into the
cracks and pores of rock. If the saltwater evaporates, salt crystals are left behind. As the crystals
grow, they put pressure on the rock, slowly breaking it apart.

Honeycomb weathering is associated with haloclasty. As its name implies, honeycomb

weathering describes rock formations with hundreds or even thousands of pits formed by the
growth of salt crystals. Honeycomb weathering is common in coastal areas, where sea sprays
constantly force rocks to interact with salts.

Haloclasty is not limited to coastal landscapes. Salt upwelling, the geologic process in which
underground salt domes expand, can contribute to weathering of the overlying rock. Structures in
the ancient city of Petra, Jordan, were made unstable and often collapsed due to salt upwelling
from the ground below.

Plants and animals can be agents of mechanical weathering. The seed of a tree may sprout in soil
that has collected in a cracked rock. As the roots grow, they widen the cracks, eventually
breaking the rock into pieces. Over time, trees can break apart even large rocks. Even small
plants, such as mosses, can enlarge tiny cracks as they grow.

Animals that tunnel underground, such as moles and prairie dogs, also work to break apart rock
and soil. Other animals dig and trample rock aboveground, causing rock to slowly crumble.

1.2 Chemical Weathering

Chemical weathering changes the molecular structure of rocks and soil.

For instance, carbon dioxide from the air or soil sometimes combines with water in a process
called carbonation. This produces a weak acid, called carbonic acid, that can dissolve rock.
Carbonic acid is especially effective at dissolving limestone. When carbonic acid seeps through
limestone underground, it can open up huge cracks or hollow out vast networks of caves.

65
Carlsbad Caverns National Park, in the U.S. state of New Mexico, includes more than 119
limestone caves created by weathering and erosion. The largest is called the Big Room. With an
area of about 33,210 square meters (357,469 square feet), the Big Room is the size of six football
fields.

Sometimes, chemical weathering dissolves large portions of limestone or other rock on the
surface of the Earth to form a landscape called karst. In these areas, the surface rock is
pockmarked with holes, sinkholes, and caves. One of the world’s most spectacular examples of
karst is Shilin, or the Stone Forest, near Kunming, China. Hundreds of slender, sharp towers of
weathered limestone rise from the landscape.

Another type of chemical weathering works on rocks that contain iron. These rocks turn
to rust in a process called oxidation. Rust is a compound created by the interaction of oxygen and
iron in the presence of water. As rust expands, it weakens rock and helps break it apart.

Hydration is a form of chemical weathering in which the chemical bonds of the mineral are
changed as it interacts with water. One instance of hydration occurs as the
mineral anhydrite reacts with groundwater. The water transforms anhydrite into gypsum, one of
the most common minerals on Earth.

66
Another familiar form of chemical weathering is hydrolysis. In the process of hydrolysis, a
new solution (a mixture of two or more substances) is formed as chemicals in rock interact with
water. In many rocks, for example, sodium minerals interact with water to form a saltwater
solution.

Hydration and hydrolysis contribute to flared slopes, another dramatic example of a landscape
formed by weathering and erosion. Flared slopes are concave rock formations sometimes
nicknamed “wave rocks.” Their c-shape is largely a result of subsurface weathering, in which
hydration and hydrolysis wear away rocks beneath the landscape’s surface.

Living or once-living organisms can also be agents of chemical weathering. The decaying
remains of plants and some fungi form carbonic acid, which can weaken and dissolve rock.
Some bacteria can weather rock in order to access nutrients such as magnesium or potassium.

Clay minerals, including quartz, are among the most common byproducts of chemical
weathering. Clays make up about 40% of the chemicals in all sedimentary rocks on Earth.

1.3 Weathering and People

Weathering is a natural process, but human activities can speed it up.

For example, certain kinds of air pollution increase the rate of weathering. Burning coal, natural
gas, and petroleum releases chemicals such as nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide into
the atmosphere. When these chemicals combine with sunlight and moisture, they change into
acids. They then fall back to Earth as acid rain.

Acid rain rapidly weathers limestone, marble, and other kinds of stone. The effects of acid rain
can often be seen on gravestones, making names and other inscriptions impossible to read.

Acid rain has also damaged many historic buildings and monuments. For example, at 71 meters
(233 feet) tall, the Leshan Giant Buddha at Mount Emei, China is the world’s largest statue of

67
the Buddha. It was carved 1,300 years ago and sat unharmed for centuries.
An innovative drainage system mitigates the natural process of erosion. But in recent years, acid
rain has turned the statue’s nose black and made some of its hair crumble and fall.

Weathering by water's freeze-thaw cycle has split this rock in two.

Photograph by George F. Mobley, National Geographic

1.4 Weathered Mountains

The Appalachian Mountains in eastern North America once towered more than 9,000 meters
(30,000 feet) high—taller than Mount Everest! Over millions of years, weathering and erosion
have worn them down. Today, the highest Appalachian peak reaches just 2,037 meters (6,684
feet) high.

68
 1.5 Spheroidal Weathering

Spheroidal weathering is a form of chemical weathering that occurs when a rectangular block is
weathered from three sides at the corners and from two sides along its edges. It is also called
“onion skin” weathering.

BRAIN SQUEEZERS!

Direction: Provide well-researched and comprehensive responses, citing relevant examples and
sources to support your answers/arguments on the following:

1. Define weathering and discuss its significance in the formation and modification of
Earth's surface. Explore the two main types of weathering, mechanical and chemical, and
provide real-world examples of each.
2. Compare and contrast mechanical and chemical weathering processes. Explain how these
processes work together to break down rocks and minerals into smaller particles.
Illustrate with specific examples of landscapes shaped by each type of weathering.
3. Investigate the factors that influence the rate and intensity of weathering. Discuss the role
of climate, topography, rock type, vegetation, and human activities in weathering
processes. How do these factors interact to shape the Earth's surface?
4. Analyze the significance of weathering in the formation of soil. Explain how weathering
processes contribute to soil development and composition. Discuss the role of soil in
supporting ecosystems and human activities.
5. Explore the concept of biological weathering and its role in shaping the Earth's surface.
Discuss the influence of organisms, such as plants, animals, and microorganisms, in
accelerating weathering processes.
6. Discuss the impact of weathering on human-made structures and historical artifacts.
Explain how weathering can lead to the degradation and deterioration of buildings,
monuments, and cultural heritage sites.
7. Investigate the influence of climate change on weathering rates and patterns. How might
alterations in temperature, precipitation, and atmospheric conditions affect the intensity
and extent of weathering processes?
8. Discuss the connection between weathering and erosion. Explain how weathering
prepares rocks and minerals for erosion and transportation by natural agents like wind,
water, ice, and gravity.
9. Examine the role of weathering in the formation of unique geological features, such as
canyons, caves, arches, and rock formations. Provide examples of iconic landmarks that
have been sculpted by weathering processes.
10. Discuss the importance of understanding weathering for geologists, environmental
scientists, and engineers. How can this knowledge be applied to land management,
infrastructure development, and natural hazard assessment.
69
 LESSON 2. EROSION

Erosion is the geological process in which earthen materials are worn away and transported by
natural forces such as wind or water. A similar process, weathering, breaks down
or dissolves rock, but does not involve movement.

Erosion is the opposite of deposition, the geological process in which earthen materials are
deposited, or built up, on a landform.

Most erosion is performed by liquid water, wind, or ice (usually in the form of a glacier). If the
wind is dusty, or water or glacial ice is muddy, erosion is taking place. The brown color indicates
that bits of rock and soil are suspended in the fluid (air or water) and being transported from one
place to another. This transported material is called sediment.

2.1 Physical Erosion

Physical erosion describes the process of rocks changing their physical properties without
changing their basic chemical composition. Physical erosion often causes rocks to get smaller or
smoother. Rocks eroded through physical erosion often form clastic sediments. Clastic sediments
are composed of fragments of older rocks that have been transported from their place of origin.

Landslides and other forms of mass wasting are associated with physical weathering. These
processes cause rocks to dislodge from hillsides and crumble as they tumble down a slope.

Plant growth can also contribute to physical erosion in a process called bioerosion. Plants break
up earthen materials as they take root, and can create cracks and crevices in rocks they
encounter.

Ice and liquid water can also contribute to physical erosion as their movement forces rocks to
crash together or crack apart. Some rocks shatter and crumble, while others are worn away. River
rocks are often much smoother than rocks found elsewhere, for instance, because they have been
eroded by constant contact with other river rocks.

2.1.1 Erosion by Water

Liquid water is the major agent of erosion on Earth. Rain, rivers, floods, lakes, and the ocean
carry away bits of soil and sand and slowly wash away the sediment.

Rainfall produces four types of soil erosion: splash erosion, sheet erosion, rill erosion, and gully
erosion.
• Splash erosion describes the impact of a falling raindrop, which can scatter tiny soil particles as
far as .6 meters (2 feet).
• Sheet erosion describes erosion caused by runoff.
• Rill erosion describes erosion that takes place as runoff develops into discrete streams (rills).
• Finally, gully erosion is the stage in which soil particles are transported through large channels.
Gullies carry water for brief periods of time during rainfall or snowmelt but appear as
small valleys or crevasses during dry seasons.

Valley erosion is the process in which rushing streams and rivers wear away their banks, creating
larger and larger valleys. The Fish River Canyon, in southern Namibia, is the largest canyon in
Africa and a product of valley erosion. Over millions of years, the Fish River wore away at the
hard gneiss bedrock, carving a canyon about 160 kilometers (99 miles) in length, 27 kilometers
(17 miles) wide, and 550 meters (1,084 feet) deep.

The ocean is a huge force of erosion. Coastal erosion—the wearing away of rocks, earth, or sand
on the beach—can change the shape of entire coastlines. During the process of coastal erosion,

70
waves pound rocks into pebbles and pebbles into sand. Waves and currents sometimes transport
sand away from beaches, moving the coastline farther inland.

Coastal erosion can have a huge impact on human settlement as well as coastal ecosystems. The
Cape Hatteras Lighthouse, for example, was nearly destroyed by coastal erosion. The Cape
Hatteras Lighthouse was built on the Outer Banks, a series of barrier islands off the coast of the
U.S. state of North Carolina, in 1870. At the time, the lighthouse was nearly 457 meters (1,500
feet) from the ocean. Over time, the ocean eroded most of the beach near the lighthouse. By
1970, the pounding surf was just 37 meters (120 feet) away and endangered the structure. Many
people thought the lighthouse would collapse during a strong storm. Instead, thanks to a
significant engineering feat completed in 1999, it was moved 880 meters (2,900 feet) inland.

The battering force of ocean waves also erodes seaside cliffs. The action of erosion can create an
array of coastal landscape features. For example, erosion can bore holes that form caves. When
water breaks through the back of the cave, it can create an arch. The continual pounding of
waves can cause the top of the arch to fall, leaving nothing but rock columns called sea stacks.
The seven remaining sea stacks of Twelve Apostles Marine National Park, in Victoria, Australia,
are among the most dramatic and well-known of these features of coastal erosion.

2.1.2 Erosion by Wind

Wind is a powerful agent of erosion. Aeolian (wind-driven) processes constantly transport dust,
sand, and ash from one place to another. Wind can sometimes blow sand into towering dunes.
Some sand dunes in the Badain Jaran section of the Gobi Desert in China, for example, reach
more than 400 meters (1,300 feet) high.

In dry areas, windblown sand can blast against a rock with tremendous force, slowly wearing
away the soft rock. It polishes rocks and cliffs until they are smooth—giving the stone a so-
called “desert varnish.” Wind is responsible for the eroded features that give Arches National
Park, in the U.S. state of Utah, its name.

Wind can also erode material until little remains at all. Ventifacts are rocks that have been
sculpted by wind erosion. The enormous chalk formations in the White Desert of Egypt are
ventifacts carved by thousands of years of wind roaring through the flat landscape.

Some of the most destructive examples of wind erosion are the dust storms that characterized the
“Dust Bowl” of the 1930s in North America. Made brittle by years of drought and agricultural
mismanagement, millions of tons of valuable topsoil were eroded away by strong winds in what
came to be known as “black blizzards.” These dust storms devastated local economies, forcing
thousands of people who depended on agriculture for their livelihoods to migrate.

2.1.3 Erosion by Ice

Ice, usually in the form of glaciers, can erode the earth and create dramatic landforms.
In frigid areas and on some mountaintops, glaciers move slowly downhill and across the land. As
they move, they transport everything in their path, from tiny grains of sand to huge boulders.

Rocks carried by glaciers scrape against the ground below, eroding both the ground and the
rocks. In this way, glaciers grind up rocks and scrape away the soil. Moving glaciers gouge
out basins and form steep-sided mountain valleys. Eroded sediment called moraine is often
visible on and around glaciers.

Several times in Earth’s history, vast glaciers covered parts of the Northern Hemisphere. These
glacial periods are known as ice ages. Ice Age glaciers carved much of the modern northern
North American and European landscape.

71
Ice Age glaciers scoured the ground to form what are now the Finger Lakes in the U.S. state of
New York, for example. They carved fjords, deep inlets along the coast of Scandinavia.
The snout of a glacier eroded Cape Cod Bay, Massachusetts, and formed the recognizable
fishhook shape of Cape Cod itself.

Today, in places such as Greenland and Antarctica, glaciers continue to erode the earth. Ice
sheets there can be more than a mile thick, making it difficult for scientists to measure the speed
and patterns of erosion. However, ice sheets do erode remarkably quickly—as much as half a
centimeter (.2 inch) every year.

2.1.4 Other Forces of Erosion

Thermal erosion describes the erosion of permafrost along a river or coastline.

Warm temperatures can cause ice-rich permafrost to break off coastlines in huge chunks, often
carrying valuable topsoil and vegetation with them. These eroded “floating islands”
can disintegrate into the ocean, or even crash into another piece of land—helping spread new life
to different landscapes.

Mass wasting describes the downward movement of rocks, soil, and vegetation. Mass wasting
incidents include landslides, rockslides, and avalanches. Mass wasting can erode and transport
millions of tons of earth, reshaping hills and mountains and, often, devastating communities in
its path.

2.2 Factors Impacting Erosion

Some of the natural factors impacting erosion in a landscape include climate, topography,
vegetation, and tectonic activity.

Climate is perhaps the most influential force impacting the effect of erosion on a landscape.
Climate includes precipitation and wind. Climate also includes seasonal variability, which
influences the likelihood of weathered sediments being transported during a weather event such
as a snowmelt, breeze, or hurricane.

Topography, the shape of surface features of an area, can contribute to how erosion impacts that
area. The earthen floodplains of river valleys are much more prone to erosion than rocky flood
channels, which may take centuries to erode. Soft rock like chalk will erode more quickly than
hard rocks like granite.

Vegetation can slow the impact of erosion. Plant roots adhere to soil and rock particles,
preventing their transport during rainfall or wind events. Trees, shrubs, and other plants can even
limit the impact of mass wasting events such as landslides and other natural hazards such as
hurricanes. Deserts, which generally lack thick vegetation, are often the most eroded landscapes
on the planet.

Finally, tectonic activity shapes the landscape itself, and thus influences the way erosion impacts
an area. Tectonic uplift, for example, causes one part of the landscape to rise higher than others.
In a span of about 5 million years, tectonic uplift caused the Colorado River to cut deeper and
deeper into the Colorado Plateau, land in what is now the U.S. state of Arizona. It eventually
formed the Grand Canyon, which is more than 1,600 meters (1 mile) deep and as much as 29
kilometers (18 miles) wide in some places.

Erosion and People

Deposition, Soils, and Sediments

Eroded sediments have profoundly influenced the development of civilizations around the
world.

72
Agricultural development is often reliant on the nutrient-rich soils created by the accumulation of
eroded earth. When the velocity of wind or water slows, eroded sediment is deposited in a new
location. The sediment builds up in a process called sedimentation and creates fertile land.

River deltas are made almost entirely of sediment that has eroded from the banks and bed of a
river. The rich delta soils of the San Joaquin and Sacramento rivers in northern California, for
example, have created one of the most agriculturally productive areas in the world.

Loess is an agriculturally rich sediment made almost entirely of wind-blown, eroded sediment.
The Yellow River in central China gets its name from the yellow loess blown into and suspended
in its water. The fertile lands around the Yellow River have been among China’s most productive
for thousands of years.

2.3 Erosion Control

Erosion is a natural process, but human activity can make it happen more quickly.

Human activity altering the vegetation of an area is perhaps the biggest human factor
contributing to erosion. Trees and plants hold soil in place. When people cut down forests
or plow up grasses for agriculture and development, the soil is more vulnerable to washing or
blowing away. Landslides become more common. Water rushes over exposed soil rather than
soaking into it, causing flooding.
Global warming, the current period of climate change, is speeding erosion. The change in
climate has been linked to more frequent and severe storms. Storm surges following hurricanes
and typhoons can erode kilometers of coastline and coastal habitat. These coastal areas are home
to residences, businesses, and economically important industries, such as fisheries.

The rise in temperature is also quickly melting glaciers. The slower, more massive form of
glacial erosion is being supplanted by the cumulative impact of rill, gully, and valley erosion. In
areas downstream from glacial snouts, rapidly melting glaciers are contributing to sea level rise.
The rising sea erodes beaches more quickly.

Erosion control is the process of reducing erosion by wind and water. Farmers and engineers
must regularly practice erosion control.

Sometimes, engineers simply install structures to physically prevent soil from being
transported. Gabions are huge wireframes that hold boulders in place, for instance. Gabions are
often placed near cliffs. These cliffs, often near the coast, have homes, businesses, and highways
near them. When erosion by water or wind threatens to tumble the boulders toward buildings and
cars, gabions protect landowners and drivers by holding the rocks in place.

Erosion control also includes physically changing the landscape. Communities often invest
in windbreaks and riparian buffers to protect valuable agricultural land. Windbreaks, also
called hedgerows or shelterbelts, are lines of trees and shrubs planted to protect cropland from
wind erosion. Riparian buffers describe plants such as trees, shrubs, grasses, and sedges that line
the banks of a river. Riparian buffers help contain the river in times of increased stream flow and
flooding.

Living shorelines are another form of erosion control in wetland areas. Living shorelines are
constructed by placing native plants, stone, sand, and even living organisms such as oysters
along wetland coasts. These plants help anchor the soil to the area, preventing erosion. By
securing the land, living shorelines establish a natural habitat. They protect coastlines from
powerful storm surges as well as erosion.

73
The beach beneath this beach house has eroded away
Photograph by Richard Barnes, National Geographic [Link]

2.4 Other factors of Erosion

Far-Flung Dust

Wind is a powerful force. It can carry huge amounts of dust over long distances. In the winter
and spring of 2004, winds eroded 45 million tons of dust from a spot called the Bodele
Depression in the desert of northern Chad all the way across the Atlantic Ocean to Brazil.

Eroding Animals

Burrowing animals, such as beetles and worms, contribute to erosion by displacing soil.

Solar Erosion

74
The sun itself is actually an instrument of erosion! As rocks heat up, they expand. Expanding
rocks can sometimes crack and crumble away

BRAIN SQUEEZERS!

Direction: Provide well-researched and comprehensive responses, citing relevant examples and
sources to support your answers/arguments on the following:

1. Define erosion and discuss its role in reshaping landscapes. Explain the main agents of
erosion, including water, wind, ice, and gravity, and how they contribute to the process of
erosion.
2. Compare and contrast the effects of water erosion and wind erosion on the Earth's
surface. Discuss how each agent creates distinct landforms and the factors that influence
their intensity.
3. Investigate the impact of human activities on erosion rates. Explore how deforestation,
agriculture, construction, and mining can exacerbate erosion processes and lead to
environmental degradation.
4. Discuss the relationship between erosion and sedimentation. Explain how eroded
materials are transported and deposited by natural agents, leading to the formation of
various landforms and sedimentary layers.
5. Analyze the consequences of erosion on the environment and ecosystems. How does
erosion affect soil fertility, water quality, and the health of aquatic habitats?
6. Explore the concept of coastal erosion and its implications for coastal communities and
ecosystems. Discuss the factors that contribute to coastal erosion, such as wave action,
sea level rise, and human activities.
7. Discuss the role of erosion in shaping unique geological features, such as canyons,
valleys, and river deltas. Provide examples of iconic landmarks that have been shaped by
erosion processes.
8. Investigate the relationship between climate change and erosion. How do alterations in
temperature, precipitation, and weather patterns influence erosion rates and patterns
globally?
9. Examine the measures and strategies used to mitigate erosion and its impacts. Discuss the
importance of sustainable land management, erosion control techniques, and reforestation
efforts.
10. Discuss the interdisciplinary significance of studying erosion. How do geologists,
hydrologists, environmental scientists, and engineers work together to understand and
address erosion-related challenges?

Synthesizing Your Knowledge

1. Explain in details the mechanisms of weathering.
2. Differentiate Mechanical weathering from Chemical Weathering and give examples of each.
3. What technological advancements are used in controlling erosions? Give examples.
4. What is the best method in controlling erosions in agricultural lands? Give examples.

References:
[Link]
king%20down,agents%20of%20weathering%20and%20erosion.
[Link]
[Link]
,Erosion%20is%20the%20geological%20process%20in%20which%20earthen%20materials%20are,but%
20does%20not%20involve%20movement.

75
 Unit 3-GEOLOGY – Part 2
Earthquakes and Volcanic Eruptions

Overview

Geomorphology is the study of the nature and origin of landforms, particularly of the formative
processes of weathering and erosion that occur in the atmosphere and hydrosphere. These processes
continually shape the Earth's surface, and generate the sediments that circulate in the Rock Cycle.
Landforms are the result of the interactions among the geosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere.

Learning Objectives

At the end of the unit, I am able to:

5. Describe the changes on the Earth’s surface as a result of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
6. Differentiate P-waves from S-waves.
7. Explain what happens when volcanoes erupt.
8. Enumerate the types of volcanoes.

Answer the following questionnaire. Put a check in the column that best describes your knowledge
on the particular concept/term.

PART 1

CONCEPT CHECKING I am deeply I am fairly I have a No

knowledgeable knowledgeable familiarity idea/knowledge
about the about the with the about the
concept. concept. concept concept at all

19. Earthquake
20. Fault plane
21. Hypocenter
22. Epicenter
23. Foreshocks and Aftershocks
24. Seismic Waves
25. Seismograph and Seismogram
26. Magnitude
27. S-waves and P-waves
28. Radius
29. Triangulation
30. Volcano
31. Lava and Magma

76
 32. Tephra
33. Vent
34. Cinder Cone
35. Composite Volcano
36. Shield Volcano
37. Lava Dome

LESSON 1

77
1.1 ANATOMY OF AN EARTHQUAKE

78
79
 BRAIN SQUEEZERS!
Direction: Provide well-researched and comprehensive responses, citing relevant examples and sources
to support your answers/arguments on the following:

1. Define earthquakes and discuss their causes. Explore the tectonic processes, such as faulting and
plate movements, that lead to the release of seismic energy and the occurrence of earthquakes.
2. Compare and contrast the different types of seismic waves generated during an earthquake. Explain
the characteristics and behaviors of P-waves, S-waves, and surface waves, and their role in
earthquake studies.
3. Investigate the techniques used to measure and monitor earthquakes. Discuss the importance of
seismic instruments, such as seismometers and accelerometers, in studying and predicting seismic
activity.
4. Discuss the concept of earthquake magnitude and intensity scales. Compare the Richter scale,
moment magnitude scale (Mw), and the Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) scale, and explain their
applications in assessing earthquake strength and effects.
5. Explore the impact of earthquakes on the Earth's surface and built environment. Discuss how
seismic shaking, liquefaction, landslides, and tsunamis can cause widespread destruction and affect
communities.
6. Analyze the relationship between earthquakes and plate tectonics. Explain how plate boundaries,
such as divergent, convergent, and transform boundaries, are associated with different types of
seismic activity.
7. Discuss the challenges and strategies for earthquake preparedness and mitigation. How can
communities and governments reduce the risks associated with earthquakes through building codes,
early warning systems, and public education?
8. Investigate the historical significance of major earthquakes and their effects on human societies.
Provide examples of historically significant earthquakes and discuss their impact on culture,
economy, and urban planning.
9. Examine the global distribution of earthquakes and the "Ring of Fire." Discuss the regions most
prone to seismic activity and explain the geologic processes responsible for high seismicity.
10. Discuss the interdisciplinary nature of earthquake research. How do geologists, seismologists,
engineers, and emergency responders collaborate to study earthquakes and develop strategies for
risk reduction?

80
LESSON 2

81
82
 BRAIN SQUEEZERS!
Direction: Provide well-researched and comprehensive responses, citing relevant examples and sources
to support your answers/arguments on the following:
1. Define volcanoes and discuss the processes that lead to volcanic eruptions. Explore the different
types of volcanoes, such as shield, stratovolcanoes, and calderas, and explain the geological
features associated with each type.
2. Compare and contrast effusive and explosive volcanic eruptions. Explain the factors that determine
the style of eruption and the characteristics of lava flows and pyroclastic materials.
3. Investigate the relationship between plate tectonics and volcanic activity. How do subduction
zones, mid-ocean ridges, and hotspots contribute to the formation of volcanoes?
4. Discuss the impact of volcanic eruptions on the Earth's surface and climate. Explore how volcanic
ash, gases, and aerosols can lead to short-term cooling and long-term climate effects.
5. Explore the concept of volcanic hazards and their implications for human populations. Discuss the
risks associated with lava flows, pyroclastic flows, lahars, ashfall, and volcanic gases.
6. Analyze the methods used to monitor and predict volcanic eruptions. Discuss the importance of
volcano monitoring networks, satellite observations, and ground-based instruments in assessing
volcanic activity.
7. Discuss the significance of volcanic landforms and features in shaping the Earth's surface. Provide
examples of volcanic landscapes, such as volcanic islands, volcanic plateaus, and volcanic necks.
8. Investigate the historical significance of major volcanic eruptions and their impact on human
societies. Discuss how historical records and archaeological evidence provide insights into past
volcanic events.
9. Examine the cultural significance of volcanoes in different societies. How have volcanoes been
portrayed in myths, legends, and religious beliefs?
10. Discuss the interdisciplinary nature of volcano research. How do geologists, volcanologists,
atmospheric scientists, and emergency responders collaborate to study volcanoes and develop
strategies for volcanic risk reduction?

References:
[Link]
science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects
[Link]

83
 Unit 4-ASTRONOMY
The Planets in our Solar System
Overview
The inner four planets closest to the sun — Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars — are often called the
"terrestrial planets" because their surfaces are rocky. Pluto also has a rocky, albeit frozen, surface but
has never been grouped with the four terrestrials.
The four large outer worlds — Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune — are sometimes called the Jovian
or "Jupiter-like" planets because of their enormous size relative to the terrestrial planets.

Learning Objectives
At the end of the unit, I am able to:

1. Enumerate the planets in the Solar System.

2. Differentiate Jovian Planets from Terrestrial Planets.
3. Determine the composition of these planets.

Answer the following questionnaire. Put a check in the column that best describes your knowledge
on the particular concept/term.

PART 1

CONCEPT CHECKING I am deeply I am fairly I have a No

knowledgeable knowledgeable familiarity idea/knowledge
about the about the with the about the
concept. concept. concept concept at all

38. Jovian Planets

39. Terrestrial Planets
40. Mercury
41. Venus
42. Earth
43. Mars
44. Jupiter
45. Saturn
46. Uranus
47. Neptune
48. Charon
49. Atmosphere

84
 Expanding Your Knowledge

LESSON
The Jovian Planets
By far most of the solar system's mass is in the Sun itself: somewhere
between 99.8 and 99.9 percent. The rest is split between the planets and
their satellites, and the comets and asteroids and the dust
and gas surrounding our star. Seen from afar (on the scale of distances
between stars) the presence of the solar system would not be obvious. We
would simply see a normal-looking star. Perhaps we would pick up the
presence of Jupiter, which makes up two thirds or so of the solar system
outside of the Sun, by mass. The Sun and the five largest planets of the solar system (to
scale). The Earth is the tiny dot between Jupiter and the Sun.
(Source: NASA)
Because Jupiter has most of
the mass of what the Sun left over, we can think of the solar system as a
double star with very unequal partners. The little guy (Jupiter) is 1/1000 the
mass of the big one (Sun) and doesn't have enough mass to produce the
pressure necessary for ignition at its center. It does have pretty much the
same composition as the Sun (hydrogen and helium in solar proportions,
along with some carbon, nitrogen and oxygen). Also, it does
radiate heat almost as much again as it receives from the Sun. This heat is
released by the radioactive decay of elements within the planet and
(perhaps) from gravitational effects, as the heavier elements move toward
the center. (Earth also radiates its own heat, but it is negligible compared
with energy of solar origin.)

Jupiter (Source: NASA)

Jupiter and Saturn together make up more than 90 percent of the mass of
all planets. The bulk of their mass is in hydrogen and helium, as
mentioned. Also, the compounds ammonia (nitrogen hydride), methane (carbon hydride) and water (oxygen
hydride) are seen in their atmospheres. These are the most obvious combinations of the four most common elements
(besides helium), and the fact that they are abundant reflects the relatively low temperature of the outer atmosphere
of the two main planets. (Helium, as a noble gas, does not combine with other elements.)

The next two largest planets are Uranus (discovered 1781, by William Herschel) and Neptune (discovered 1846, by
Johannes Galle; see also Adams and Leverrier). The two are roughly equal in size and mass, at about five percent of
Jupiter and less than a fifth of Saturn. The composition of Uranus is much like that of Jupiter and Saturn. Also, like
those two giants, it has (wispy) rings and lots of satellites.

Apparently, Neptune was first seen by Galileo (he sketched it when observing Jupiter in 1613) but he did not
recognize its nature as a planet. Neptune has a composition much like the other "Jovian" planets, but has somewhat
greater density. It too has debris and satellites encircling it. Pluto, the outermost planet, is roughly the size of the
Moon and consists of dusty ice, much like a comet. It has a large companion, "Charon".

Pluto: The brown color of the planet is thought to be due to Neptune (Source: NASA)
frozen methane deposits. No spacecraft from Earth has as yet
visited Pluto. This image was taken with an Earth-based
telescope. (Source: NASA)

85
 (Courtesy: NASA)

(Courtesy: NASA)

Saturn (Source: NASA)

Uranus (Source: NASA)

The Terrestrial Planets

Going toward the Sun from Jupiter we find a totally different assemblage
of planets. The biggest of the "inner" or "terrestrial" planets is Earth itself,
at about 0.3 percent of the mass of Jupiter the 5th largest of the nine
planets. Its atmosphere is quite unlike that of Jupiter and the outer planets
in general. Instead of hydrogen and helium there is nitrogen and oxygen.

All the inner planets like Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars have solid
surfaces with a sharp separation from their atmosphere. The
solid matter consists of compounds of silicates ("minerals") rich in
the elements magnesium, iron, calcium, sodium and potassium, besides the
silicon and oxygen that provides the bulk for the various crystals. To
account for the great density of the inner planets (more than 4 times higher
than that of Jupiter) one must assume much enrichment with iron, over
other elements. (Iron is what makes Mars red, and links it to blood, which Mercury (Source: NASA)

is spilled in war; hence Mars has the name of the ancient war god.)

86
 As far as the atmospheres of the inner planets, that of Earth is highly
unusual, because it is chemically unstable (nitrogen and oxygen combine
within lightning). By contrast, Mercury has no atmosphere. Its gravity is
too low to hold on to gas heated by the Sun. (The same is true for the
Moon, a body much like Mercury). Venus has an atmosphere almost a
hundred times more massive than that on Earth. Its pressure corresponds to
that in the ocean at about 1 km depth. But it is not water, it is carbon
dioxide! At the surface it is hot enough to melt lead. Hydrochloric and
sulfuric acids also are present. Only two percent of the sunlight penetrates
to the surface. Most of it is reflected. (The high reflectivity, which is due to
sulfuric clouds, makes Venus the brightest object in the sky, after the Sun
and the Moon. Its beauty is recognized in its name.) The atmosphere of
Mars (Source: NASA)
Mars has but one-hundredth the pressure of that of Earth. It also is almost
entirely carbon dioxide, with some nitrogen and argon. The reason that the
atmosphere of Mars is so thin is that the gravity of Mars, the smallest of the
inner planets, is relatively weak.

In any event, our companion planets Venus and Mars have atmospheres
made of carbon dioxide, while in the Earth’s atmosphere carbon dioxide is
but a trace gas. The reason is that life processes have removed the carbon
from the atmosphere into limestone rocks, coal, oil and gas (in the ground
and as methane ice). Limestones, like the famous White Cliffs of Dover,
were originally made of carbonate fossils. Coal is finely disseminated,
mostly in sedimentary rocks, and made from plant materials. Oil and gas,
too, are made from marine organic matter.

We are now using coal, oil and

gas for production of energy (for
the time reversing the long-term
extraction of carbon from the
atmosphere). Thus, carbon
dioxide and methane are growing
in abundance in Earth's Venus (Source: NASA)
atmosphere. Also, we are using
limestones to make cement,
which makes a modest contribution to carbon dioxide, as well. This recent
change in the chemistry of the atmosphere of Earth is perhaps the most
significant indicator of the presence of intelligent life in the solar system. (The emission of radio-waves carrying
news about football games and stock prices is a close second.)

So, what is (and isn't) a planet?

The International Astronomical Union (IAU) defines a true planet as a body that circles
the sun without being some other object's satellite; is large enough to be rounded by its own gravity
(but not so big that it begins to undergo nuclear fusion, like a star); and has "cleared its
neighborhood" of most other orbiting bodies. Yeah, it's a mouthful.
But that restrictive definition helped isolate what should and should not be considered a planet —
a problem that arose as astronomers discovered more and more planet-like objects in the solar
system. Pluto was among the bodies that didn't make the cut and was re-classified as a dwarf
planet.
The problem with Pluto, aside from its small size and offbeat orbit, is that it doesn't clear its
neighborhood of debris — it shares its space with lots of other objects in the Kuiper Belt. Still,
the demotion of Pluto remains controversial.
The IAU planet definition also put other small, round worlds into the dwarf planet category,
including the Kuiper Belt objects Eris, Haumea and Makemake.
Ceres, a round object in the Asteroid Belt between Mars and Jupiter, also got the boot. Ceres was
considered a planet when it was discovered in 1801, but it was later deemed to be an asteroid. That
still didn't quite fit because it was so much larger (and rounder) than the other asteroids.
Astronomers instead deemed it a dwarf planet in 2006, although some astronomers like to consider
Ceres as a 10th planet (not to be confused with Nibiru or Planet X).

87
Mercury
Zipping around the sun in only 88 days, Mercury is the closest planet to the sun, and it's also the
smallest, only a little bit larger than Earth's moon. Because its so close to the sun (about two-fifths
the distance between Earth and the sun), Mercury experiences dramatic changes in its day and
night temperatures: Day temperatures can reach a scorching 840 F (450 C), which is hot enough
to melt lead. Meanwhile on the night side, temperatures drop to minus 290 F (minus 180 C).
Mercury has a very thin atmosphere of oxygen, sodium, hydrogen, helium and potassium and can't
break-up incoming meteors, so its surface is pockmarked with craters, just like the moon. Over its
four-year mission, NASA's MESSENGER spacecraft revealed incredible new discoveries that
challenged astronomers' expectations. Among those findings was the discovery of water ice and
frozen organic compounds at Mercury's north pole and that volcanism played a major role in
shaping the planet's surface.
• Discovery: Known to the ancient Greeks and visible to the naked eye
• Named for the messenger of the Roman gods
• Diameter: 3,031 miles (4,878 km)
• Orbit: 88 Earth days
• Day: 58.6 Earth days

Venus
The second planet from the sun, Venus is Earth's twin in size. Radar images beneath its atmosphere
reveal that its surface has various mountains and volcanoes. But beyond that, the two planets
couldn't be more different. Because of its thick, toxic atmosphere that's made of sulfuric acid
clouds, Venus is an extreme example of the greenhouse effect. It's scorching-hot, even hotter than
Mercury. The average temperature on Venus' surface is 900 F (465 C). At 92 bar, the pressure at
the surface would crush and kill you. And oddly, Venus spins slowly from east to west, the opposite
direction of most of the other planets.
The Greeks believed Venus was two different objects — one in the morning sky and another in
the evening. Because it is often brighter than any other object in the sky, Venus has generated
many UFO reports.
• Discovery: Known to the ancient Greeks and visible to the naked eye
• Named for the Roman goddess of love and beauty
• Diameter: 7,521 miles (12,104 km)
• Orbit: 225 Earth days
• Day: 241 Earth days

Earth
The third planet from the sun, Earth is a waterworld, with two-thirds of the planet covered by
ocean. It's the only world known to harbor life. Earth's atmosphere is rich in nitrogen and oxygen.
Earth's surface rotates about its axis at 1,532 feet per second (467 meters per second) — slightly
more than 1,000 mph (1,600 kph) — at the equator. The planet zips around the sun at more than
18 miles per second (29 km per second).
• Name originates from "Die Erde," the German word for "the ground."
• Diameter: 7,926 miles (12,760 km)
• Orbit: 365.24 days
• Day: 23 hours, 56 minutes

Mars

The fourth planet from the sun is Mars, and it's a cold, desert-like place covered in dust. This dust
is made of iron oxides, giving the planet its iconic red hue. Mars shares similarities with Earth: It
is rocky, has mountains, valleys and canyons, and storm systems ranging from localized tornado-
like dust devils to planet-engulfing dust storms.
Substantial scientific evidence suggests that Mars at one point billions of years ago was a much
warmer, wetter world. Rivers and maybe even oceans existed. Although Mars' atmosphere is too
thin for liquid water to exist on the surface for any length of time, remnants of that wetter Mars
still exist today. Sheets of water ice the size of California lie beneath Mars' surface, and at both
poles are ice caps made in part of frozen water. In July 2018, scientists revealed that they had

88
found evidence of a liquid lake beneath the surface of the southern pole's ice cap. It's the first
example of a persistent body of water on the Red Planet.
Scientists also think ancient Mars would have had the conditions to support life like bacteria and
other microbes. Hope that signs of this past life — and the possibility of even current lifeforms —
may exist on the Red Planet has driven numerous space exploration missions and Mars is now one
of the most explored planets in the solar system.
• Discovery: Known to the ancient Greeks and visible to the naked eye
• Named for the Roman god of war
• Diameter: 4,217 miles (6,787 km)
• Orbit: 687 Earth days
• Day: Just more than one Earth day (24 hours, 37 minutes)

Jupiter
The fifth planet from the sun, Jupiter is a giant gas world that is the most massive planet in our
solar system — more than twice as massive as all the other planets combined, according to NASA.
Its swirling clouds are colorful due to different types of trace gases. And a major feature in its
swirling clouds is the Great Red Spot, a giant storm more than 10,000 miles wide. It has raged at
more than 400 mph for the last 150 years, at least. Jupiter has a strong magnetic field, and with 75
moons, it looks a bit like a miniature solar system.
• Discovery: Known to the ancient Greeks and visible to the naked eye
• Named for the ruler of the Roman gods
• Diameter: 86,881 miles (139,822 km)
• Orbit: 11.9 Earth years
• Day: 9.8 Earth hours

Saturn
The sixth planet from the sun, Saturn is known most for its rings. When polymath Galileo
Galilei first studied Saturn in the early 1600s, he thought it was an object with three parts: a planet
and two large moons on either side. Not knowing he was seeing a planet with rings, the stumped
astronomer entered a small drawing — a symbol with one large circle and two smaller ones — in
his notebook, as a noun in a sentence describing his discovery. More than 40 years later, Christiaan
Huygens proposed that they were rings. The rings are made of ice and rock and scientists are not
yet sure how they formed. The gaseous planet is mostly hydrogen and helium and has numerous
moons.
• Discovery: Known to the ancient Greeks and visible to the naked eye
• Named for Roman god of agriculture
• Diameter: 74,900 miles (120,500 km)
• Orbit: 29.5 Earth years
• Day: About 10.5 Earth hours
Uranus
The seventh planet from the sun, Uranus is an oddball. It has clouds made of hydrogen sulfide, the
same chemical that makes rotten eggs smell so foul. It rotates from east to west like Venus. But
unlike Venus or any other planet, its equator is nearly at right angles to its orbit — it basically
orbits on its side. Astronomers believe an object twice the size of Earth collided with Uranus
roughly 4 billion years ago, causing Uranus to tilt. That tilt causes extreme seasons that last 20-
plus years, and the sun beats down on one pole or the other for 84 Earth-years at a time.
The collision is also thought to have knocked rock and ice into Uranus' orbit. These later became
some of the planet's 27 moons. Methane in the atmosphere gives Uranus its blue-green tint. It also
has 13 sets of faint rings.
• Discovery: 1781 by William Herschel (was originally thought to be a star)
• Named for the personification of heaven in ancient myth
• Diameter: 31,763 miles (51,120 km)
• Orbit: 84 Earth years
• Day: 18 Earth hours

89
Neptune
The eighth planet from the sun, Neptune is about the size of Uranus and is known for supersonic
strong winds. Neptune is far out and cold. The planet is more than 30 times as far from the sun as
Earth. Neptune was the first planet predicted to exist by using math, before it was visually detected.
Irregularities in the orbit of Uranus led French astronomer Alexis Bouvard to suggest some other
planet might be exerting a gravitational tug. German astronomer Johann Galle used calculations
to help find Neptune in a telescope. Neptune is about 17 times as massive as Earth and has a rocky
core.
• Discovery: 1846
• Named for the Roman god of water
• Diameter: 30,775 miles (49,530 km)
• Orbit: 165 Earth years
• Day: 19 Earth hours

Pluto (dwarf planet)

Once the ninth planet from the sun, Pluto is unlike other planets in many respects. It is smaller
than Earth's moon; its orbit is highly elliptical, falling inside Neptune's orbit at some points and
far beyond it at others; and Pluto's orbit doesn't fall on the same plane as all the other planets
— instead, it orbits 17.1 degrees above or below.
From 1979 until early 1999, Pluto had actually been the eighth planet from the sun. Then, on Feb.
11, 1999, it crossed Neptune's path and once again became the solar system's most distant planet
— until it was redefined as a dwarf planet. It's a cold, rocky world with a tenuous atmosphere.
Scientists thought it might be nothing more than a hunk of rock on the outskirts of the solar system.
But when NASA's New Horizons mission performed history's first flyby of the Pluto system on
July 14, 2015, it transformed scientists' view of Pluto. Pluto is a very active ice world that's covered
in glaciers, mountains of ice water, icy dunes and possibly even cryovolcanoes that erupt icy lava
made of water, methane or ammonia.
• Discovery: 1930 by Clyde Tombaugh
• Named for the Roman god of the underworld, Hades
• Diameter: 1,430 miles (2,301 km)
• Orbit: 248 Earth years
• Day: 6.4 Earth day

90
 BRAIN SQUEEZERS!
Direction: Provide well-researched and comprehensive responses, citing relevant examples and sources
to support your answers/arguments on the following:

1. Compare and contrast the main characteristics of jovian and terrestrial planets. Discuss the
differences in size, composition, atmosphere, and overall structure, and explain how these
factors contribute to their distinct properties.

2. Investigate the formation processes of jovian and terrestrial planets. How do the
protoplanetary disk's composition and location influence the formation of gas giants versus
rocky planets?

3. Explore the internal structures of both jovian and terrestrial planets. Discuss the presence
of cores, mantles, and atmospheres in these planets and explain how these internal
structures affect their behaviors and appearances.

4. Discuss the atmospheres of jovian and terrestrial planets. Compare the chemical
compositions, densities, and weather patterns in these atmospheres and their influence on
climate and surface conditions.

5. Analyze the presence of moons and rings around jovian and terrestrial planets. Explain the
differences in moon systems and the formation of rings around gas giants.

6. Discuss the potential for habitability in jovian and terrestrial planets. What factors
contribute to the habitability of rocky planets, and could any moons of gas giants harbor
conditions for life?

7. Examine the geological processes and surface features of both jovian and terrestrial planets.
Discuss volcanic activity, tectonic movements, and erosion on rocky planets, and explain
the atmospheric phenomena and storm systems on gas giants.

8. Discuss the exploration and study of jovian and terrestrial planets by space missions and
telescopes. How have these scientific endeavors increased our understanding of these
planets' characteristics and the broader planetary systems?

9. Investigate the significance of jovian and terrestrial planets in the context of planetary
systems and exoplanet research. How do these different types of planets contribute to our
knowledge of planetary diversity beyond our solar system?

10. Discuss the future prospects of exploring jovian and terrestrial planets. What are the
potential benefits and challenges of further exploration, both robotic and human, of these
planets and their moons?

References:

1. University of California, San Diego. (2002) Retrieved from:

[Link]

2. [Link]

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 ASTRONOMY
The Planet Earth
Overview
The first humans to see Earth as a blue sphere floating in the blackness of space were the astronauts who
made the first voyage around the Moon in 1968. For many people, the historic images showing our world as a
small, distant globe represent a pivotal moment in human history, when it became difficult for educated
human beings to view our world without a global perspective. In this chapter, we examine the composition
and structure of our planet with its envelope of ocean and atmosphere. We ask how our terrestrial
environment came to be the way it is today, and how it compares with other planets.

Learning Objectives
At the end of the unit, I am able to:

1. Describe the components of Earth’s interior and explain how scientists determined its structure
2. Specify the origin, size, and extent of Earth’s magnetic field
3. Denote the primary types of rock that constitute Earth’s crust
4. Explain the theory of plate tectonics
5. Differentiate between Earth’s various atmospheric layers
6. Describe the chemical composition and possible origins of our atmosphere
7. Explain the difference between weather and climate.

Answer the following questionnaire. Put a check in the column that best describes your knowledge
on the particular concept/term.

PART 1

CONCEPT CHECKING I am deeply I am fairly I have a No

knowledgeable knowledgeable familiarity idea/knowledge
about the about the with the about the
concept. concept. concept concept at all

50. Crust
51. Mantle
52. Core
53. Inner Core
54. Magnetosphere
55. Plate Tectonics
56. Atmosphere
57. Weather
58. Climate
59. Igneous Rock
60. Sedimentary Rocks

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 61. Metamorphic Rocks

Expanding Your Knowledge

LESSON 1. EARTH

93
LESSON 2

94
95
96
LESSON 3

97
LESSON 4

98
LESSON 5

99
100
LESSON 6

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 BRAIN SQUEEZERS!
Direction: Provide well-researched and comprehensive responses, citing relevant examples and sources
to support your answers/arguments on the following:
1. Earth's Interior: a. Discuss the layers of Earth's interior, including the inner core, outer core,
mantle, and crust. Explain the composition and properties of each layer and their significance in
understanding Earth's geology and dynamics. b. Investigate the methods used to study Earth's
interior, such as seismic waves, and how these techniques have provided insights into the
structure and composition of the planet's interior.
2. Composition of the Crust: a. Explore the composition of the Earth's crust, including the major
types of rocks and minerals present. Discuss the processes involved in the formation and
evolution of the crust. b. Investigate how the composition of the crust varies across different
regions of the Earth, such as oceanic crust, continental crust, and mountainous regions.
3. Plate Tectonics: a. Explain the theory of plate tectonics and the evidence supporting it, such as
seafloor spreading, continental drift, and magnetic anomalies. Discuss how plate tectonics has
shaped the Earth's surface over geological time. b. Explore the types of plate boundaries,
including divergent, convergent, and transform boundaries, and the geological features and
phenomena associated with each type.
4. Structure of the Atmosphere: a. Describe the layers of Earth's atmosphere, including the
troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere. Discuss the temperature and
pressure variations in each layer. b. Investigate the composition of the atmosphere, including the
major gases and trace elements, and their role in atmospheric processes and climate regulation.
5. Weather and Climate: a. Compare and contrast weather and climate, explaining the differences
between short-term atmospheric conditions and long-term patterns of temperature, precipitation,
and wind. b. Explore the factors influencing weather patterns, such as air masses, pressure
systems, and ocean currents, and how they interact to create different climates in various regions
of the world.
6. Anthropogenic Impact on Weather and Climate: a. Discuss the human influence on weather
patterns and climate change, including the role of greenhouse gas emissions, deforestation, and
urbanization. Examine the consequences of these impacts on global weather and climate patterns.
7. Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation: a. Analyze the strategies for mitigating climate
change, including renewable energy adoption, carbon sequestration, and international climate
agreements. b. Discuss the importance of climate change adaptation measures, such as building
resilience to extreme weather events and sea-level rise in vulnerable communities.

References:

Citation information

• Use the information below to generate a citation. We recommend using a citation tool such as this
one.
o Authors: Andrew Fraknoi, David Morrison, Sidney C. Wolff
o Publisher/website: OpenStax
o Book title: Astronomy
o Publication date: Oct 13, 2016
o Location: Houston, Texas
o Book URL: [Link]
o Section URL: [Link]

© Jan 27, 2021 OpenStax. Textbook content produced by OpenStax is licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution License 4.0 license. The OpenStax name, OpenStax logo, OpenStax book covers, OpenStax
CNX name, and OpenStax CNX logo are not subject to the Creative Commons license and may not be
reproduced without the prior and express written consent of Rice University.

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