Environmental Science

What is hydrological cycle? Discuss its importance

The Atmosphere (Layered Structure

and Composition)
Briefly describe the various segments of atmosphere. How these
segments are maintaining the Earth Radiation Balance? (2020)
What are the different layers of the atmosphere? On what basis these
layers are classified? In which layer ‘Auroras’ are formed and where do
satellites orbit? (2023)
What is the sequence of strata of atmosphere and on what factors does it
depends? (2021)
What is the biosphere? Write a note on the ‘Energy Resources’ available in
the biosphere. (2023)
What is Atmosphere
The atmosphere surrounds the Earth and holds the air we breathe; it
protects us from outer space; and holds moisture (clouds), gases, and
tiny particles. In short, the atmosphere is the protective bubble in which
we live.
What are the different layers / various segments /
sequence of strata of the atmosphere?

Environmental Science 1
 Troposphere
It is the layer of the atmosphere that is closest to the ground. It can
be as long as 18 km in the equator, 13 km at mid-latitude, and
approximately 8 kilometres at the poles.
It makes up around 90 percent of the total mass of the atmosphere,
according to NASA.
This layer is responsible for the entirety of the weather phenomenon.
It is made up of all of the water vapour, dust particles, clouds, and so
on.
The temperature in the troposphere falls as the altitude of the
atmosphere rises.
Stratosphere
It is located above the troposphere and spreads consistently around
the globe up to a distance of 50 kilometres.
The presence of the Ozonosphere distinguishes this layer from the
others. Ozone is a highly reactive oxygen molecule composed of
three atoms that is highly reactive in nature.
The high-frequency UV radiation is absorbed by the ozone layer. As a
result of this absorption, the temperature of the layer rises

Environmental Science 2
 significantly.
Mesosphere
The mesosphere is located between 50 and 80 kilometres above the
surface of the earth.
The temperature drops once again in this layer, reaching its lowest
point of -90 degrees Celsius on average. Despite the fact that this
temperature can vary.
There is a layer of ions at the upper boundary of the mesosphere that
extends into the other layer from the upper barrier. This layer of ions
or charged particles is beneficial in that it reflects radio waves, which
is useful in telecommunications applications.
Thermosphere
This is a region that stretches from 80 kilometres to 480 kilometres in
length.
It is surrounded by a functional ionosphere. As the gas molecules
absorb the short wave radiation emitted by the sun, the temperature
of this layer rises dramatically and rapidly.
Because the density of the air in this layer is so low, the energy
cannot be easily transferred, and as a result, the heat is not felt.
Exosphere
Beyond Thermosphere to hundreds of kilometres. The exosphere is
the topmost layer of Earth’s atmosphere.
Because of the absence of gravitational attraction, gases are
extremely scarce in this realm. As a result, the density of the air is
extremely low in this location.
How these segments are maintaining the Earth Radiation
Balance?
The Earth’s radiation balance is the difference between the solar energy
received and the energy lost back to space. The Sun sends shortwave
radiation to Earth; part is reflected, and part is absorbed by the surface
and atmosphere. Because Earth is cooler than the Sun, it emits longwave
(infrared) radiation. This energy exchange keeps the planet’s
temperature stable.

Environmental Science 3
 Incoming Outgoing
energy energy
Units Source Units Source
Absorbed shortwave Longwave radiation
+47 radiation from the -116 emitted by the
sun. surface.
Absorbed longwave Removal of heat by
+98 radiation from gases -5 convection (rising
in atmosphere. warm air).
Heat lost through
-24 evaporation and
sublimation.
+145 Total Incoming -145 Total Outgoing
The atmosphere traps part of the escaping infrared radiation, warming
the Earth’s surface — this natural greenhouse effect keeps the average
temperature around 15°C instead of -18°C.
On what basis these layers are classified?
Answered above
In which layer ‘Auroras’ are formed and where do
satellites orbit?
Auroras : Thermosphere
Satellites : Exosphere

Hydrosphere (Water Cycle, Major

Water Compartments)
[Link]
Describe the hydrosphere and the major components of Earth's water.
How does the water cycle maintain the distribution of freshwater?
(2026)

Environmental Science 4
 What is Hydrosphere
The total amount of earth’s water whether liquid or frozen is a part of
the hydrosphere. It might be in the form of a liquid mist or ice. It can
be under the earth surface, above or below it.
The hydrosphere is important for many reasons. It helps regulate the
Earth’s temperature, provides a major source of fresh water, and
influences weather and climate. The hydrosphere also plays a role in
the carbon and water cycles, which are essential to life on Earth.
What are the Components of The Hydrosphere?
Oceans: The ocean is a body of saltwater that covers 70.8 percent of
the Earth’s surface and contains 97 percent of the water on the
planet.
Groundwater: Water found underground spaces in soil, sand, and
rock is known as groundwater. It is stored in and slowly travels
through aquifers.
Freshwater: Any naturally occurring liquid or frozen water with low
quantities of dissolved salts and other total dissolved solids is
referred to as freshwater.
Glacier water: Glacier water is old water, having originated over
seventeen thousand years ago in certain cases. It has a low mineral
concentration.
Water Vapour: Water vapour is the water that is in the air as a gas. It
is invisible and it makes up to four per cent of the hydrosphere.

Environmental Science 5
 What is water cycle
The water cycle is the continual flow of water on Earth and in the
atmosphere. First, the liquid water from the earth’s surface
evaporates with the help of the sun into water vapor, the evaporated
water condenses into clouds and then it precipitates in the form of
rain and snow on the ground.
Runoff is the movement of liquid water across the land, into the earth,
and through the ground. Plants undergo the process of evaporation
when groundwater enters the plant.
Biosphere (Major Biomes)
What is the biosphere?

Biosphere refers to the ecosystem or the life supporting system of

Earth where all the living beings in nature exist. It includes the air and
the ground of the Earth.
Biosphere is defined as the layers of Earth above, on or interior of
Earth surface where the living beings in nature exist. The term
biosphere is also regarded as the ecosphere and is derived from the
Greek word ‘bios’ which means ‘life’ and is termed as the life zone on
the layers of Earth.
Examples of Biosphere
Oceans (aquatic)
Deserts

Environmental Science 6
 Tundras
Tropical Rainforest
Grasslands
Prairies
Deciduous forests
Components of Biosphere
1. Lithosphere: Lithosphere is the name given to the Earth’s
terrestrial component. Our continent and islands, for example, can
be found on this part of the planet.
2. Atmosphere :
3. Hydrosphere : The hydrosphere refers to all of the Earth’s water.
Thus, it is sometimes called the aquatic zone. But it does include
glaciers and other solid types of ice. Earth’s temperature can’t be
stable without the hydrosphere, which is essential to life on Earth.
Write a note on the ‘Energy Resources’ available in the
biosphere ?
Solar Energy, Wind Energy, Hydropower, Biomass Energy, Fossil
Fuels, Geothermal Energy (From Food)

Lithosphere (Minerals and Rocks, Rock

Types, Plate Tectonics)
What is the Difference between asthenosphere and lithosphere? Explain
various components
of lithosphere. (2021)

Rock

Environmental Science 7
 Differentiate between Sedimentary Rocks and Igneous Rocks (2000)
(2)
Write briefly Sedimentary Rock (2) (2007)
Briefly explain the difference between Sedimentary and Metamorphic
rocks. (2012)
What is rock ?
A rock is a non-living, naturally generated earth substance. Rocks are
composed of mineral grains that are bound together in a solid mass.
The presence of many minerals causes the various colors and
textures visible in this rock. When one or two minerals aggregate, it
leads to the formation of rocks. Earth is made up of rocks.
Briefly explain the difference between Igneous,
Sedimentary and Metamorphic rocks.
Igneous Rocks Sedimentary Metamorphic
Characteristic
🔥 Rocks 🏖️ Rocks 🔨
Pre-existing
Particles settle rocks are
Molten rock out of water/air altered by heat,
(magma or or minerals pressure, and
1. Formation Process
lava) cools and precipitate, then chemical
hardens. press together processes
in layers. (without
melting).
Beneath the
surface Subsurface
2. Location of On or near the
(Intrusive) or on (deep within the
Formation Earth’s surface.
the Earth’s crust Earth).
(Extrusive).
Formed from
Primarily layers of silt, Started as
Silicate sand, dead different rocks,
3. General
elements. All plant/animal resulting in a
Composition
contain matter, and wide range of
minerals. dissolved qualities.
minerals.
[Link]/Appearance Crystalline Fragmental or Crystalline
structure. Can crystalline structure. May

Environmental Science 8
 be coarse, texture. Usually have a banded
delicate, or found in layers. or crushed
glassy (if appearance
cooled quickly). (foliation).
Clastic,
Intrusive Chemical, and
5. Sub- Foliated and
(Plutonic) and Organic
Types/Categories Nonfoliated.
Extrusive. (Organic detrital
rocks).
Sandstone,
Granite, Basalt,
Shale, Gneiss, Phyllite,
6. Common Examples Diorite, Gabbro,
Limestone, Schist, Slate.
etc.
Coal, etc.
Process of
Contains the
production
fossil record of Do not become
cannot be
7. Unique Feature prehistoric sufficiently
viewed directly
plants and heated to melt.
(often deep
animals.
underground).

Minerals
What are MINERALS? Discuss ANY TWO physical properties thereof.
Also mention the names of four precious minerals of high commercial
value. (2009)
What are minerals ? For most of the part minerals are constituted of
eight elements,
name any six of them. State the six characteristics that are used to
identify minerals (10) (2002)
Name two minerals which ate exported from Pakistan. (2001)
What are Minerals ?
Minerals can be defined as naturally occurring substances with a
definite chemical composition. They have been formed under very
high pressure for thousands of years. Various minerals are extracted
by their rock ores mined from the earth. Minerals are classified based
on their chemical composition, which is shown in their physical traits.
Some minerals can form under the same conditions, so you’re more
likely to find them in the same rock. Other minerals, on the other hand,

Environmental Science 9
 form under very different conditions and won’t be found in the same
rock.
Discuss physical properties of Minerals ?
1. Colour: Every mineral has a natural colour. Some change colour
when seen from different sides (called pleochroism).
2. Lustre: It means how a mineral looks in light — shiny like metal,
glassy, pearly, silky, dull, or waxy.
3. Hardness: It tells how easily a mineral can be scratched. It is
measured on Mohs scale from 1 (soft) to 10 (hard).
4. Cleavage: It shows how a mineral breaks. Some break smoothly
along lines, others break unevenly.
5. Density / Specific Gravity: It tells how heavy a mineral is
compared to the same amount of water.
6. Streak: It is the colour of the mineral’s powder when rubbed on a
white tile.
7. Transparency: It means how much light passes through —
transparent (clear), translucent (partly clear), or opaque (no light
passes).
8. Crystal Form: It is the shape of the mineral crystal — like cube,
flat, needle-like, or round.
Precious minerals of high commercial value of Pakistan
?
Iron
Chromite
Copper
Magnes
Rock salt
Gypsum
Marble
Limestone
Plate Tectonics
Environmental Science 10
 Environment
What is the difference between fog and smog? What are the causes of smog
and its effects on human health? Write short note on any one of the latest
technologies to eliminate smog to
avoid atmospheric pollution. (2023)
Differentiate between Haze and Smog (2) (2000)
Differentiate between Smog and Smoke (2) (2009) (2014) (2015)
Write a comprehensive note on Smog. (2018)

Water Pollution
(Types, sources, causes and effects of major water pollutants )
(Synthetic Organic Chemicals, Oxygen Demanding Wastes, Plant Nutrients,
Thermal Pollution, Infectious Agents, Sediments, Radioactivity, Heavy Metals
and Acids).
Drinking water quality and standards.

Water Pollution
Explain how water pollution is produced? Describe the part played by
bacteria after a river has been polluted by sewage. (2025)
What are the standards of drinking water? How Heavy Metals in the water
affect the living organisms? (2024)
What is the role of oxygen-demanding wastes in water pollution? How it
can be prevented? (2023)
Define the term Water Pollution. What indicators are used to measure the
quality of water? Write down the drinking water quality standards. (2022)
What is ‘Water Pollution’. Discuss its causes and measurement methods.
Name the countries with the highest and lowest percentage of it. (2018)

Environmental Science 11
 How do fertilizers contribute to water pollution (6) (2002)
What are the factors of water pollution? What types of diseases are
transmitted by using polluted the methods to control pollution of water.
(2001)
Write comprehensive notes on Water pollution. (5) (2000)
What is Water Pollution ?
Water Pollution is the contamination of aquatic bodies which happens
due to human activities. It makes the water of no use. Under the water
bodies, you can count the rivers, lakes, reservoirs, oceans and
groundwater. The contamination in water bodies occurs due to industrial
activities, sewage activities, urban activities, and agricultural activities.
Water pollution is also the cause of water-borne diseases. It happens to
those who use the polluted water for bathing, washing, drinking and
other uses.
One in four people in the world does not have access to a safely
managed water source. (Al-Jazeera)
Causes of water pollution
Urbanisation
Industrial water waste
Agricultural source
Nuclear waste
Underground water pollution
Marine pollution
Describe the part played by bacteria after a river has
been polluted by sewage.
Bacteria consume the sewage's organic matter through an oxidation
process, creating a high Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD). This
decomposition rapidly consumes the river's Dissolved Oxygen (DO),
leading to hypoxic (low oxygen) conditions. + (Below: oxygen-
demanding wastes )

Discuss its causes / factors

Environmental Science 12
 What is the role of oxygen-demanding wastes in water
pollution? How it can be prevented?
Oxygen-demanding wastes (ODW) such as sewage, industrial
discharges, and agricultural runoff contain biodegradable organic matter
and ammonia that consume dissolved oxygen (DO) during microbial
decomposition. This oxygen depletion causes water pollution, leading to
fish deaths, reduced biodiversity, and the formation of “dead zones.”
High Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) indicates more pollution.
How it can be prevented?
By separating stormwater from sewage systems; and adopting
agricultural best management practices (BMPs) like manure handling,
erosion control, and nutrient management to reduce runoff.
How do fertilizers contribute to water pollution ?
Fertilizers provide essential nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and
potassium to increase crop yields, but their excessive use leads to water
pollution. Unused nitrogen from fertilizers dissolves in water and runs off
into rivers or seeps into groundwater, causing contamination and algal
blooms. Similarly, excess phosphorus from fertilizers and manure
washes into water bodies, triggering eutrophication that depletes oxygen
and harms aquatic life. Hence, while fertilizers boost crop growth, their
overuse pollutes water and damages ecosystems.
How Heavy Metals in the water affect the living
organisms?
Heavy metals, such as copper, lead, mercury, and selenium, get into
water from many sources, including industries, automobile exhaust,
mines, and even natural soil.
Like pesticides, heavy metals become more concentrated as animals
feed on plants and are consumed in turn by other animals, When they
reach high levels in the body, heavy metals can be immediately
poisonous, or can result in long-term health problems similar to those
caused by pesticides and herbicides.
For example, cadmium in fertilizer derived from sewage sludge can be
absorbed by crops. If these crops are eaten by humans in sufficient
amounts, the metal can cause diarrhea and over time, liver and kidney
damage.

Environmental Science 13
 What types of diseases are transmitted by using polluted
water?
Diseases like cholera, giardia, and typhoid. Chronic diseases such as
hormone imbalances, hepatitis, impaired brain function, and cancer
can all result from it.
These water-borne infections are extremely dangerous to a pregnant
woman.
Swimming in contaminated water is also dangerous since it causes
skin and eye allergies.
Coma and paralysis have been reported in severely affected people,
leading to death.
Write down the drinking water quality standards / What
indicators are used to measure the quality of water?
Bacteriological Standards
Water must be free from harmful bacteria like E. coli and coliforms.
No bacteria should be detectable in any 100 mL of drinking water.
Physical Standards
Water should be clear, colourless, and without bad taste or smell.
Turbidity (cloudiness or haziness) < 5 NTU and pH between 6.5–8.5
are acceptable limits.
Chemical Standards
Harmful chemicals like arsenic, lead, and nitrate must be very low.
Total Dissolved Solids TDS below 1000 mg/L and hardness below
500 mg/L are allowed.
Organic Standards
Pesticides and phenols should be almost absent.
Organic pollutants like Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons PAH must
be below 0.01 µg/L.
Radioactive Standards
Alpha emitters ≤ 0.1 Bq/L and beta emitters ≤ 1 Bq/L.

Environmental Science 14
 Water should be safe from radioactive contamination.
Name the countries with the highest and lowest
percentage of water Pollution.
Top: Greece, Iceland, Kuwait, Malta, Monaco
Bottom: Chad, CAR, Sierra Leone, Rwanda, Ethiopia

Water Logging
Briefly explain the main reasons of water-logging in Pakistan. (2017)
What are the main reasons of water - logging in Pakistan? (2005)
What is water logging?
Water-saturated soil commonly known as waterlogged. The waterlogging
conditions are further described as an excessive amount of water
present in the soil. This condition leads to significant physical, chemical,
and biological changes in the soil, adversely affecting agricultural
productivity and sustainability.
Effects of water logging?
1. Water logging and salinity destroy the soil structure. Different layers
of the soil are badly affected.
2. The soil is saturated with water. Therefore, the oxygen content of the
soil is decreased Thus oxygen is not available to the roots of the
plants for respiration. So the plants die.
3. It causes anaerobic condition in the soil. Thus anaerobic
microorganisms are produced it. The anaerobic microorganisms
produce methane (CH4) and hydrogen sulphide (H2S) which effect
environment.
4. Waterlogging is also injurious to public health. Mosquitoes and flies
breed in waterlogged area. They spread malaria and other
water borne diseases.
Reasons of water logging in Pakistan?
1. Seepage from Canals: These canals were not lined during
construction. Therefore, seepage of water took place. It raises the

Environmental Science 15
 water table of soil. In Pakistan, the canals are constructed in such a
way that the water level in them is much above the surface of the soil
to be irrigated. Thus, it results in an increase in water logging.
2. Unscientific Irrigation System: Our farmers have adopted
unscientific irrigation system. Most of the water is collected in the
ditches in the field. Farmers, due to the lack of proper awareness,
depend on excessive irrigation in cultivating certain crops. Excessive
irrigation and lack of adequate drainage system cause an increase in
water logging.
3. Monsoon Rain and frequent floods form small lakes and ponds also
cause water logging. There is a lack of drainage system. Thus this
accumulated water cannot be drained out. This water gradually
seeped downwards and reached the water table. Thus it raises
ground water surface.
4. Land Topography: The topography of land includes the sloppiness,
shape, and other physical features of particular land or environment.
Some lands are accelerated such as hills and valleys, while some
lands are depressed such as lowlands.

Atmospheric Pollution
Types, Sources, Causes and effects of major air pollutants (COx, Particulate
Matter, NOx, SOx, Tropospheric Ozone, Volatile Organic Compounds, Dioxins).
State some examples of pollution caused by human activity and discuss the
effects of each example.
What does air pollution means? State ten serious effects of air pollution on the
environment and briefly explain how they can be reduced? (2025)
Why are Scientists worried about the increase of CO2 in atmosphere? (2019)
What are the factors responsible for environmental pollution? (2017)
Write a short on the Environmental effects of Fertilizer use. (2014)

Environmental Science 16
 Particulate Matter
How the organic particulate matter enters in the atmosphere. Also describe
the sources? (2020)
Particulate Matter
particulate matter or PM, is a broad term for a suspension of solid and
liquid droplets in the air. Acids, inorganic compounds, organic chemicals,
soot, metals, soil or dust particles, and biological materials are all
examples of particle pollution (such as pollen and mold spores).
Particulate Matter settle down when the speed of air show down.
Sources of PM
These particles come in many sizes and shapes and can be made up
of hundreds of different chemicals.
Some are emitted directly from a source, such as construction sites,
unpaved roads, fields, smokestacks or fires.
Most particles form in the atmosphere as a result of complex
reactions of chemicals such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides,
which are pollutants emitted from power plants, industries and
automobiles.
How the organic particulate matter enters in the atmosphere. Also describe the
sources? (2020)
Regional and Global air pollution issues (Acid-rain, Ozone Depletion,
Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming).
why are the scientists worried about the increase of carbon dioxide gas in the
atmposphere ? is there any possible benefit for the mankind in case of global
warming?

Acid Rain
Write short notes on acid rain (2002)
What is an Acid Rain and how it is produced. Briefly describe the dangers
associated with it? (2017)
What is ‘Acid Rain’. Describe its causes and how it can be prevented?
(2018)

Environmental Science 17
 What is an Acid Rain?
Acid rain is a term that refers to any type of rain which includes high
amounts of sulphuric and nitric acid. It is a kind of rain that is typically
acidic, indicating there are a lot of hydrogen ions in it, it has a low pH
balance.
Most water forms including drinking water have a pH that is neutral, in
between the ranges of 6.5 to 8.5, while acid rains have a pH that ranges
much lower from 4 to 5 on an average. Acid rain is more acidic, the lower
the pH. Flora, fauna, infrastructure and buildings can all be affected by
acid rain.
It is a type of air pollution that occurs when pollutants accumulate in the
atmosphere. Throughout vehicles, electricity generation plants, and
industrial plants, the combustion of coal and petroleum results in the
release of a variety of toxic emissions into the atmosphere.
What are the causes of acid rain?
1. Acidic precipitation can be brought about by regular (volcanoes) and
man-made exercises, such as vehicles and in the age of power.
2. The antecedents, or substance trailblazers, of acid rain arrangement
result from both regular sources, for example, volcanoes and rotting
vegetation, and man-made sources, basically emanations of sulphur
dioxide (SO) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) coming about because of
petroleum derivative ignition.
3. The consumption of non-renewable energy sources (coal and oil) by
power-creation organisations and businesses discharges sulphur into
the air that joins with oxygen to frame sulphur dioxide (SO).
4. Emissions from vehicles cause the arrangement of nitrogen oxides
noticeable all around. From these gases, airborne sulphuric acid rain
(HSO) and nitric acid rain (HNO) can be shaped. These acids mix
with water vapour in the atmosphere, which later falls to the ground
as acid rain.
5. Although acid rain or gases might start in metropolitan regions, they
are frequently conveyed for many miles in the environment. That is
the reason woods and lakes in the field can be hurt by acid rain that
starts in cities.

Environmental Science 18
 What are the dangers due to acid rain?
1. The Impact on Soil
Acid rain has a massive effect on the biology and chemistry of the land.
Because of the impacts of acid rain, soil microorganisms and
bioactivities, and also soil chemical characteristics like soil pH, are
degraded or reversed, resulting in soil degradation.
2. The Impact on Forests
This pesticide makes trees more vulnerable to disease and insects, as
well as to extreme weather, by trying to destroy their leaves, causing
damage to their bark, and stunting of their growth. The most visible signs
of acid rain damage are in the forests.
3. Impact on Aquatic Environment:
Acid rain enters rivers, lakes, and streams, lowering water pH over time.
Aquatic species need a pH around 4.8 to survive, and lower levels make
the environment harmful for fish and other organisms.
4. Impact on Architecture and Buildings:
Acid rain corrodes minerals in stone and metal, weakening buildings,
bridges, vehicles, and historic monuments over time. This can lead to
irreversible structural damage.
5. Impact on Public Health:
Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides in the air reduce visibility, causing
accidents. Acid rain itself has little direct effect on human health but
contributes indirectly through air pollution.
How acid rain can be prevented?
1. Switch to Renewable Energy – Use solar, wind, hydro, or geothermal
power instead of coal, oil, and natural gas to reduce sulfur dioxide
and nitrogen oxide emissions.
2. Reduce Fossil Fuel Use – Limit burning of coal, oil, and gas by using
electric vehicles, public transport, walking, biking, or carpooling.
3. Adopt Cleaner Home and Industrial Practices – Use electric or
battery-powered appliances, stoves, lawn mowers, and barbecues,
and install pollution-control technologies like Flue Gas
Desulfurization (FGD) in industries.

Environmental Science 19
 4. Implement Air Quality Regulations – Enforce laws and programs like
the Clean Air Act or acid rain emission limits to reduce pollutants
from vehicles, industries, and power plants.
5. Energy Conservation – Reduce electricity consumption, switch to
energy-efficient devices, and consider solar electricity plans to lower
reliance on fossil fuels.
6. Environmental Restoration – Use liming operations in acidic water
bodies to neutralize pH levels, restore aquatic life, and repair
ecosystems affected by acid rain.
Ozone
What do you mean by Ozone depletion and how we can prevent its
depletion? (2017)
What does Ozone depletion mean and how can we protect the ozone
layer? (2019)
What is Ozone depletion?
what is Ozone
Ozone is a molecule of three oxygen atoms , a blue-coloured, pale
poisonous gas with a typical pungent smell, formed when one oxygen
atom combines with an oxygen molecule.
When an oxygen molecule receives a photon, it dissociates into
monoatomic reactive atoms. These atoms combine with an oxygen
molecule to form ozone, O₃.
O₂ + hν → 2O
O+ O₂ → O₃
what is Ozone Layer
The ozone layer is a significant part of Earth’s stratosphere that
absorbs most of the sun’s ultraviolet radiation. Although lower than
other gasses in the stratosphere, it contains a higher ozone
concentration (O₃) than other parts of the atmosphere. This layer
contains less than ten parts per million(10ppm) of ozone. The lower
layer of the stratosphere mainly houses the ozone layer, although the
thickness varies seasonally and geographically.
what is Ozone Depletion

Environmental Science 20
 Ozone depletion means the deterioration of this layer in the upper
atmosphere. This is largely a result of uncontrolled human activity
which has proved disastrous for the environment. The O3 or the
ozone layer is getting depleted day by day due to the reaction of
chlorine or bromine atoms with an oxygen atom. Major contributors
to the depletion of the ozone layer are chlorofluorocarbons and other
propellants.

What are the causes of Ozone depletion?

Chlorofluorocarbons are the major contributor to ozone layer depletion.
Discarded Air conditioners and Refrigerators release CFC into the
atmosphere. The CFC molecules exposed to UV rays split up to form the
chlorine atoms. The chlorine atom reacts with ozone.
Factories and industries release smoke. This is one of the main reasons
why the chemical smoke is directly released into the atmosphere leading
to one of the major causes of ozone layer depletion. Human activities
have always had a significant effect on the global concentration of
stratospheric ozone (the uppermost layer) since 1980. People overusing
the provided resources tend to cause ozone depletion at its verge.
Fossil fuels and other natural causes such as volcanic eruption and the
sunspot cycle also cause ozone layer depletion.
How can we protect the ozone layer?
Decrease the use of gases that can cause damage to the ozone layer,
such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons
(HCFCs), halons, carbon tetrachloride, methyl chloroform, and
methyl bromide. Even the manufacturing of such gases must be
reduced.
Reducing the use of engine vehicles and instead walking or cycling
for short distances is one of the effective solutions towards a good
environment and good health.

Environmental Science 21
 Using public transport and carpooling with others will decrease the
use of automobiles to too much extent.
Decreasing the use of air conditioners as they release CFC gas.
Prevent the use of cleaning products with harsh chemicals as they
are very harmful to humans and the environment too. Instead of that
one can use local and natural cleaning products that are degradable
and non-toxic.

International agreements on air pollution control (Montreal Protocol and Kyoto

Protocol).

What were the main objectives of Clean Development Mechanism? Also explain
the reasons for the criticism on Koyoto Protocol by the developed countries.

Greenhouse Effect
Comment, Green House Effect is a blessing. Also discuss Enhanced Green
House Effect and its relation with global warming. (2016)
Write down short note on Green House effect? (2015)
Write briefly Greenhouse effect (2) (2009)
What is Green House Effect
When gases in the earth’s atmosphere trap the sun’s heat, that procedure
is known as the greenhouse effect. Earth is comfortable for us to live in,
and the greenhouse effect is most important for making this possible.
Relevant data is also provided by the researchers and scientists that the
temperature near the earth’s surface is constantly rising. In our
atmosphere, the amount of carbon dioxide and many other greenhouse
gases is increased. Greenhouse gases consist of carbon dioxide,
methane, ozone, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons, and water vapor.
What are the benefits of Green House Effect ?
1. The greenhouse effect helps to maintain a certain temperature level
on Earth’s surface, making it habitable for the living beings (humans,
animals, plants and other organisms). Thanks to the greenhouse
gases, the earth is warm enough to sustain life. Otherwise, the heat

Environmental Science 22
 would have escaped the atmosphere, making earth’s surface way
cooler than what it is.
2. The greenhouse gases help block the harmful solar radiation from
reaching planet’s surface. These gases work like a filter and bounce
back most of the unwanted and damaging energy into space.
3. Ozone, which is one of the crucial greenhouse gases, absorbs the
harmful ultra-violet (UV) rays of the sun. If there wasn’t any Ozone
layer in our atmosphere, the UV rays could reach the surface directly
and affect the life on earth on a massive scale.
4. The greenhouse effect has allowed the planet to maintain its water
level on the surface. Thanks to the moderate temperature, the
planet’s ice has not been melted completely, and the polar ice caps
are restricted to the polar regions of the planet.
Relation of Green House Effect with global warming ?
The greenhouse effect is the warming of Earth’s climate that occurs
when gases in the atmosphere trap heat radiating from the planet’s
surface. These gases—such as carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄),
water vapor, nitrous oxides, and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)—allow
sunlight to enter but prevent heat from escaping into space. Human
activities, especially the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation, have
increased the concentration of these gases, strengthening the natural
greenhouse effect and leading to global warming. As a result, Earth’s
average temperature is rising, causing more evaporation, changing
rainfall patterns, melting glaciers, and rising sea levels. While some crops
may initially benefit from higher CO₂ levels, shifting temperatures and
weather patterns threaten ecosystems and agriculture worldwide.
Forests
What is deforestation? State the disadvantages caused to the environment
due to this.

What is deforestation?
Deforestation is the clearing, destroying, or otherwise removal of trees
through deliberate, natural, or accidental means. It can occur in any area
densely populated by trees and other plant life.

Environmental Science 23
 The loss of trees and other vegetation can cause climate change,
desertification, soil erosion, fewer crops, flooding, increased greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere, and a host of problems for Indigenous people.
Reason of deforestation
Deforestation occurs for a number of reasons. The most common
reason is agriculture, with 80% of deforestation resulting from
extensive cattle ranching, and logging for materials and development.
It has been happening for thousands of years, arguably since people
began converting from hunter/gatherer to agricultural based societies,
and required larger tracks of land to accommodate cattle, crops, and
housing. However, after the onset of the modern era, it became an
epidemic.
Facts about deforestation
The UN’s Food and Agriculture Organization estimates the annual
rate of deforestation to be around 1.3 million km2 per decade.
Pakistan loses 11,000 hectares of forest cover each year due to
deforestation, wildfires, climate change (WWF)
Pakistan, classified as a forest-deprived country, has only 5% of
its total land area covered by forests.
About 2,000 years ago, 80 percent of Western Europe was
forested; today the figure is 34 percent.
Disadvantages of deforestation
1. Climatic Change:
Deforestation disrupts the balance between forests and climate. Trees
absorb carbon dioxide and maintain humidity, but their loss causes direct
sunlight to heat the soil and dry the atmosphere. This results in
temperature rise and long-term climate change.
2. Destruction of Flora and Fauna:
Forests are home to countless species. When trees are cut, many plants
and animals lose their habitat and face extinction. Sudden climate shifts
and forest fires, like those in the Amazon, worsen this loss of
biodiversity.
3. Global Warming:

Environmental Science 24
 Fewer trees mean more greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide in the air,
trapping heat and raising Earth’s temperature. This leads to melting ice,
rising sea levels, and severe environmental impacts worldwide.
4. Soil Erosion:
Tree roots bind and protect fertile soil. Without them, soil erodes easily
during rain or floods and loses minerals under direct sunlight. This
reduces land fertility and harms agriculture.
Importance of forests in the economy of a country
(PIDE Reprot: Economic Contribution of Forestry Sector: 2023)
Industrial & Economic Value:
Timber supports major and small wood-based industries, generating
a combined value of over PKR 2,800 billion. Around 293,000 small
wood-based industries provide employment and contribute
significantly to GDP.
Household & Commercial Use:
45% of households rely on firewood for cooking. Total household
fuelwood consumption is about 46 million ㎥, worth PKR 871 billion,
with commercial use adding another PKR 189 billion.
Imports & Exports:
Pakistan imports more wood than it exports, with imports at USD 161
million and exports USD 36 million in 2020/21. Ongoing afforestation
projects aim to reduce import dependency by 2035.
Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs):
NTFPs provide income, health, and raw materials for herbal,
pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries. The herbal industry is
valued at around PKR 8.1 billion annually.
Ecosystem Services & Tourism:
Forests prevent soil erosion, protect reservoirs, and support forest-
based tourism valued at PKR 62 billion per year. Carbon benefits are
estimated at PKR 21 billion annually.
Employment & GDP Contribution:
Forestry directly employs 7% of workers; adding livestock brings it to
10%. While direct GDP contribution is 0.4%, including indirect

Environmental Science 25
 benefits like timber, livestock, fuelwood, tourism, and carbon
capture, forests contribute 11.48% to the national economy.
Solid Waste Management
What is Solid Waste? Discuss the main issues of Solid Waste
Management in our country?
Differentiate between Sanitary and Industrial Landfills, also describe the
land selection criteria for Landfills.
What is Waste?
Waste" is everything that no longer has a use or purpose and needs to
be disposed of. Waste that we see in our surroundings is also known as
garbage. Sometimes these are the things we have that the law requires
us to discard because they can be harmful. Waste comes in infinite sizes,
some can be as small as an old toothbrush, or as large as the body of a
school bus.
What is Solid Waste?
Solid waste includes solids or semisolids, non-soluble materials
(including gases and liquids in containers) such as agricultural refuse,
demolition waste, industrial waste, mining residues, municipal garbage,
and sewage sludge.
While solid waste is often considered a solid state, but this type of waste
does not have to be physically solid. In fact, many solid wastes are liquid,
semi-solid or contain gaseous material.
Types
Municipal Solid Waste
Industrial Waste
Agricultural Waste
Hazardous Waste
Main issues of Solid Waste Management in our country?
What is solid waste management
Solid waste management can be referred to as the gathering, treatment,
and elimination of solid waste, which has fulfilled its function and cannot
be utilised longer.

Environmental Science 26
 Current Waste Management Situation in Pakistan
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT SECTOR IN PAKISTAN (ADB Report: 2022)
1. Municipal Waste:
Pakistan’s municipal waste management is unsatisfactory, with limited
collection, open dumping, and burning. Most cities dispose of waste in
uncontrolled dumpsites, while rural areas scatter or burn waste. There is
no national study on total waste generation, and recovery rates have
declined due to the closure of RDF (Refuse-Derived Fuel) and
composting plants.
2. Industrial Waste:
Industrial waste includes materials from construction, manufacturing,
agriculture, mining, and other industries. A major issue is the lack of
distinction between recyclable scrap and non-reclaimable solid waste,
leading to improper handling and disposal practices.
3. Electronic Waste (E-Waste):
Pakistan generates about 1.68 kilograms of e-waste per person per year,
which is around 2% of total municipal waste. Moreover, large quantities
of e-waste are imported, and most recycling occurs informally, often
involving women and children without safety measures. This creates
serious health and environmental hazards. The country lacks formal
recycling facilities like those found in China or India.
4. Health-Care Waste:
Hospitals in Pakistan generate about 0.6 kilograms of waste per bed per
day, of which 10–25% is hazardous. Due to poor sanitation practices,
hazardous waste is mixed with general waste, increasing public health
risks. Although the Hospital Waste Management Rules (2005) exist,
implementation remains weak.
Remote Sensing and GIS in
Environmental Science
What do you understand by the term Remote Sensing? Write its basic
principle. Give its important applications. (2022)
What is role of Remote sensing and GIS in environmental Science?
Discuss briefly. (2024)

Environmental Science 27
 What do you know about the Remote Sensing Techniques? Explain
resolution and write down the names of its various types? (2016)
What is Remote Sensing?
Remote sensing is the process of receiving information about any object
without making any physical contact. It is a technology through which the
properties of any area, object, or phenomenon can be identified,
calculated and then analyzed. This method is generally used in land
mapping, forecasting weather, studying natural hazards, coloring
resources, etc. The data from this method is stored and altered through
computers with the help of software like ERDAS Imagine, ESRI, and
ERMapper. Therefore, remote sensing can be defined as the science of
obtaining information about any phenomenon or object, or area by
calculating the emitted and reflected radiations.
What is the principle of Remote Sensing?
Objects and surfaces can be recognized and distinguished based on the
radiant energy emitted/reflected by them. The technique detects and
records the radiant energy for further study.
Different objects and surfaces, like water, soil, or plants, return energy in
different electromagnetic bands in different quantities. What factors
actually impact this? Here are the main ones:
properties of the object: chemical and physical composition, the
kind of material, and surface roughness;
properties of the radiation: the radiant intensity, incidence angle,
and wavelength.
Diverse disciplines come together in remote sensing, including optical
science, photography, spectroscopy, electronics, computer science,
telecommunications, satellite launch technology, and more.
What are the important applications of it ?
391
Remote Sensing Techniques
Radar
Radar remote sensing is mainly used for safety-related tasks such as
weather forecasting and air traffic control. It helps meteorologists detect

Environmental Science 28
 storms and monitor weather patterns. Doppler Radar is a specific type
used to measure vehicle speed and collect meteorological data.
Infrared
Infrared remote sensing uses infrared sensors to detect radiation emitted
from warm surfaces on Earth. Installed in satellites, it measures land and
sea surface temperatures and helps detect forest fires. It includes Long
Wave Infrared (LWIR) and Middle Wave Infrared (MWIR) regions.
Lasers
Laser remote sensing is used to measure wind speed, ocean currents,
and seafloor mapping. Altimeters help measure ocean depth, while
LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) determines distances using light
reflections.
Airborne
Airborne remote sensing is a sensor placed on aircraft to click images of
earth from space. One of the best parts about this method is that it gives
high-resolution pictures compared to the images captured by the
satellites.
Satellite
Satellite remote sensing is a method of detecting and then analyzing the
characteristics of a particular area or an object by calculating and
measuring the reflected radiations from an aircraft or a satellite.
Explain resolution
Resolution in remote sensing refers to the level of detail and accuracy of
the information that can be obtained from an image or dataset. In other
words, it is the ability of a remote sensing system to distinguish
between objects or features on the Earth’s surface.

1. Spatial Resolution
Spatial resolution shows the smallest ground feature a sensor can detect,
defined by pixel size. Smaller pixels mean more detailed images useful
for mapping, urban planning, and natural resource management.

2. Spectral Resolution
Spectral resolution is a sensor’s ability to detect different wavelengths of
light through multiple narrow bands. High spectral resolution helps

Environmental Science 29
 identify vegetation types, minerals, and water quality changes
accurately.

3. Radiometric Resolution
Radiometric resolution refers to a sensor’s ability to detect small
differences in light intensity. Higher radiometric resolution captures slight
variations in reflectance, aiding studies on vegetation, health and mineral
deposits.

4. Temporal Resolution
Temporal resolution indicates how frequently a sensor collects data over
the same area. High temporal resolution enables regular monitoring of
land cover, crops, disasters, and seasonal environmental changes.
What is GIS?
A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer system for
capturing, storing, checking, and displaying data related to positions on
Earth’s surface. GIS can show many different kinds of data on one map,
such as streets, buildings, and vegetation. This enables people to more
easily see, analyze, and understand patterns and relationships.
Role of Remote sensing and GIS in environmental
Science?
GIS is a system used for gathering, managing, and analyzing
geographical data. It allows researchers to create detailed maps and 3D
models that represent complex environmental information. In
environmental science, GIS is widely used in urban planning, disaster
management, pollution monitoring, and forest fire management. It
supports better decision-making, provides quick access to spatial data,
and visually represents environmental changes for easy understanding.
Remote sensing involves collecting information about the Earth’s
physical characteristics from a distance using satellite or aerial sensors.
It helps monitor environmental factors such as air and water quality,
deforestation, soil conditions, and climate patterns. It provides satellite
images for long-term data analysis and reduces the need for extensive
fieldwork.
Together, GIS and remote sensing help track environmental changes,
assess natural hazards, and support sustainable resource management.

Environmental Science 30
 These technologies provide accurate, up-to-date data essential for
planning, environmental protection, and policymaking.
(Not Needed)Types Of Remote Sensing
Active Remote Sensing
Active remote sensing operates under their source of light. Every active
sensor in the remote sensing forwards its signal to the given object and
confirms the response. The devices use microwaves because they are
used to the weather conditions. Active remote sensing transmits lights
while measuring distance, atmospheric conditions and scenarios, height,
and more.
Passive Remote Sensing
While passive remote sensing does not use its energy to analyze and
search the surface or any object as it was in the case of active sensors.
Passive sensing is mainly dependent on the natural source of energy
from the sun, which is thrown back by the object or surface. Therefore it
can only be used when there is the presence of proper sunlight, that is,
during the daytime.
Population Planning
What do you understand by the term Population Planning? Point out the
different benefits of Population Planning. (2022)
What is Population Planning?
Population Planning, in the modern context, is the strategic effort by
national governments and international bodies to utilize voluntary, rights-
based programs to achieve favorable, sustainable demographic
outcomes. Unlike control, its focus is not on setting rigid population
ceilings but on adjusting age structures and fertility rates in a manner
consistent with the nation’s long-term economic and environmental
sustainability goals. The success of modern population planning hinges
entirely on maximizing reproductive agency and ensuring equitable
access to high-quality services, guaranteeing that fertility decline occurs
as a result of informed, voluntary choices rather than state mandate.
Benefits of Population Planning?
1. Improves Quality of Life

Environmental Science 31
 Population planning helps families have only as many children as they
can support. It improves living conditions, nutrition, and education for all
family members. (Pakistan rank of 168 out of 193 countries in Human
Development Ranking: HDR 2025)

2. Promotes Women’s Health and Empowerment

It gives women control over pregnancy and childbirth, reducing health
risks. Women can pursue education and careers, gaining social and
economic independence.

3. Reduces Poverty
Smaller families spend less and invest more in their children’s future. It
lowers unemployment and helps break the cycle of poverty. (WB Report)

4. Supports Economic Growth

Balanced population growth ensures better use of resources and
services. It boosts productivity and national development. (Population
growth rate : 2.55% : 2025 : Ministry of Planning ) (GDP growth rate is
2.68 FY 2025)

5. Protects the Environment

Controlled population growth reduces pressure on land and water. It
helps prevent deforestation, pollution, and resource depletion.

6. Improves Public Health

Family planning prevents unplanned pregnancies and maternal deaths. It
ensures healthier mothers, children, and communities.

7. Supports Sustainable Development

It helps governments manage housing, education, and healthcare
efficiently. Balanced growth ensures stability and progress for future
generations.

Environmental Science 32