Advance Kali linux batch notes

1. Open Source vs Closed Source

🧠 Theory:
• Open Source Software (OSS):
o The source code is publicly available. o Anyone can inspect, modify, and
distribute the software–––––––. o Encourages transparency, community
collaboration, and security (bugs can be found/fixed by many eyes).
o Example: Linux, Wireshark, Nmap, Metasploit Framework.
• Closed Source Software:
o The source code is proprietary—you cannot see or modify it. o Owned
and maintained by a company. o Example: Windows OS, Burp Suite
Professional, Nessus.

Practical:

# Check license of an open-source tool apt

show nmap | grep License

# Check if you can view/edit source (nmap is in C, view GitHub) git clone
[Link] cd nmap ls

🔹 2. What is Linux and Linux Kernel

🧠 Theory:
• Linux: An operating system based on the Linux Kernel. It’s a Unix-like, multiuser,
open-source OS.
• Linux Kernel:
o The core of the Linux OS.
o Manages hardware interaction, process scheduling, file systems, etc.
• Linux Distros = Linux Kernel + Tools (e.g., , GNOME, utilities).

Practical:

# Check current kernel version uname

-r

# Check kernel-related information

cat /proc/version
🔹 3. About Kali Linux and its Specifications
🧠 Theory:
• Kali Linux is a Debian-based Linux distro focused on penetration testing, digital
forensics, and ethical hacking.
• Maintained by Offensive Security.
• Contains 600+ tools like:
o Metasploit o

Wireshark
o Burp Suite o

Nmap
o John the
Ripper
• Lightweight and can be installed on VMs, USBs, Raspberry Pi.

⚙️Specs:
• Default Desktop: XFCE (lightweight), GNOME (optional)
• Package Manager: apt
• Rolling release model (frequent updates)

Practical:

# Check Kali version cat

/etc/os-release

# List installed tools

ls /usr/bin | grep -E 'nmap|msfconsole|burp|hydra'

🔹 4. Installing Kali Linux & Virtualization Technology

🧠 Theory:
• Virtualization: Running one OS (guest) inside another (host) using software like:
o VirtualBox (Free) o
VMware (Free/Pro)
• Benefits:
o Easy snapshots o
Isolated environments o
Testing without harming
host system

Practical:
✅ Step-by-step (VirtualBox):

1. Download Kali ISO:

[Link]
2. Create VM:
o Open VirtualBox → New → Name: Kali o Type: Linux | Version: Debian
(64-bit) o Memory: 2GB+ recommended
3. Attach ISO: o Settings > Storage > Add ISO file to Optical Drive
4. Network Setup:
o Choose Bridged Adapter (for real IP on same network)
5. Start VM and Install Kali:
o Follow the GUI instructions:
▪ Set locale/timezone
▪ Create user/password
▪ Disk partition: "Guided - use entire disk"
6. Post-Installation:

sudo apt update && sudo apt upgrade -y

🔹 5. Basic Understanding of Linux

🧠 Theory:
• Linux is case-sensitive.
• Everything is treated as a file (even hardware).
• Important directories:
o /etc – config files o
/home – user files o /var –
logs o /bin – binaries •
Default shell:

Practical:
# Navigate
system cd /etc ls
-l cat passwd

# Check current user whoami

# Create file & directory mkdir

testfolder
touch [Link]

# View file content cat

[Link]
1. Open Source vs Closed Source
Theory:

• Open Source: Source code is publicly available. Anyone can inspect, modify, or
distribute it (e.g., Linux, Kali, Firefox).
• Closed Source: Code is proprietary. Only the creator or licensed users can modify or
distribute it (e.g., Windows, macOS).

Examples:

• Open Source: Kali Linux, Metasploit, Wireshark

• Closed Source: Burp Suite Professional, Windows Defender

2. What is Linux and the Linux Kernel?

Theory:

• Linux: An open-source OS based on UNIX, used widely in servers, desktops, and

hacking tools.
• Kernel: Core of the OS that manages hardware (CPU, memory, devices) and system
processes.

Practical:

• Check kernel version:

uname -r

3. About Kali Linux and Its Specifications

Theory:

• Kali Linux: A Debian-based OS for ethical hacking, pen-testing, and digital

forensics.
• Key Tools: Nmap, Metasploit, Burp Suite, Wireshark, Aircrack-ng, Hydra.

Specs:

• Recommended: 4GB RAM, 20GB disk space, VirtualBox/VMware for virtualization.

4. Install Kali Linux & Virtualization Technology
Theory:

• Use VirtualBox or VMware to install Kali without affecting host OS.

Practical:

1. Download Kali ISO: [Link] 2.

Set up in VirtualBox:
o Create VM → 4GB RAM → 20GB disk → Attach Kali ISO. o
Boot and follow graphical install steps.

5. Basic Understanding of Linux

Theory:

• Everything is a file.
• Linux Filesystem Hierarchy (/, /bin, /etc, /home, /root, /tmp etc.)
• Users: root (admin), normal users

Practical:

• List files: ls
• Navigate: cd /home
• Print working directory: pwd

6. Troubleshooting Issues in Kali (Old Versions)

Examples:

• Black Screen after Boot:

o Use: Ctrl + Alt + F1 → login and update:

sudo apt
update &&
sudo apt
upgrade

• Broken Dependencies:

sudo apt --fix-broken install

• Network not working:

 sudo systemctl restart NetworkManager

7. Useful Commands Command

Description
ls List files and directories
cd Change directory
pwd Print current directory
mkdir Make a new directory
rm Remove file/directory
cp Copy files/folders
mv Move/rename files/folders
chmod Change file permissions
chown Change ownership
sudo Run command as superuser

8. Analysis of ls Command

Theory: Lists files in current directory.

Practical:

ls # Basic
ls -l # Long listing with permissions
ls -a # Show hidden files ls -lh
# Human-readable size

9. Analysis of cd Command

Theory: Used to move between directories.

Practical:

cd /etc # Go to /etc cd ~
# Go to home directory cd .. # One
directory up cd - # Go back to
previous directory

10. Helping Yourself in Kali Linux

Practical:
man ls # Manual page for ls ls --help
# Short help for ls apropos network # Search man
pages for 'network'

11. Configuration Files in Kali Linux Important

Files:

• /etc/passwd → User account info

• /etc/shadow → Passwords (hashed)
• /etc/hosts → Maps IP to hostnames
• /etc/network/interfaces → Manual network settings
• /etc/[Link] → DNS configuration

12. passwd File Analysis

Command:
cat
/etc/passwd
Format:
ruby
username:x:UID:GID:comment:/home/dir:/bin/
Example:
ruby
root:x:0:0:root:/root:/bin/

13. Permissions in Linux

Theory:

• rwx (read, write, execute)

• 3 groups: User, Group, Others
• Represented in numbers (chmod): 7 = rwx, 6 = rw-, etc.

Practical:
ls -l chmod 755
[Link] chown
user:group [Link]
14. Managing Network in Kali Linux
Commands:

ip a # View IP address
ifconfig # (older tool) ping
[Link] # Test connectivity nmcli
device status # NetworkManager CLI sudo
systemctl restart NetworkManager WiFi Setup
Example:
nmcli d wifi
list
nmcli d wifi connect "SSID" password "your_password"

15. Macchanger (Spoof MAC Address)

Theory: Helps in anonymity or bypassing MAC-based restrictions.

Practical:

sudo apt install macchanger sudo

ifconfig eth0 down
sudo macchanger -r eth0 # Random MAC sudo
ifconfig eth0 up
macchanger -s eth0 # Show current MAC

1. ls – List Directory Contents

ls -l

Output Example:
css
-rw-r--r-- 1 user user 4096 Apr 7 12:00 [Link] Explanation:

• -rw-r--r--: File permissions (User: rw, Group: r, Others: r)

• 1: Hard link count
• user: Owner
• user: Group
• 4096: File size in bytes
• Apr 7 12:00:Last modified date/time
• [Link]: File name
📁 2. cd – Change Directory
cd /etc

Effect: You move into the /etc directory.

pwd

Output: /etc — shows current location.

📄 3. cat – View File Content

cat
/etc/hostname
Output Example:
nginx kali
Explanation: Prints the hostname of your Kali system. Useful to verify machine identity.

📝 4. touch – Create Empty File

touch
[Link]

Effect: Creates a blank file [Link] in the current directory.

ls -l
[Link]
Output:
css
-rw-r--r-- 1 user user 0 Apr 8 12:00 [Link]

• 0: File size is zero since it’s empty.

📁 5. mkdir – Make Directory

mkdir
demo
Effect: Creates a directory named demo.
ls -ld
demo
Output:
sql
drwxr-xr-x 2 user user 4096 Apr 8 12:05 demo

• d: This is a directory.

🗑 6. rm – Remove File/Directory
rm
[Link]

Effect: Deletes the file [Link].

rm -r
demo

Effect: Deletes the directory demo and all its content recursively.

📤 7. cp – Copy Files/Directories
cp /etc/hosts
my_hosts.txt

Effect: Copies hosts file to your current directory and renames it to my_hosts.txt.

🔄 8. mv – Move or Rename
mv my_hosts.txt
backup_hosts.txt

Effect: Renames the file.

📑 9. nano – Text Editor
nano
[Link]

Effect: Opens [Link] in a text editor. Press Ctrl+O to save and Ctrl+X to exit.

📃 10. man – Manual Page

man ls

Effect: Shows the full manual (help) documentation for the ls command.

📊 11. df -h – Disk Space Usage

df -h
Output:
nginx

Filesystem Size Used Avail Use% Mounted on

/dev/sda1 50G 25G 25G 50% / Explanation:

• Size: Total disk space

• Used: Used space
• Avail: Free space
• /: Mount point (root directory)

📁 12. du – Directory Size

du -sh
/var/log
Output:

100M /var/log

Explanation: /var/log is using 100MB of disk space.

👥 13. whoami – Current User
whoami
Output:
nginx kali
Explanation: You are logged in as user kali.

14. id – User and Group Info

id
Output:
ini uid=1000(kali) gid=1000(kali)
groups=1000(kali),24(cdrom),27(sudo) Explanation:

• uid=1000: User ID
• gid=1000: Group ID
• Lists all groups the user belongs to.

🔐 15. chmod – Change Permissions

chmod 755
[Link]

Effect: Sets permissions to:

• Owner: read, write, execute

• Group/Others: read, execute

👑 16. sudo – Superuser Privileges

sudo apt
update

Effect: Runs command as root. Updates package list.

🌐 17. ping – Network Connectivity
ping
[Link]
Output:
python
64 bytes from [Link]: icmp_seq=1 ttl=115 time=20.0 ms Explanation:

• You’re connected to the internet. •

time=20.0 ms: Round-trip time.

📡 18. ip a – IP Address
ip a
Output:
nginx inet [Link]/24 brd [Link] scope
global eth0

Explanation: Shows the IP address ([Link]) for your eth0 interface.

🔄 19. systemctl – Manage Services

sudo systemctl restart
NetworkManager

Effect: Restarts networking service — helpful if WiFi/Ethernet stops working.

20. history – Show Command History

history

Effect: Lists all previous commands with their line numbers.

Configuration Files in Kali Linux
Linux configuration files are mostly located in the /etc directory. They control system
behavior, user access, networking, services, and more.
🔑 1. /etc/passwd – User Account Information
Purpose: Stores user details.

Command:
cat
/etc/passwd
Sample Output:
ruby
root:x:0:0:root:/root:/bin/ kali:x:1000:1000:Kali

User:/home/kali:/bin/ Explanation:

• root: Username
• x: Placeholder for password (stored in /etc/shadow)
• 0: UID (0 = root)
• 0: GID
• /root:Home directory
• /bin/: Default shell

🔐 2. /etc/shadow – Encrypted Passwords Purpose:

Stores user password hashes (only root can read).

Command:
sudo cat
/etc/shadow Output
Example:
javascript kali:
$6$9WKn3...:19234:0:99999:7:::
Explanation:

• $6$...: Encrypted password

• Fields: last password change, min/max age, etc.

🧩 3. /etc/hostname – System Hostname

Purpose: Stores the system's hostname.

Command:
 cat
/etc/hostname
Output:
nginx kali

Change Hostname:

sudo echo "newname" > /etc/hostname

🌐 4. /etc/hosts – Local DNS Mapping

Purpose: Maps hostnames to IPs locally.

Command:
cat
/etc/hosts
Output:

[Link] localhost [Link]

kali

Use Case: Map [Link] to [Link] for testing.

🌐 5. /etc/[Link] – DNS Servers

Purpose: Defines nameservers for DNS lookups.

Command:
cat
/etc/[Link]
Output:
nginx nameserver
[Link] Edit DNS:

sudo nano /etc/[Link]

📶 6. /etc/network/interfaces – Manual Network Config (older method)

Purpose: Define static/manual network configuration.
Command:
cat
/etc/network/interfaces
Output:
cpp auto lo iface lo
inet loopback

Note: Kali now mainly uses NetworkManager, but this still works for manual setups.

📡 7. /etc/NetworkManager/[Link] Purpose:

Controls NetworkManager behavior.

Command:
cat
/etc/NetworkManager/[Link]
Output Example:
ini [main]
plugins=ifupdown,keyfile

Edit Example: Disable MAC randomization

[device]
[Link]-rand-mac-address=no

🔄 8. /etc/fstab – Mount Drives at Boot

Purpose: Lists disks/partitions to mount at boot.

Command:
cat
/etc/fstab
Output:
ini

UUID=... / ext4 defaults 0 1

Be careful editing this! Mistakes can prevent booting.

🔒 9. /etc/sudoers – Sudo Permissions

Purpose: Controls who can use sudo.

Proper Way to Edit:

sudo visudo
Output Snippet:
sql kali
ALL=(ALL:ALL) ALL

Never directly edit this file with nano or vi. Use visudo to prevent syntax errors.

🛑 10. /etc/apt/[Link] – Repositories Purpose:

Defines the source URLs for package updates.

Command:
cat
/etc/apt/[Link]
Output Example:
cpp deb [Link] kali-rolling main non-free
contrib If broken: Reset using:

echo "deb [Link] kali-rolling main non-free contrib" |

sudo tee /etc/apt/[Link] sudo apt update

📚 Bonus: How to Edit Configuration Files Safely

Use nano, vim, or gedit
sudo nano
/etc/hosts

• Ctrl+O: Save
• Ctrl+X: Exit

✅ Summary Table
File Purpose
/etc/passwd User info
/etc/shadow Passwords (hashed)
/etc/hostname System hostname
/etc/hosts Local DNS
/etc/[Link] DNS servers
/etc/network/interfaces Manual network setup
/etc/fstab Disk mounting
File Purpose
/etc/sudoers Sudo user permissions
/etc/apt/[Link] Kali software sources
/etc/NetworkManager/* NetworkManager settings

📂 What is ls?
The ls command is used to list directory contents. It helps you see what files or folders are
inside a directory.

🔹 Basic Usage
ls

Example Output:
nginx
Documents Downloads Music Pictures [Link]

Explanation: Shows a simple list of files and directories in the current working directory
(where you are).

🔹 Detailed View: ls -l
ls -l

Example Output:
yaml

-rw-r--r-- 1 kali kali 1234 Apr 8 12:00 [Link]

drwxr-xr-x 2 kali kali 4096 Apr 7 15:10 Projects

Breakdown of Each Part:

Field Explanation
-rw-r--r-- File type & permissions (file: -, dir: d)
1 Number of hard links kali
Owner (user)
kali Group
1234 File size in bytes
Apr 8 12:00 Last modified date/time
[Link] Filename

🔹 Show Hidden Files: ls -a

ls -a

Output:

. .. .rc .profile Documents [Link]

• . → current directory
• .. → parent directory
• .rc → hidden file (starts with a dot)
🔹 Combine Flags: ls -la
ls -la

Effect: Shows all files, including hidden, with detailed info.

🔹 Human-Readable Sizes: ls -lh

ls -lh
Output:
css
-rw-r--r-- 1 kali kali 1.2K Apr 8 12:00 [Link]

• 1.2K: Easier to read than 1234 bytes.

🔹 List by Modification Time: ls -lt

ls -lt

Effect: Shows files sorted from most recently modified to oldest.

🔹 Reverse Order: ls -ltr

ls -ltr

Effect: Oldest modified files listed first (useful for log review, backups).

🔹 Classify Files: ls -F
ls -F

Output Example:

[Link] [Link]* mydir/

• * → executable
• / → directory
🔹 List Specific File Types
Show only directories:
ls -l | grep "^d"

Show only regular files:

ls -l | grep "^-"

🧠 Advanced Example: Combined Flags

ls -alh --
color=auto
Explanation:
• -a: All files
• -l: Long format
• -h: Human-readable sizes
• --color=auto: Adds color to make types easier to see (Kali does this by default)

🔧 Practical Scenario
Let’s say you’re checking file permissions for a reverse shell script:
ls -l
[Link]
Output:
css

-rw-r--r-- 1 kali kali 254 Apr 8 13:00 [Link]

• It’s not executable yet. So you fix it:

chmod +x
[Link] Then
check again:
ls -l
[Link] New
Output:
diff
-rwxr-xr-x 1 kali kali 254 Apr 8 13:00 [Link] ✅

Now it's executable.

✅ Summary Table
Command What it does
ls Basic list
ls -l Detailed view with permissions
ls -a Show hidden files
ls -lh Human-readable sizes
Command What it does
ls -lt Sort by modified time
ls -ltr Reverse time order
ls -F Classify files with symbols
ls -alh All + long + human-readable sizes
`ls -l grep "^d"`

1. Creating a New User

sudo adduser newusername

 Explanation: Adds a new user with a home directory.

 Practical:

sudo adduser alice

🔹 2. Setting/Changing a Password

sudo passwd username

 Example:

sudo passwd alice

🔹 3. Adding User to a Group

sudo usermod -aG groupname username

 Explanation: Adds user to a group without removing them from others.

 Example:

sudo usermod -aG sudo alice

🔹 4. Creating a Group

sudo groupadd groupname

 Example:

sudo groupadd hackers

🔹 5. Adding a User to Multiple Groups

sudo usermod -aG group1,group2 username

 Example:

sudo usermod -aG sudo,hackers alice

🔹 6. Switching User

su - username

 Example:

su - alice

🔹 7. Listing User Information

id username
  Example:

id alice

🔹 8. List All Users

cat /etc/passwd

 Explanation: Each line = one user, format: username:x:UID:GID:info:home:shell

🔹 9. List All Groups

cut -d: -f1 /etc/group

🔹 10. Delete User

sudo deluser username

 With home directory:

sudo deluser --remove-home alice

🔹 11. Delete Group

sudo groupdel groupname

🔹 12. Changing File Permissions

chmod [permissions] filename

 Example:

chmod 755 [Link]

Symbolic Meaning

r read

w write

x execute

 Numeric Format:
o 7 = rwx, 6 = rw-, 5 = r-x, 4 = r--, etc.

🔹 13. Changing Ownership

sudo chown user:group filename

 Example:

sudo chown alice:alice [Link]

🔹 14. Default Shell for a User

chsh -s /bin/ username

🔹 15. Switch to Root

sudo -i

🔹 16. Give Sudo Privileges to a User

sudo usermod -aG sudo username

🔹 17. Edit Sudoers File (Be Careful!)

sudo visudo

 Add this line to give full privileges:

sql
 alice ALL=(ALL:ALL) ALL

🔹 18. Special Permissions: SUID

✔️SUID (Set User ID on execution)

chmod u+s filename

 Example:

sudo chmod u+s /bin/

ls -l /bin/

 Look for s in the permissions:

diff

-rwsr-xr-x

🛑 WARNING: SUID on sensitive binaries is a major security risk.

✔️Find SUID Binaries

find / -perm -4000 -type f 2>/dev/null

🔹 19. Sticky Bit

Used on directories to restrict deletion to file owners.

chmod +t /directory

 Example:

chmod +t /tmp

🔹 20. SGID (Set Group ID)

chmod g+s directory

 Files created will inherit the group of the directory.

🔹 21. Check Current User

whoami

🔹 22. Check Logged-in Users

who

🔹 23. List User Sessions

🔹 24. See Last Login

last username

🔹 25. Environment Variables for User

env

🔹 26. List Shells Available

cat /etc/shells

🔹 27. Create User Without Home Directory

sudo useradd -M username

🔹 28. Lock/Unlock a User

sudo passwd -l username # Lock

sudo passwd -u username # Unlock
🔹 29. Force Password Change on First Login

sudo chage -d 0 username

🔹 30. See Password Expiration Info

chage -l username

31. List Directory Contents

ls -l

 Example:

ls -l /etc

 Output:

yaml

drwxr-xr-x 5 root root 4096 May 9 11:00 network

-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 2365 May 8 10:00 hosts

🔸 32. Create a Directory

mkdir dirname

 Example:

mkdir testfolder

🔸 33. Remove a File or Directory

rm filename # Remove file

rm -r directory # Remove directory

 Example:
 rm -r testfolder

🔸 34. Move/Rename File

mv oldname newname

 Example:

mv [Link] [Link]

🔸 35. Copy Files or Folders

cp file1 file2 # Copy file

cp -r dir1 dir2 # Copy directory

 Example:

cp -r folder1 folder2

🔸 36. Search for Files

find /path -name filename

 Example:

find /etc -name hosts

 Output:

/etc/hosts

🔸 37. Monitor Running Processes

top
  Live display of CPU/memory usage, like Task Manager.

🔸 38. Kill a Process

kill PID

 Find PID:

ps aux | grep firefox

 Kill it:

kill 1234

🔸 39. Check Disk Usage

df -h

 Output:

nginx

Filesystem Size Used Avail Use% Mounted on

/dev/sda1 50G 15G 32G 33% /

🔸 40. Check Directory/File Size

du -sh foldername

 Example:

du -sh /etc

 Output:

12M /etc
🔸 41. Monitor Network Connections

netstat -tuln

 Shows open TCP/UDP ports.

🔸 42. Ping a Host

ping -c 4 [Link]

 Output:

python

64 bytes from [Link]: icmp_seq=1 ttl=118 time=21.5 ms

🔸 43. Display Network Interfaces

ip a

 Or:

ifconfig

🔸 44. Change IP Address Temporarily

sudo ip addr add [Link]/24 dev eth0

🔸 45. Download Files (CLI)

wget [Link]

🔸 46. Extract Compressed Files

tar -xvf [Link] # Extract .tar

tar -xzvf [Link] # Extract .[Link]
unzip [Link] # Extract .zip
🔸 47. Check System Info

uname -a

 Output:

nginx

Linux kali 6.3.0-kali3-amd64 #1 SMP Debian 6.3.3-1kali1 ...

🔸 48. Check Memory Usage

free -h

 Output:

makefile

total used free

Mem: 7.6G 3.2G 4.4G

🔸 49. Edit Files

nano filename

 Simple text editor in terminal.

🔸 50. Check Listening Services

ss -tuln

🔸 51. View Kernel Logs

dmesg | less

🔸 52. Check Login History

last

🔸 53. Get Command Location

which nmap

 Output:

/usr/bin/nmap

🔸 54. Make a Script Executable

chmod +x [Link]

🔸 55. Schedule Tasks with Cron

crontab -e

 Add job:

arduino

* * * * * /home/user/[Link]
1. Add a User

Command:

bash
CopyEdit
sudo adduser student1

Explanation:

 Creates a new user student1.

 Prompts you to set a password and optional user details (name, room, etc.).

🔹 2. Delete a User

Command:

bash
CopyEdit
sudo deluser student1

Explanation:

 Deletes user student1.

 Does not delete their home directory.

To delete the user and their home directory:

bash
CopyEdit
sudo deluser --remove-home student1

🔹 3. Create a Group

Command:

bash
CopyEdit
sudo addgroup testers

Explanation:

 Creates a group named testers.

🔹 4. Delete a Group

Command:

bash
CopyEdit
sudo delgroup testers

Explanation:

 Deletes the group testers.

🔹 5. Add User to a Group

Command:

bash
CopyEdit
sudo usermod -aG testers student1

Explanation:

 Adds user student1 to group testers.

 -aG: Append (add without removing from other groups).

🔹 6. View User Group Memberships

Command:

bash
CopyEdit
groups student1

Example Output:

yaml
CopyEdit
student1 : student1 testers

🔹 7. Create a Sudo (Admin) User

Command:

bash
CopyEdit
sudo usermod -aG sudo student1

Explanation:

 Adds student1 to the sudo group.

 Gives them admin rights to use sudo.

Verify with:

bash
CopyEdit
sudo -l -U student1

🔹 8. Check All Users

Command:

bash
CopyEdit
cut -d: -f1 /etc/passwd

Explanation:

 Shows all local system users.

🔹 9. Check All Groups

Command:

bash
CopyEdit
cut -d: -f1 /etc/group

Or to list groups for a specific user:

bash
CopyEdit
id student1

🔹 10. Switch to a Different User

Command:

bash
CopyEdit
su - student1

Explanation:

 Switches to user student1 (use password when prompted).

🔹 11. Delete User from a Group

Command:

bash
CopyEdit
sudo gpasswd -d student1 testers

Explanation:

 Removes student1 from group testers.

🔹 Summary Table
Task Command Example

Add User sudo adduser student1

Remove User sudo deluser student1

Remove User & Home sudo deluser --remove-home student1

Add Group sudo addgroup testers

Delete Group sudo delgroup testers

Add User to Group sudo usermod -aG testers student1

Make User Admin (sudo) sudo usermod -aG sudo student1

Remove User from Group sudo gpasswd -d student1 testers

Show User Groups groups student1

List All Users cut -d: -f1 /etc/passwd

 Task Command Example

List All Groups cut -d: -f1 /etc/group

Switch User su - student1