CHAPTER 2

DEVELOPING PROBLEM-BASED AND PROJECT-

BASED INSTRUCTIONAL PLANS
Lesson 1 - Nature of Project-Based and Problem-Based Approaches
Both problem-based learning and project-based learning are types of
experiential learning (UNT Teaching Commons). While Project-Based
Learning and Problem-Based Learning share much in common, they are two
distinct approaches to learning (Moursund, D., n.d.). Project-based learning is
an instructional approach designed to give students the opportunity to
develop knowledge and skills through engaging projects set around
challenges and problems they may face in the real world (Schuetz, 2018). On
the other hand, Problem-based learning (PrBL) is an instructional method in
which students learn through facilitated problem solving (Hmelo-Silver,
2004).

Project-Based Learning (PBL)

According to the Buck Institute of Education, “Project-Based Learning is

a teaching method in which students gain knowledge and skills by working
for an extended period of time to investigate and respond to a complex
question, problem, or challenge.” In project- based learning students are
given the opportunity to learn, discover, and create throughout the entire
learning process “(Leader In Me, 2018).

The Buck Institute for Education identified essential elements for PBL
and collectively these elements are called Gold Standard PBL (Schuetz,
2018). These essential elements include:

1. Significant Content- At its core, the project is focused on teaching

student’s important knowledge and skills, derived from standards
and key concepts at the heart of academic subjects.

2. 21st Century Competencies- Students build competencies valuable

for today’s world, such as problem solving, critical thinking,
collaboration, communication, and creativity/innovation, which are
explicitly taught and assessed.

3. In-Depth Inquiry- Students are engaged in an extended, rigorous

process of asking questions, using resources, and developing
answers.

4. Driving Question- Project work is focused by an open-ended question

that students understand and find intriguing, which captures their
task or frames their exploration.
 5. Need to Know- Students see the need to gain knowledge,
understand concepts, and apply skills in order to answer the Driving
Question and create project products, beginning with an Entry Event
that generates interest and curiosity.

6. Voice and Choice- Students are allowed to make some choices about
the products to be created, how they work, and how they use their
time, guided by the teacher and depending on age level and PBL
experience.

7. Critique and Revision- The project includes processes for students to

give and receive feedback on the quality of their work, leading them
to make revisions or conduct further inquiry.

8. Public Audience- Students present their work to other people,

beyond their classmates and teacher.

All these elements, if combined well, result in students

learning key knowledge, understanding, and skills for success.

Nilson (2010, p. 190) cite in Spaces for Learning (n.d.) lists

learning outcomes associated with PBL. A well-design PBL project
provides students with the opportunity to develop skills related
to:

 Working in teams.
 Managing projects and holding leadership roles.
 Oral and written communication.
 Self-awareness and evaluation of group processes.
 Working independently.
 Critical thinking and analysis.
 Explaining concepts.
 Self-directed learning.
 Applying course content to real world examples.
 Researching and information literacy.
 Problem-solving across disciplines.

Designing a Project-Based Learning Approach

Project-based learning focuses on the process as much, if

not more, than the outcome. Here are some steps to help you
get started with PBL in your classroom (Leader In Me, 2018):

STEP 1: Start with the state or national standards you are required to teach.
STEP 2: Then, use the standards to develop your learning targets for your
project- based learning.
 a. Focus on the standards that have longevity (learning that is
important beyond just this school year).

b. Look closely at the verbs for each standard. Standards that use
verbs such as “create,” “design,” or “demonstrate” lend
themselves to higher levels of learning and are perfect for PBL.

STEP 3: Next, create an essential question (there can be more than

one if necessary) that the students should try to answer throughout
PBL. The question should be complex and should be referred to often.

STEP 4: Then, develop the criteria that will show evidence of the learning
targets.

STEP 5: Next, have a plan in place for giving ongoing feedback

throughout the PBL. You will want to have a way to track the feedback
you provide your students. It’s also important to have a place for
students to keep track of the feedback from their peers, as well as a
place for self-reflection and recording any questions, barriers, or
successes they encounter along the way.

STEP 6: The next thing you’ll want to do is a have a plan in place for
delivering important information. Therefore, some level of direct
instruction will need to be integrated into your PBL unit.”

a. Your direct lessons should develop naturally and come into play
based on necessity. Students will be more excited about the PBL
and more willing to try new approaches based off their new
learning when mini direct lessons are integrated well throughout
the PBL.

b. If you deliver all of the important information at the beginning of

the PBL, you have now crushed the excitement and minimized
valuable learning opportunities for your students.

c. If you wait until the end of the PBL to deliver all of your important
content, you are likely to unproductively increase the stress
levels of your students. A productive struggle is important, but
the key word here is “productive.” There is a big difference
between productive struggle and just straight-up struggle.

STEP 7: Have a plan for conferencing with groups and conference often.

a. Try to focus on asking questions (sometimes you’ll need to use

guiding questions) to help students reflect and own their
learning. Try to avoid giving them the answers. It’s far more
powerful to ask students questions and allow them opportunities
to figure out the answers that take them in the direction they
need to go than it is for us to just show them how to get there.
 b. Be aware of who needs direct mini-lessons and who doesn’t.
Some of your direct mini-lessons can be taught to just the small
groups who need them rather than the whole group.

STEP 8: Next, make sure students have a way to share their learning and
reflect on the process.

a. Part of the PBL should include creating something at some point

throughout the process. This creation should lend itself to
demonstrating the strengths that were determined for each
learning target.

b. Students should present their creations to an authentic audience.

Some simple ways they can do this is blogging about it,
presenting to younger students in other grades, or presenting to
community members. Another great step to add here is making
sure the students publish their work somewhere. In this digital
age, digital student portfolios are a great way for students to
keep track of their learning and growth throughout the year.

c. Students should take time for self-reflection and reflection as a

group. They should revisit the strengths that were determined
for each learning target and see if they feel they met or
exceeded the criteria (or even if they feel they didn’t meet or
understand the criteria). They should also reflect on the essential
question(s) they’ve been trying to answer throughout the unit.

Outcomes of Project-Based Learning (Heick, T. 2020)

1. They learn project management.

Strategy: Use a project management board–even one used primarily by
adult professionals–to help students manage individual or team projects
2. They grow more empathetic.
Strategy: Begin project-planning with a specific audience with a
specific and pressing concern.

3. They become hackers and rebels.

Strategy: Let students design their own projects. Or require that
projects iterate or counter existing cultural trends and patterns or that
address compelling social concerns (e.g. technology addiction).

4. They become systems thinkers.

Strategy: Use concept-mapping before, during, and after the project is
completed.

5. They become explorers.

Strategy: Design projects that require students to combine both a
physical and digital presence and physical and digital ‘behaviors and
contexts. For example, a social media component combined with a
local, community-based outcome.

6. They become problem-solvers.

Strategy: Use problem-based PBL–that is, projects based around a
problem that requires critical thinking to solve.

7. They become wildly and unabashedly different.

Strategy: Give ‘points or other encouragement mechanics to reward
students who deviate in some way that improves the quality of the
work. For example, add a ‘free letter grade’ increase for students who
take risks or develop ‘non-traditional’ solutions to otherwise
‘traditional’ social problems and concerns.

8. They are more engaged in the learning process.

Strategy: Create checkpoints in the project’s life-cycle–or better yet,
have students suggest their own checkpoints, then be responsible for
that checking in, what kind of feedback that would be useful and from
whom, etc.

9. They are ready for the creative economy.

Strategy: Give students the opportunities to use their specific gifts,
skills, and backgrounds in completing the project.

10. They engage in iterative thinking.

Strategy: Use model-based learning that allows students to identify
and transfer existing ideas into new contexts and applications. For
example, allow students to take an idea (Amazon’s platform business
model) and apply it to family businesses, recycling programs, or
creative efforts like music and art.
11. They think divergently. (Thinking outside the box
by thinking differently about the box.)
Strategy: See #3 and #7. Make ‘deviation’ a core tenet, then model and
reward it.
 12. They make deep connections between ideas.
Strategy: Use cross-curricula planning–projects that include multiple
content areas. This complicates the planning, but it also makes it more
immersive academically. And like #4, concept mapping is a useful way
to help students see the relationships between ideas.

13. They learn to take creative risks.

Strategy: Help students brainstorm the opportunities for creative risk-
taking at the beginning of a project. Sometimes they’re not even aware
of the kinds of risks that can be taken in PBL–from the scale of a
project and its audience and purpose, to kinds of collaboration partners
brought into the project and their talents and skills.

Example Project-Based Learning Activities

The following are examples of PBL in Mathematics, Science, and Language

taken from various sources.

A. MATHEMATICS (Stivers, 2010; Pinto, n.d.)

1. STATISTICAL REPORT OF A STATE

Students work together preparing a statistical report on the state,

choosing a topic such as education. The end product can be a
presentation with graphs and written descriptions of significant
findings. Consider collaborating with a language arts or social
studies teacher for this project.

2. DESIGN OF A SHOPPING MALL

Students work as architects and design a shopping mall. Students

research the design of malls and the feasible sizes for various types
of stores. The end product can be a brochure, poster, or webpage
presenting the design to a panel of adults or students serving as a
city-planning board.

3. ROLE OF A HISTORIAN

Students take the role of historian by researching the life of a

mathematician of the past. Students present an important
contribution of the person in addition to his or her life story. The end
product can be a PowerPoint presentation about the mathematician
presented to interested students or adults.

4. MULTIPLE PROOFS OF THE PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM

Students research various proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem. The
end product can be a webpage showing the proofs or an oral
presentation of one of the proofs.
 5. SELLING GEOMETRY

This project introduces students to a brief history of geometry,

geometric terms, geometric shapes, and transformation and
manipulation of shapes through reflections, tessellations, and
dilations. Students will form marketing teams to ‘sell’ geometry by
explaining key terms, demonstrating key shapes, and describing the
significance of geometry to an audience.

B. SCIENCE (Bolger, 2018; Olivas, Jacob, Hoffman, Garcia, Spirnak, n.d.;

Harms, n.d.)

1. VIDEO GAME PHYSICS

The physics laws of video games are often quite different from
those in the real world. Ask students to figure out the basic laws
their favorite video games follow using simple physics formulas.
One popular program uses Angry Birds to better understand
physics.

2. INVESTIGATE A REAL-WORLD PROBLEM

Your students may be the ones to solve some of math and science’s
biggest challenges. Ask them to look deeply into a contemporary
issue, such as cleaning up an oil spill or understanding climate
change.

3. THE HUMAN FOOD CHAIN

In this project, students will be learning about our food systems

from ground to ground. Students will be exploring how we
grow/manufacture our food, package it, ship it, buy it, consume it,
and dispose of it. Students will learn what our bodies need in order
to grow and function and the effects of certain types of food on
them. Students will also be tracing back the political and economic
impacts of your food choices.

4. ROCKET SCIENCE

Working in teams, you will design and build rockets powered by

water and pressurized air. Using what you learn about the
fundamentals of force and motion, you will design and build a fully
functional rocket including: payload compartment, propulsion
system, recovery system and guidance system. These words may
look foreign to you now, but soon you will know them as well as any
rocket scientist!
C. LANGUAGE (PenPal Schools, 2020; Cesena & Poole, n.d.)

1. ASK YOUR STUDENTS TO ANALYZE FAKE NEWS

How does Fake News affect communities around the world?

Challenge your students to think about the characteristics of
exaggerated or disingenuous media and its potential effects on
society. In Facts, Opinions and Fake News, students create a public
service announcement where they inform others how to distinguish
a credible news story from a disreputable one or ask them to write a
fictional story imagining a world where people believe every news
story they hear.

2. CHALLENGE STUDENTS TO READ AND DISCUSS POETRY - THEN

WRITE THEIR OWN!

Our next project-based learning example comes from A World of

Poetry. Show your students both the intrinsic beauty of poetry and
how it can be used to learn about other cultures.

3. ENTRUST YOUR STUDENTS TO SHOW OFF THEIR HOMETOWNS TO

THE WORLD

More project-based learning ideas come from our most popular

topic, World Explorer. In this topic students share the food, art, daily
life, history, and pop culture of their community with around the
world.

4. SCULPTURES: STORIES OF EMPOWERMENT

Students re-tell poignant family stories using dance and visual data
renderings set to music.

For many people, dancing is merely something you do with music

for fun. For others it is a form of expression that allows them to
physically communicate emotions and stories. What else does
dance and music allow us to do? How can it be a form of resistance
or protest? How can it be used to connect with others and to form a
community? In this project we will be exploring these questions and
more as we learn to tell stories through movement, sounds, and
visuals. We will also be able to use this project to honor people in
our community by celebrating their stories through our public
performances.

Other learning activities related to Language Learning include (Two

Sigmas, 2019):
 Write a Song Together
 Create a poll that the student must seek out responses
from family members and/or friends
  Design a poster
 Compose a collection of poems/articles
 Create a book (virtual or by hand)
 Compare sports teams in various countries
 Read a book and write a review about it

Problem-Based Learning (PrBL)

Problem-based learning is an instructional approach in

which carefully constructed, open-ended problems are used by
groups of students to work through content to a solution
(Weimer, 2009). “Students work in collaborative groups to
identify what they need to learn in order to solve a problem.
They engage in self-directed learning (SDL) and then apply their
new knowledge to the problem and reflect on what they learned
and the effectiveness of the strategies employed. The teacher
acts to facilitate the learning process rather than to provide
knowledge.

The goals of PrBL include helping students develop 1)

flexible knowledge, 2) effective problem-solving skills, 3) SDL
skills, 4) effective collaboration skills, and 5) intrinsic motivation”
(Hmelo-Silver, 2004).

Benefits and Risk of Problem-Based Learning (Weimer, 2009)

Benefits of Problem-Based Learning

For Students
 It’s a student-centered approach.
 Typically, students find it more enjoyable and satisfying.
 It encourages greater understanding.
 Students with PBL experience rate their abilities higher.
 PBL develops lifelong learning skills.

For Instructors
 Class attendance increases.
 The method affords more intrinsic reward.
 It encourages students to spend more time studying.
 It promotes interdisciplinarity.

For Institutions
 It makes student learning a priority.
 It may aid student retention.
 It may be taken as evidence that an institution values teaching.
 Risks of Problem-Based Learning

For Students
 Prior learning experiences do not prepare students well for PrBL.
 PBL requires more time and takes away study time from other
subjects.
 It creates some anxiety because learning is messier.
 Sometimes group dynamics issues compromise PrBL effectiveness.
 Less content knowledge may be learned.

For Instructors
 Creating suitable problem scenarios is difficult.
 It requires more prep time.
 Students have queries about the process.
 Group dynamics issues may require faculty intervention.
 It raises new questions about what to assess and how.

For Institutions
 It requires a change in educational philosophy for faculty
who mostly lecture.
 Faculty will need staff development and support.
 It generally takes more instructors.
 It works best with flexible classroom space.
 It engenders resistance from faculty who question its efficacy.

Designing Problem-Based Learning

Approach

Spaces for Learning (n.d.) suggested the following Steps in

Problem-Based Learning Approach.

Step One: Identify intended learning outcomes – answer, what will your student
know and be able to do?

Step Two: Design the Scenario – design a scenario with an embedded

problem that is a real, complex issue related to your course content.
Scenarios should be motivating, interesting, and generate good
discussion. Create a scenario that will challenge different types of
thinking, and elicit discussion, research, and learning that needs to
take place to meet the learning outcomes.

Step Three: Introduce PrBL – PrBL is likely to be new to your students.

Explain it and develop their confidence by allowing them to practice
with an “easy problem,”

Step Four: Research and inquiry – PrBL research begins with small-group
brainstorming sessions in which students:
a. Examine, clarify and define the problem;
b. Explore what they already know about the problem;
 c. identify what they don’t know yet and what they need to learn
more about (topics to research);
d. Determine what they need to learn and where they can find and
acquire the information and tools necessary to solve the
problem.
e. Evaluate possible ways to solve the problem.
f. Solve the problem.

Groups should,

a. write the problem as a statement or research question;

b. use group roles and assign responsibility for researching topics
necessary for them to fully understand their problems;
c. develop an initial hypothesis to “test” as they research a solution
and revise this as necessary.

Step Five: Product Performance – using their knowledge and research data,
the students should create products and presentations.

Step Six: Evaluation – the students, or peer groups, should evaluate their
products or performances. Rubrics can be used to support this and to
aid group reflection on what they have done.

Project-Based Learning and Problem-Based Learning: Similarities and Differences

Larmer (2015) has enumerated the similarities and

differences between Project Based-Learning and Problem-
Based Learning as shown in the Figure 2.2 below.

Project-Based Learning vs. Problem-Based Learning

Similarities
Both PBLs
 Focus on an open-ended questions or task
 Provide authentic applications of content and skills
 Build 21st Century Success Skills
 Emphasize student independence and inquiry
 Are longer and more multifaceted than traditional lessons or
assignments
Differences
Project-Based Learning Problem-Based Learning
Often multi-subject More of the single-subject, but can
be multi-subject

May be lengthy (weeks or months) Tend to be shorter, but can be

lengthy

Follows general, variously named Classically follows specific,

steps traditionally prescribed steps

Includes the creation of a product or The “product” may be tangible or a

performance proposed solution, expressed in
writing or in a presentation.

May use scenarios but often Often uses case studies or fictitious
involves real-world, fully scenarios as “ill-structure problems”
authentic tasks and settings.

Figure 2.2 – Project-Based Learning vs. Problem-Based Learning

Example Problem-Based Learning Activities

The following are examples of PrBL from IOWA Office of Teaching,

Learning and Technology.

1. Show a video clip where an athlete gets injured and ask questions
related to the force, direction, what ligaments would be involved, etc.

2. Interview people/groups that involve/work with civil rights issues and

talk to them about the impact on their lives; present a historical
problem and ask the impact of then and now; ask students why is MLK
Day is a national holiday; what made the message important at that
time and now; compare MLK, Jr. with President Obama.

3. Present students with a similar theme and have them write a poem in
a specific format or style; what form is most effective and why.

4. Use simple objects to build levers; propose a problem with various

simple items (ruler, etc.); give students a scenario that involves a large
stone that must be carried across the street with only one person to
help…how can you do this?

5. Present students with a scenario where a policy or rule was broken by

a student….what kinds of rules were broken and why is this rule
important in public schools?
Learning Activities
1. Download the following sample learning/unit plan and template: Unit
Plan Template and Sample Unit Plan in English and Sample Unit Plan in
Science (You can also refer to DepEd K to 12 Curriculum). Review the
sample learning/unit plan and formulate concepts on problem and
project-based learning based on the samples reviewed. Identify the
technology tools used in the sample learning/unit plans and describe
how these tools were used in the learning/unit plans to achieve the
competencies intended. You can also download EmerginEdTech’s Free
Education Technology Resources eBook, The Free Education
Technology Resources eBook as your future reference guide.

2. Create a table comparing the similarities and differences of Project-

Based Learning and Problem-Based Learning Approaches.

3. Form a quad and choose units from K to 12 curriculum that can be

targeted for the application of the two approaches. Brainstorm with
your quads and justify your choices to the whole class.

4. On the same quads, choose a unit based on the outputs from your
previous activity. This unit will be adopted for the preparation of your
learning plan for the next topic. There should be no repetition of units.
REFERENCES
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Steps_of_PB L_ed.pdf
Cesena, T. & Poole, M. (n.d.). Sculptures: Stories of Empowerment. Last
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empowerment/
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[Link]
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You Will Find On the Web. Last accessed
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[Link]
hnolog y_Resources_eBook.pdf
Harms, B. (n.d.). Actually, it is Rocket Science. Last accessed August 24,
2020 from [Link]
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project-based-learning-pbl/
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[Link] resource/962
Larmer, J. (2015). Project-Based Learning vs. Problem-Based Learning vs. X-
BL. Last accessed August 12, 2020 from
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Olivas, C, Jacob, K., Hoffman, J., Garcia, K., Spirnak, B. (n.d.). The Human
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2020 from
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Peer Tutoring Resource Center (PTRC) Blog. Last accessed August 12, 2020
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learning/project-based- learning-in-math-6-examples/
Schuetz, R. (2018). Project-Based Learning: Benefits, Examples, and
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Lesson 2 - Basic Parts of a Learning/Unit Plan
According to EduSys (2019) a Unit Plan follows similar format as the
lesson plan, but cover an entire unit of work for weeks, months or a
semester. It is imperative to demonstrate the principal objectives of a
curriculum and how to exercise, assess and commence sessions for students
in different classes. Henceforth, Unit designs are frequently utilized for
making syllabus and instructional year plans.

Another definition according to Difference Between (2015) a Unit Plan

consists of many lessons and takes a longer time period; for example, a
semester. It covers a wider area; a unit that can include many lessons. A unit
plan is also important to show the main goals of a study unit and how
lessons, evaluations and practical sessions connect to achieve the unit
goals. Hence, unit plans are often used for discussions for syllabus
reviews as well to explain the skills and knowledge students are expected to
acquire towards the end. A unit plan usually consists of

 vision/unit goals
 unit content in detail
 time allocated for the completion of each stage
 how lessons/stages are designed to realize these goals collectively
 pre and post-tests
 cross-curricular connections, etc.

Creating a Learning Plan

According to the Australian Government Department of Health (2014),

“in order to develop a learning plan with a learner you will first need to
identify their learning needs. From these needs you will be able to formulate
learning goals and develop a plan to meet these goals. The learning plan
should contain details on what will be learned, how it will be learned, by
when, what criteria will be used to evaluate the learning and how the
learning will be validated. A learning plan is best prepared by the learner
with the guidance and support of a mentor or facilitator.”

Steps to develop a learning plan

The following steps will assist you to develop a learning plan with a learner:

1. Assessment of learning needs

This may include analysis of:
 learner's values
 skills
 strengths and weaknesses
 preferred learning style
 suitability of learner's work situation as a work-based learning
environment (Is there a quiet place to read/write/ consider? Are
study leave provisions available? Is management supportive of
work-based learning?).
2. Identification of learning goals
It is important to identify learning objectives both from a learner's
perspective and from an organizational perspective. Those learners who
are undertaking learning as part of a process initiated by their
organization may well have different needs and motivations to those
learners who have elected or volunteered to undertake further learning.
Once established, learning goals can be reviewed against the learning
outcomes of the module/s in this resource. This will assist the selection of
appropriate modules.

Learning Goals should be developed using the SMART approach (Government

of Northwest Territories).

3. Identify learning resources, supports and strategies. Evaluate the availability

of the following resources and the learner's confidence in accessing them.

 people (facilitator, other learners, mentors, supervisors etc)

 resources (e.g. texts/libraries)
 technology (e.g. phones, Internet/e-mail, video-conferencing)

4. Specify what constitutes evidence of learning

How will you and the learner know that learning has occurred? Assessment
of learning could include a portfolio, case notes, role plays and/or case
studies.

5. Specify target dates

Specify dates for progress reviews and for module/task completion. Agree on
how this will occur.

Target dates for contact with facilitators should specify:

 Informal query or concerns (How can a learner access you if they

have a query or concern? For example, e-mail, telephone etc)
 Progress review dates (When will formal contact be initiated to
check on progress and how will this be done? For example, by
telephone, face-to-face meeting etc.)
 Assessment event due dates (When are assessment events due and
how will they be submitted? (For example, by post, e-mail etc)
 Feedback. When will feedback be available on assessment
performance and how will that be delivered?
Learning Activities
1. Go over the repertoire of sample learning/unit plans reviewed. Review
the parts and describe the contents of each part. Focus your attention
on the parts where the elements of problem-based/project-based
learning should be integrated. Identify from the sample plans the main
learning activity that will require students to do inquiry activities or
create projects.

2. The following are the Learning Plan Assessment Tools (Unit Plan Rubric
and Peer Assessment Collaboration Rubric) will be used as a guide in
drafting your own learning/unit plan. At the same time, these tools will
be the basis for assessing your work.

3. Based on the reviewed sample plans, prepare your own draft following
the basic parts identified. You can use the Intel Teach Program Unit
Plan Template in drafting your learning/unit plan. Share your output to
your peers for feedback.

REFERENCES

Australian Government Department of Health (2014). Developing a Learning

Plan. Last accessed August 12, 2020
from
[Link]
drugtreat- pubs-front12-fa-toc~drugtreat-pubs-front12-fa-
seca~drugtreat-pubs-front12-fa- seca-dev
Difference Between (2014). Difference Between Unit Plan and Lesson Plan.
Last accessed August 12, 2020 from
[Link] between-unit-plan-and-
vs-lesson-plan/
EduSys (2019). Lesson Plan vs Unit Plan | 3D: Definition, Difference & Design.
Last accessed August 12, 2020 from
[Link] plan
Simic, J. (2018). How to create a learning plan. Last accessed August 12,
2020 from [Link]
learning-plan/
Lesson 3 – Writing a Project-Based and Problem-Based Learning
Outcomes/Objectives

Domains of Learning

“Learning is not just a cognitive (thinking) function. We can also learn

attitudes, behaviors, and physical skills. These different categories create
three domains of learning. These three domains of learning can be
categorized as cognitive (knowledge) - Benjamin Bloom, psychomotor (skills)
- David Krathwohl and affective (attitudes) - Anita Harrow” (Peak
Performance Center, n.d.), “and each one of these has a taxonomy
associated with it. Taxonomy is simply a word for a classification. All of the
taxonomies below are arranged so that they proceed from the simplest to
more complex levels” (Wilson, n.d.).

Hoque (2017), in his publication “The Domains of Learning: Cognitive,

Affective and Psychomotor”, discussed each of these categories to help
educators in addressing the different learning styles of students.

A. Cognitive Domain

The cognitive domain contains learning skills predominantly related to

mental (thinking) processes. Learning processes in the cognitive
domain include a hierarchy of skills involving processing information,
constructing understanding, applying knowledge, solving problems,
and conducting research. There are six levels of cognitive complexity:
knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis,
evaluation. Bloom’s taxonomy focused on describing levels of
attainments rather than process skills, and did not substantially
address the manner in which the learner proceeds from one level to
the next. The cognitive domain includes skill clusters that organize a
complete, concise, and complementary listing of the learning skills
most critical for each process.
 Figure 2.2 Cognitive Domain Chart

The cognitive domain involves the development of our mental skills

and the acquisition of knowledge. The six categories under this domain
are:

1. Knowledge: Knowledge is the ability to recall data and/or

information. Example: A child recites the English alphabet.

2. Comprehension: Comprehension is the ability to understand the

meaning of what is known. Example: A teacher explains a theory
in his own words.

3. Application: Application is the ability to utilize an abstraction or

to use knowledge in a new situation. Example: A nurse intern
applies what she learned in her Psychology class when she talks
to patients.

4. Analysis: the ability to differentiate facts and opinions. Example:

A lawyer was able to win over a case after recognizing logical
fallacies in the reasoning of the offender.

5. Synthesis: Synthesis the ability to integrate different elements or

concepts in order to form a sound pattern or structure so a new
meaning can be established. Examples: A therapist combines
yoga, biofeedback and support group therapy in creating a care
plan for his patient.
6. Evaluation: Evaluation is the ability to come up with judgments
about the importance of concepts. Examples: A businessman
selects the most efficient way of selling products
 The newer version (2001) of Bloom’s Taxonomy of
Learning has a number of added features that can be very useful
to educators as they try to construct optimal learning
experiences.

Figure 2.3 "Bloom's Taxonomy" by Vandy CFT is licensed under CC BY 2.0

B. Affective Domain

Most people think of learning as an intellectual or mental function.

However, learning is not a just a cognitive (mental) function. You can
also learn attitudes, behaviors, and physical skills. The affective domain
involves our feelings, emotions and attitudes. The affective domain
involves our feelings, emotions, and attitudes.

Figure 2.4 Affective Domain

This domain includes the manner in which we deal with things
emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms,
motivations, and attitudes. This domain is categorized into 5 sub-
domains, which include: (1). Receiving (2) Responding (3) Valuing (4)
Organization (5) Characterization

1. Receiving Phenomena: The receiving is the awareness of feelings,

emotions, and the ability to utilize selected attention.

Example: Listening attentively to a friend. Listening attentively

to someone; watching a movie, listening to a lecture; watching
waves crash on the sand.

2. Responding to Phenomena: Responding is active participation of

the learner.

Example: Participating in a group discussion. Having a

conversation; participating in a group discussion, giving a
presentation, complying with procedures, or following directions.

3. Valuing: Valuing is the ability to see the worth of something and

express it. Valuing is concerned with the worth you attach to a
particular object, phenomenon, behavior, or piece of information.
This level ranges from simple acceptance to the more complex
state of commitment. Simpler acceptance may include your
desire for a team to improve its skills, while more complex level
of commitment may include taking responsibly for the overall
improvement of the team. It is the ability to see the worth of
something and express it.

Example: An activist shares his ideas on the increase in salary of

laborers.

4. Organization: ability to prioritize a value over another and create

a unique value system.

Example: A teenager spends more time in her studies than with

her boyfriend.

5. Characterization: the ability to internalize values and let them

control the person`s behaviour.

Example: A man marries a woman not for her looks but for what she
is.
 Figure 2.5 Affective Domain Level

This domain forms a hierarchical structure and is arranged from

simpler feelings to those that are more complex. This hierarchical
structure is based on the principle of internalization. Internalization
refers to the process whereby your affect toward something goes from
a general awareness level to a point where the affect is internalized
and consistently guides or controls your behavior. Therefore, with
movement to more complexity, you become more involved,
committed, and internally motivated.

C. Psychomotor Domain

Traditionally, these types of objectives are concerned with the

physically encoding of information, with movement and/or with
activities where the gross and fine muscles are used for expressing or
interpreting information or concepts. This area also refers to natural,
autonomic responses or reflexes. The psychomotor domain is
comprised of utilizing motor skills and coordinating them. The seven
categories under this include:

Subject : TTL 2 – Technology for Teaching and

Prepared Learning 2
by : JOSE F. IBARRIENTOS III, MIS, LPT
 Figure 2.6. Psychomotor Domain Layout

23

Subject : TTL 2 – Technology for Teaching and

Prepared Learning 2
by : JOSE F. IBARRIENTOS III, MIS, LPT
 a. Perception: the ability to apply sensory information to motor activity.

Example: A cook adjusts the heat of stove to achieve the right

temperature of the dish.

b. Set: the readiness to act.

Example: An obese person displays motivation in performing

planned exercise.

c. Guided Response: the ability to imitate a displayed behavior or to

utilize trial and error.

Example: A person follows the manual in operating a machine.

d. Mechanism: the ability to convert learned responses into habitual

actions with proficiency and confidence.

Example: A mother was able to cook a delicious meal after

practicing how to cook it.

e. Complex Overt Response: the ability to skillfully perform complex

patterns of actions.

Example: Typing a report on a computer without looking at the

keyboard.

f. Adaptation: the ability to modify learned skills to meet special

events.

Example: A designer uses plastic bottles to create a dress.

g. Origination: creating new movement patterns for a specific situation.

Example: A choreographer creates a new dance routine.

Learning Outcome vs. Learning Objectives

According to Hartel & Foegeding (2004), “Learning Objective is a very

general statement about the larger goals of the course or program. On the other hand,
Learning Outcomes is a very specific statement that describes exactly what a student
will be able to do in some measurable way.”

In a simple term, “a learning objective is the instructor’s purpose for creating

and teaching their course. These are the specific questions that the instructor wants
their course to raise. In contrast, learning outcomes are the answers to those questions.
24
They are the specific, measurable knowledge and skills that the learner will gain by
taking the

25
course” Spiro (n.d.). “They are always written in a student-centered, measurable
fashion that is concise, meaningful, and achievable” (DePaul Teaching Commons).

To better grasp the idea and to visually show the differences between
the two terms, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI) illustrated it in a tabular
form and presented a sample of course learning objectives transformed into
a student learning outcome.

Learning Objectives Learning Outcomes

 Objectives describe the goals and  Student Learning Outcomes

intentions of the professor who catalog the overarching
teaches the course. "products" of the course and are
the evidence that the
goals or objectives were achieved.
 Objectives, often termed the  Learning Outcomes are
input in the course, state the statements that describe or list
purpose and goals of the course. measurable and essential
mastered content- knowledge—
reflecting

skills, competencies, and

knowledge that students have
achieved and can demonstrate
upon successfully
completing a course.
 Objectives focus on content and  Outcomes express higher-level
skills important within the thinking skills that integrate
classroom or program. Objectives course content and activities and
may describe what the staff and can be observed as a behavior,
faculty will do. skill, or discrete useable
knowledge upon completing the
course.
 Objectives can often be  Outcomes are exactly what
numerous, specific, and detailed. assessments are intended to
Assessing and reporting on each show -
objective for each student may - specifically what the student
be impossible. will be able to do upon
completing the course.
 An assessable outcome can be
displayed or observed and
evaluated against criteria.
 Outcomes are clear and
measurable criteria for guiding
the teaching, learning, and
assessment process in the
26
 course.
Table 2.3 – Differences between Learning Objectives and Learning Outcomes

27
Course Learning Objectives

1. Students will understand fundamental principles, generalizations, or

theories
2. Students will learn factual knowledge (terminology, classifications,
methods, trends)
3. Students will think about applications of course material (to improve
thinking, problem solving, and decisions)
4. Students will have an appreciation of related applications to real-
life of the theories they learn

Student Learning Outcomes

1. Students will demonstrate knowledge about fundamental

principles, generalizations, or theories and concepts in
solid state physics
2. Students will be able to use and explain the meaning for factual
knowledge (terminology, classifications, methods, trends)
3. Students will be able to apply the basic principles to scientific problem
solving.
4. Students will be able to apply course material to improve
thinking, problem solving, and decision making.
5. Students will be able to give examples of real-life applications of the
theories they learn

Learning outcomes and learning objectives are often used

interchangeably, but they are different. The following concepts and examples
will show how learning objectives and learning outcomes for the same
activity are different, although connected to each other (Valamis, n.d.).

Activity: An onboarding class for new hires

Learning objective: After taking this class, new hires will understand
company policies and know in which situations to apply them.

Learning outcome: Learners are able to identify situations in which

company policies apply and describe the proper actions to take in
response to them.

This type of learning outcome deals with knowledge or intellectual skills. The
learner understands the new concept that they are being taught.

Activity: A seminar designed to help HR officers improve mediation

Learning objective: This seminar will teach learners how to effectively

mediate disputes using basic conflict dynamics and negotiation.
28
Learning outcome: Learners understand and be able to apply basic
conflict resolution practices in the workplace.

29
This type of learning outcome measures performance, learners are able to use
what they learned in a real-world situation.

Activity: An online training session for new product management software

Learning objective: Session will cover the three main areas of the software.

Learning outcome: Learners are able to operate software and explain the
functions that they are using.

This type of learning outcome deals with competence or skill. The

learner can demonstrate their understanding of the new concept.

Activity: A virtual reality training session on how to replace machine

components

Learning objective: Session will demonstrate the steps to remove and

replace components.

Learning outcome: Learners can correctly remove and replace

components of each machine, explaining what they are doing and why.

This learning outcome deals with motor skills. Learners can physically
demonstrate the outcome of their learning.

Activity: A lecture on organization strategies

Learning objective: Lecture will illustrate how proper organization can

help managers optimize workflow within their teams.

Learning outcome: Learners can demonstrate how they will use

organization strategies with actionable steps.

This outcome deals with verbal information. Learners can verbalize the
knowledge they have gained and synthesize solutions for their workflow.

Types of Learning Outcomes (Valamis, n.d.)

1. Intellectual skills. With this type of learning outcome, the learner will
understand concepts, rules or procedures. Put simply, this is
understanding how to do something (Action Verbs: Classify, Demonstrate,
Explain, Express, Illustrate, Match, Select, Recognize, Reproduce, Repeat,
Compute.)

2. Cognitive strategy. In this type of learning outcome, the learner uses

personal strategies to think, organize, learn and behave. (Action Verbs:
Categorize, Classify, Differentiate, Distinguish, Identify, Judge, Organize,
30
Prepare, Solve,

31
 Calculate, Select, Examine, Discover, Manipulate, Operate, Generalize, Predict,
Use).

3. Verbal information. This type of learning outcome is when the learner is

able to definitively state what they have learned from an organized
body of knowledge. (Action Verbs: List, State, Outline, Describe, Define, Give
examples, Recall, Select, Name, Demonstrate, Show, Produce, Identify,
Breakdown, Diagram)

4. Motor skills. This category is concerned with the physical ability to

perform actions, achieving fluidity, smoothness or proper timing
through practice. (Action Verbs: Combine, Compose, Create, Design,
Develop, Make, Produce, Devise, Transform, Generate, Manipulate, Modify,
Sketch, Show)

5. Attitude. This is the internal state that reflects in the learner’s behavior.
It is complex to quantify but can be shown in the learner’s response to
people or situations. (Action Verbs: Express, Infer, Appraise, Judge, Defend,
Compare, Assess, Conclude, Contrast, Critique, Justify, Rank, Rate, Support)

Benefits of Learning Outcomes

Spiro (n.d.) outlined the benefits of learning outcomes to

learners, educators and administrators/management:

Benefits for learners

 They give learners a better understanding of the specific
knowledge and skills they will acquire during the course.
 Focusing on outcomes from the beginning places greater
emphasis on the relevant, practical knowledge and skills to be
gained.
 This makes learning more effective because learners have a
clear sense of what the desired outcome looks like.
 Clear learning outcomes also help learners see why
content and assessments are relevant to them.

Benefits for educators

 Focusing on learning outcomes puts trainers more in touch with
the learner’s perspective. It also gives them a clearer sense of
purpose when creating their course.
 They help course creators choose the best assessment techniques.
 With them, trainers have a measurable standard for judging the
success of their course.

Benefits for administrators/management

 When learning outcomes are defined, it gives managers a clear
mark for measuring whether a specific course, resource or
32
activity has delivered a good return on investment.

33
  They enable administrators to evaluate the effectiveness of their
training program as a whole.
 They act as a guide for evaluating the performance of course
creators, so they can improve methods and achieve better
results when needed.
 Lastly, focusing on learning outcomes allows administrators to
create a learner-focused training program, in which all activities
are centered on giving learners the knowledge and tools they
need for success.

Elements of Effective Learning Outcomes

According to DePaul Teaching Commons (n.d.), an effective

learning outcome are student-centered, measurable, concise,
meaningful, achievable and outcome-based rather than task-
based. In a tabular form, DePaul Teaching Commons, presented
some examples of common learning outcome problem and
solution as shown below.

 Student-Centered
Outcomes are phrased from the perspective of the student and are
written in language that can be easily understood by them.

 Measurable
Outcomes emphasize higher-order thinking and are consistent with
university, college, department, and program learning outcomes or
objectives.

 Concise
Outcomes are written in short, succinct sentences.

 Meaningful
Outcomes emphasize higher-order thinking and are consistent with
university, college, department, and program learning outcomes.

 Achievable
The total number of outcomes is reasonable for this population of
students and is achievable within the time available.

 Outcome-Based
Outcomes should specify the skills and knowledge students must
demonstrate to prove mastery instead of focusing on the
assignment format, such as a quiz or essay. Well-worded outcomes
should remain flexible enough to accommodate a variety of formats
for a corresponding assessment.

34
 Examples of Common Learning Outcome Problems and Solutions.

Not Student-Centered Student-Centered

 Different theories of personality  Students will name each

development will be explored theory of personality
through lectures, readings, and development and describe the
assignments. key characteristics that
distinguish each theory.
Not Measurable Measurable

 Students will understand  Students will be able to

symbolism. identify examples of
symbolism in short
stories and incorporate
symbolism in their own
writing.
Not Clear Clear

 Students will be able to  Students will be able to

analyze American history. analyze how American foreign
policy history relates to
current trends in American
foreign policy.

Not Concise Concise

 Students will analyze American  Students will be able to

foreign policy, from 18th- identify how changes in
century diplomatic relations American foreign policy during
with Europe to the Monroe the 18th and 19th centuries
Doctrine, considering the ways impacted relations with
in which shifts from neighboring nations and Native
expansionism and Manifest Americans.
Destiny to isolationism and
protectionism impacted
relations with neighboring
nations and Native Americans.
Task-Based (Inflexible) Outcome-Based (Flexible)

 Students will be able to  Students will be able to

demonstrate on a mannequin demonstrate the four steps
the four steps to administer used to administer CPR.
CPR.
Table 2.4 Common Learning Outcome Problems and Solutions 35
How to Write a Learning Outcomes

A Learning Outcome (LO), according to MoHawk College (n.d.), is a

measurable, observable, and specific statement that clearly indicates what a
student should know and be able to do as a result of learning.

Valamis (n.d.), on the other hand, stated that learning outcomes are
measurable achievements that the learner will be able to understand after
the learning is complete, which helps learners understand the importance of
the information and what they will gain from their engagement with the
learning activity. Valmis (n.d.) also added that learning outcomes also play a
key role in assessment and evaluation, making clear what knowledge
learners should have upon completion of the learning activity.

When writing learning outcomes, Valamis (n.d.) suggested some few

rules you should follow:

1. Learning outcomes always use an action verb. Depending on the

type of outcome, different verbs are appropriate.
2. Learning outcomes must be written clearly, and should be easy to
understand.
3. Learning outcomes should clearly indicate what learners should
learn from within the discipline they are studying.
4. Learning outcomes must show what the expected level of learning
or understanding should be, and it should be reasonable to the level
of the learners.
5. Learning outcomes help with assessment, and thus should clearly
indicate what success looks like for the learner.
6. There should not be too few or too many learning outcomes. Four to
six is the ideal number.

Learning Outcomes should follow the S (Specific) M (Measurable) A

(Achievable) R (Relevant) T (Time-Bound) principles (MoHawk College n.d.).
Refer to the table shown below:

36
Principles Description

Specific Use clear, direct language to tell the learner exactly

what he or she should learn and what he or she should
be able to do after the training (Dalto, 2020).
Measurable Objective is something that you can measure. it must
be an action that you can observe. The objective must
be written so that any objective observer could watch
the learner’s performance and agree if the objective
has been satisfied or not (Dalto, 2020).
Achievable Your learning objective must be something your
learners have a chance of completing/satisfying. They
must have enough pre- existing knowledge, time, and
similar resources (Dalto, 2020).
Relevant The objective should be something the learner sees the
value in learning (Dalto, 2020).
Time-Bound Make sure your learning objective is something your
learner will have to use in a timely fashion (Dalto, 2020).
Table 2.5 SMART Principles

The following table shown below will served as your guide in writing your
learning outcomes for the target domain areas.

Bloom’s Cognitive Taxonomy (MoHawk College, n.d.)

Areas Action Verbs Assessment

Higher CREATING compose, construct, portfolio, new
Order create, design, develop, product,
Thinkin integrate, invent, make, Capstone/researc
g Skills manage, modify, prepare, h project, game
(HOTS) propose, synthesize development,
reflection
EVALUATING assess, choose, convince, critique, case
critique, decide, studies, peer/self-
determine, defend, assessment,
estimate, judge, justify, recommendation,
measure, predict, report, reflection
prioritize, prove, rate,
recommend, select
ANALYZING analyze, categorize, charts, plan,
compare, contrast, review, survey,
deconstruct, observation, case
differentiate, studies, trouble-
examine, infer, organize, shooting
select, test

37
 APPLYING apply, carry out, choose, presentation,
demonstrate, recreate,
show, solve, use model- building,
simulation,
demonstration,
collection,
interview
Lower UNDERSTANDING describe, distinguish, drawing,
Order clarify, classify, compare, paraphrasing,
Thinkin convert, contrast,
g Skills estimate, explain, peer teaching,
(LOTS) identify, locate, predict, summary,
relate, report, restate, infographs,
translate, Tagxedo
summarize
REMEBERING define, describe, identify, definitions, fact
label, list, match, name, charts,
order, recall, recognize
lists, worksheets,
quizzes, digital
story board
Table 2.6 Bloom’s Cognitive Taxonomy

Affective Taxonomy (Krathwohl D.R., 1964 cited in MoHawk College n.d.),

refers to attitudes, motivations, values of the discipline. Evidenced in all
courses where we set expectations for student engagement such as: displays
of equity, effort, inquiry, participation, respect, reflection, valuing of
educational context and life-long learning.

Assessments include: checklist, rating scale, journal, essay, editorial, reflection,

debate, case study, peer assessment, project

Affective Taxonomy (Krathwohl, 1964)

Areas Description Action Verbs

INTERNALIZING Complete integration act, advocate,
of info/experience exemplify, influence,
resulting in new attitudes,
beliefs, values, propose, question,
and solve
behaviour
ORGANIZING Incorporate new info/experience adapt, combine,
into existing value systems compare, formulate,
defend, order, relate,
synthesize

38
VALUING Attach value or worth to adopt, explain, initiate,
new info/experience justify, propose, show
concern for,
share, respect
RESPONDING Respond through active answer, assist, discuss,
participation to new help, contribute, recite,
info/experience tell, write
RECEIVING Awareness of new acknowledge, ask,
info/experiences follow, identify, listen,
locate, reply
Table 2.7 Affective Taxonomy

39
Psychomotor Taxonomy (Simpson, E.J., 1972, Gronlund, N.E., 1985 cited in
MoHawk College n.d.) refers to kinesthetic, manual, motor skills. Evidenced
in lab, vocational, clinical, performing arts and specific-equipment training
courses.

Assessments include: checklist, rating scale, demonstration, role play,

simulation, troubleshooting, innovating, constructing.

Psychomotor Taxonomy (Simpson, E.J., 1972, Gronlund, N.E., 1985)

Areas Description Action Verbs

NATURALIZATION Mastering and internalizing compose,
skills for automatic high-
quality performance construct, create,
design, refine,
originate, invent
ARTICULATION Integrating well developed adapt, alter, combine,
skills for adaptions modify, revise, transfer,
troubleshoot
PRECISION Skills performed quickly, achieve,
smoothly, accurately with full
confidence and proficiency accomplish, calibrate,
excel, master, refine
MANIPULATION Repeating an action assemble, build,
following complete, execute,
instruction with some operate, perform,
confidence and proficiency use
IMITATION Observing, then repeating copy, follow,
an action that has mimic,
been demonstrated replicated, reproduce,
trace
Table 2.8 Psychomotor Taxonomy

Apply Bloom’s Taxonomy to Learning Outcomes

In 1956, Benjamin Bloom and his colleagues published a framework

(Armstrong, P., n.d.) which consisted of six level of learning in the cognitive
domain (University of Wisconsin-Madison) - Knowledge, Comprehension,
Application, Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation, commonly known as
Bloom’s Taxonomy.

In 2001, Lorin Anderson and David Krathwohl, and colleagues

published a revised version of Bloom’s Taxonomy with a switching names
from nouns to active verbs. The two highest levels have also been changed
with the pinnacle level now being ‘create’ (Iowa State University) -
Remember, Understand, Apply, Analyze, Evaluate and Create.
40
 This framework is now being utilized by K to 12 teachers and
college/university professors in their teaching. In the revised taxonomy,
knowledge is at the basis of these six cognitive processes, but its authors
created a separate taxonomy of the types of knowledge used in cognition:
Factual Knowledge, Conceptual Knowledge, Procedural Knowledge, and
Metacognitive Knowledge (Armstrong, n.d.).

41
 Bloom’s Taxonomy, according to Teach Thought (2020), is a
hierarchical ordering of cognitive skills that can, among countless other uses,
help teachers teach and students learn. Teach Thought added that Bloom’s
Taxonomy can be used to create assessment, lesson plan, evaluate complex
assignments, design curriculum maps, develop online courses, plan project-
based learning, self-assessment, etc. (Teach Thought, 2020).

The taxonomy for the cognitive domain is often represented in the

form of a pyramid, as shown below (Imperial College London).

Figure 2.7 - "Blooms Taxonomy- Hayden2" by patrickhayden1 is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0

Developing a basic understanding of Bloom’s Taxonomy (Bloom et al.,

1956 cited in Iowa State University) can be a helpful guide when writing
learning objectives (Imperial College London).

42
Below are examples of Bloom’s Digital Taxonomy:

Figure 2.8 – Bloom’s Digital Taxonomy retrieved from Teach Though

43
 Figure 2.9 are some applications that can be explored are found in this
infographic (Bilbao, P. et. al., 2019).

Figure 2.9 iPad Apps to Support Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy

44
Figure 2.10 is an inforgrahics showing some web application tool

Figure 2.10 – Table & Web 2.0 Tools Based on Bloom’s Taxonomy

45
 Figure 2.11 is a The iPedagogy Wheel. It is a way of thinking about
digital-age education that meshes together concerns about mobile app
features, learning transformation, motivation, cognitive development and
long-term learning objectives (Carrington, A., 2016).

Figure 2.11 – Pedagogy Wheel

46
Alignment of Competencies, Outcomes and Assessment with Teaching and
Learning Activities

Curriculum mapping, according to UNSW Teaching, is process of

aligning learning activities, learning outcomes and assessment with the
course and program goals. Napper (2012) alignment of learning, teaching,
and assessment is a process where each of the critical elements (learning
objectives, assessment of learning, and anticipated knowledge, skills, and/or
dispositions) of instruction interact and support learning outcomes.

An aligned course means that your learning objectives, activities and

assessments match up so students learn what you intend and you accurately
assess what students are learning (University of Colorado).

Objectives Activities Assessment

Figure 2.12 – Curriculum Map

 Objectives are the expectations for student performance: they

specify what you want student to be able to do when they finish
your course.

 Activities are the experiences that students engage in that prepare

them to achieve the intended learning objective.

 Assessment is a system for collecting evidence about student

learning that we can use to improve and make judgments about
learning.

The table below presents examples of the kinds of activities that can
be used to assess different types of learning objectives (Carnegie Mellon
University).

Type of learning Examples of appropriate assessments

objective
Recall Objective test items such as fill-in-the-blank, matching,
Recognize labeling, or multiple-choice questions that require
Identify students to:

 recall or recognize terms, facts, and concepts

47
Interpret Activities such as papers, exams, problem sets, class
Exemplify discussions, or concept maps that require students to:
Classify
Summarize  summarize readings, films, or speeches
Infer  compare and contrast two or more theories,
events, or processes
Compare  classify or categorize cases, elements, or
Explain events using established criteria
 paraphrase documents or speeches
 find or identify examples or illustrations of a
concept or principle
Apply Activities such as problem sets, performances, labs,
Execute prototyping, or simulations that require students to:
Implement
 use procedures to solve or complete familiar or
unfamiliar tasks
 determine which procedure(s) are most
appropriate for a given task
Analyze Activities such as case studies, critiques, labs, papers,
Differentiate projects, debates, or concept maps that require students
Organize to:
Attribute
 discriminate or select relevant and irrelevant parts
 determine how elements function together
 determine bias, values, or underlying intent in
presented material
Evaluate Activities such as journals, diaries, critiques, problem
Check sets, product reviews, or studies that require students
Critique to:
Assess
 test, monitor, judge, or critique readings,
performances, or products against established
criteria or standards
Create Activities such as research projects, musical
Generate compositions, performances, essays, business plans,
Plan website designs, or set designs that require students to:
Produce
Design  make, build, design or generate something new
Table 2.9 - Examples of appropriate assessments

48
Discussion Board
 Write an essay. What is the significance of being aware of a
theoretical framework (Blooms Revised Taxonomy) in preparing to
become an effective teacher (Bilbao, P. et. al. 2019)?

Learning Activities

1. Study the infographic, iPedagogy Wheel. Discuss and select how

technology can be integrated in a lesson. As a group, write your
answer in the table provided (Bilbao, P. et. al. 2019).

Subject Matter
Learning Outcomes
Technology Tool to be used
Motivation Activities
Main Activity to Teach the
Lesson
How will you assess you
learning outcomes

2. Using the K to 12 curriculum unit you have chosen previously, copy the
competencies and develop learning outcomes out of it. Have these
written on the template you have created.

 Competencies, Learning Objectives, Outcomes and Assessment

must be aligned.

 Review the revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of Objectives/Bloom’s

Digital Taxonomy. Start drafting unit plan by writing down your
specific objectives.

 Plan the technology tools that can be integrated in your unit

plan. Use the template which I provided in making your draft.

49
REFERENCES
Armstrong, P., (n.d.). Bloom’s Taxonomy. Last accessed August 13, 2020
from [Link]
Bilbao, P. et. al. (2019). Technology for Teaching and Learning 1. Lorimar
Publishing, Inc. ISBN 978-621-8035-53-9 p. 135-136.
Carnegie Mellon University. Why should assessments, learning objectives,
and instructional strategies be aligned?. Last accessed August 14,
2020 from
[Link]
Carrington, A. (2016). Pedagogy Wheel. Last accessed August 13, 2020
from [Link]
wheel/#:~:text=The%20Padagogy%20Wheel%20is%20all,and%20long
%2Dterm
%20learning%20objectives.
Dalto, J. (2020). How to Write SMART Learning Objectives. Last accessed
August 26, 2020 from [Link]
to-write-smart- learning-objectives
DePaul Teaching Commons (n.d.). Course Objectives & Learning
Outcomes. Last accessed August 13, 2020 from
[Link] commons/teaching-
guides/course-design/Pages/course-objectives-learning- [Link]
Hartel, R.W. and Foegeding, E.A. (2004). Learning Objectives,
Competencies, or Outcomes?. Journal of Food Science Education.
Institute of Food Technologies Vol. 3, 2004. Retrieved
August 13, 2020 from
[Link]
petencie [Link]
Hoque, E. (2017). Three Domains of Learning: Cognitive, Affective and
Psychomotor. The Journal of EFL Education and Research (JEFLER).
Volume 2 Number 2 September 2016: ISSN-2520-5897.
Retrieved from
[Link]
f_Learni ng_Cognitive_Affective_and_Psychomotor#:~:text=The
%20domains%20of%20le arning%20can,Bloom%20along%20with%20in
%201956.
Iowa State University. Writing Course Goals/Learning Objectives and
Learning Outcomes. Last accessed August 12,
2020 from
[Link]
course- goalslearning-outcomes-and-measureable-learning-objectives/
Napper V.S. (2012) Alignment of Learning, Teaching, and Assessment. In:
Seel N.M. (eds) Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning. Springer,
Boston, MA. [Link]
MoHawk College (n.d.). How to Write Course Learning Outcomes. Last
accessed august 12, 2020 from
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 [Link]
learning/curriculum-development/how-to-write-course-learning-
outcomes
Peak Performance Center (n.d.). Domains of Learning. Last accessed August
26, 2020 from

[Link]
learning/learning/process/domains-of-learning/

51
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI) (n.d.). Objectives vs. Outcomes. Last
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assessment/learning- outcomes/objectives-vs-outcomes
Spiro, K. (n.d.). The difference between “learning objectives” and “learning
outcomes”. Last accessed August 13,
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learning- outcomes/
Teach Thought (2020). What Is Bloom’s Taxonomy? A Definition For
Teachers. Last accessed August 13, 2020 from
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definition-for-teachers/
University of Colorado. Assessment and Instructional Alignment. Last
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[Link]#:
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%20what%20 students%20are%20learning.
University of Wisconsin-Madison. Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy Of
Learning: The “Cognitive” Domain. Last accessed
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[Link]
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UNSW Teaching. Alignment of Learning Outcomes with Course and Program.
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Wilson, L., (n.d.). Three Domains of Learning – Cognitive, Affective,
Psychomotor. Last accessed August 26, 2020 from
[Link]
design/threedomainsoflearning/
Valamis (n.d.). Learning Outcomes. Last accessed August 12, 2020 from
[Link]

52
Lesson 4 – Integration of Technology Tools
Technology has been part of everyone’s lives. We cannot discount the
fact that technology has greatly influenced us on how we think, work, play,
and learn. Technology is now a common necessity in every household,
offices, and schools – computer, laptop, digital devices to name few.
Notwithstanding, Internet technology is also now part of every device. It has
greatly changed the way we interact with others and access information.

Today, technology has changed the face of the educational arena.

Schools are now utilizing the use of technology in teaching and learning
process by integrating technology in the curriculum. Research studies
showed that technology integration has improved student’s learning process
and outcomes. Technology as a constructivist approach has change the way
how teachers teach. Students are now more engaged in their learning by
using different technology tools and multimedia. Edutopia explains that
technology integration into classroom instruction is not just teaching the
basic computer skills and software program but rather, “it must support four
key components of learning: active engagement, participation in groups,
frequent interaction and feedback, and connection to real-world experts." In
addition, Technology helps change the student/teacher roles and
relationships: students take responsibility for their learning outcomes, while
teachers become guides and facilitators (Edutopia, n.d.).

Technology Integration Defined

Here are some definitions of technology integration from various sources:

Wikipedia and Freebase cited in Definitions defines technology

integration as “the use of technology tools in general content areas in
education in order to allow students to apply computer and technology skills
to learning and problem-solving. Technology integration is defined as the use
of technology to enhance and support the educational environment.”

IGI Global, on the other hand defines technology integration, as “the

process of incorporating computer, science, or other technology into
teaching students.”

Moreover, according to TechnoKids (2011), “technology integration is

the blending of computer-related learning activities into curriculum to have
students acquire, organize, demonstrate, and communicate information.”

Furthermore, Christensen, D. (2019) defines Technology integration is

the well- coordinated use of digital devices and cloud computing as tools for
problem-solving, deeper learning, and understanding.

In simple terms, “technology integration is the use of technology

53
resources -- computers, mobile devices like smartphones and tablets, digital
cameras, social media platforms and networks, software applications, the
Internet, etc. -- in daily classroom practices, and in the management of a
school” (Edutopia, n.d.).

54
Effective Technology Integration

National Educational Technology Standards for Students, International

Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) cited in Definitions the “effective
integration of technology is achieved when students are able to select
technology tools to help them obtain information in a timely manner, analyze
and synthesize the information, and present it professionally to an authentic
audience.”

Edutopia suggests that successful technology integration is achieved

when the use of technology is:

 Routine and transparent

 Accessible and readily available for the task at hand
 Supporting the curricular goals, and helping the students to
effectively reach their goals

When effectively integrated into the curriculum, technology tools can

extend learning in powerful ways. These tools can provide students and
teachers with:

 Access to up-to-date, primary source material

 Methods of collecting/recording data
 Ways to collaborate with students, teachers, and experts around the
world
 Opportunities for expressing understanding via multimedia
 Learning that is relevant and assessment that is authentic
 Training for publishing and presenting their new knowledge

Types of Technology Integration

Edutopia describes some of the many ways technology can become

integral part of the learning process. These ways are listed below:

1. Online Learning and Blended Classrooms

2. Project-Based Activities Incorporating Technology
3. Game-Based Learning and Assessment
4. Learning with Mobile and Handheld Devices
5. Instructional Tools like Interactive Whiteboards and Student
Response Systems
6. Web-Based Projects, Explorations, and Research
7. Student-Created Media like Podcasts, Videos, or Slideshows
8. Collaborative Online Tools like Wikis or Google Docs
9. Using social media to Engage Students

55
Levels of Technology Integration

Beth Hertz cited in Edutopia shares four levels of classroom

technology integration she has observed in schools:

1. Sparse: Technology is rarely used or available. Students rarely use

technology to complete assignments or projects.

2. Basic: Technology is used or available occasionally/often in a lab

rather than the classroom. Students are comfortable with one or
two tools and sometimes use these tools to create projects that
show understanding of content.

3. Comfortable: Technology is used in the classroom on a fairly regular

basis. Students are comfortable with a variety of tools and often use
these tools to create projects that show understanding of content.

4. Seamless: Students employ technology daily in the classroom using

a variety of tools to complete assignments and create projects that
show a deep understanding of content.

Frameworks for Technology Integration

TPACK and SAMR are the most commonly known models

for technology integration in instructions. The two models are
explained below:

What is TRACK Model?

TPACK (Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge) is a

technology integration framework that identifies three types of
knowledge instructors need to combine for successful educational
technology integration - technological knowledge, pedagogical
knowledge, and content knowledge (Rodgers, 2018). This model,
developed by educational researchers Punya Mishra and
Matthew J. Koehler (2006) cited in Soni, et. al. (n.d.), is designed
around the idea that content (what you teach) and pedagogy
(how you teach) must be the basis for any technology that you
plan to use in your classroom to enhance learning.

The center of the diagram, otherwise known as TPACK,

represents a full understanding of how to teach with technology.
The point of TPACK is to understand how to use technology to
teach concepts in a way that enhances student learning
experiences (Rodgers, 2018) in the 21st century.

56
 Image  2012 by [Link]

This adaptability can be seen in the various intersections and

relationships already embodied in the TPACK acronym (Kurt, 2019).

Content Knowledge (CK) – This describes teachers’ own knowledge of

the subject matter. CK may include knowledge of concepts, theories,
evidence, and organizational frameworks within a particular subject matter;
it may also include the field’s best practices and established approaches to
communicating this information to students. CK will also differ according to
discipline and grade level – for example, middle-school science and history
classes require less detail and scope than undergraduate or graduate
courses, so their various instructors’ CK may differ, or the CK that each class
imparts to its students will differ.

Pedagogical Knowledge (PK) – This describes teachers’ knowledge of

the practices, processes, and methods regarding teaching and learning. As a
generic form of knowledge, PK encompasses the purposes, values, and aims
of education, and may apply to more specific areas including the
understanding of student learning styles, classroom management skills,
lesson planning, and assessments.

Technological Knowledge (TK) – This describes teachers’ knowledge of,

and ability to use, various technologies, technological tools, and associated
resources. TK concerns understanding edtech, considering its possibilities for
57
a specific subject area or classroom, learning to recognize when it will assist
or impede learning, and continually learning and adapting to new technology
offerings.

58
 Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) – This describes teachers’
knowledge regarding foundational areas of teaching and learning, including
curricula development, student assessment, and reporting results. PCK
focuses on promoting learning and on tracing the links among pedagogy and
its supportive practices (curriculum, assessment, etc.), and much like CK, will
also differ according to grade level and subject matter. In all cases, though,
PCK seeks to improve teaching practices by creating stronger connections
between the content and the pedagogy used to communicate it.

Technological Content Knowledge (TCK) – This describes teachers’

understanding of how technology and content can both influence and push
against each other. TCK involves understanding how the subject matter can
be communicated via different edtech offerings, and considering which
specific edtech tools might be best suited for specific subject matters or
classrooms.

Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK) – This describes teachers’

understanding of how particular technologies can change both the teaching
and learning experiences by introducing new pedagogical affordances and
constraints. Another aspect of TPK concerns understanding how such tools
can be deployed alongside pedagogy in ways that are appropriate to the
discipline and the development of the lesson at hand.

In conclusion, TPACK will start with content and then pedagogy and
layer in technology. Sometimes, you might get excited about the
technological tool and design a lesson around it. Remember, it is NOT about
the technology tool but it is the right blend of the three knowledge areas
(Bilbao, et. al.. 2019).

What is SAMR Model?

The SAMR Model is a framework created by Dr. Ruben Puentedura that

categorizes four different degrees of classroom technology integration. The
letters "SAMR" stand for Substitution, Augmentation, Modification, and
Redefinition (H. L. 2017). The SAMR model supports and enables teachers to
design, develop, and infuse digital learning experiences that utilize
technology. The goal is to transform learning experiences so they result in
higher levels of achievement for students (Kathy Schrock’s Guide to
Everything, n.d.).

59
 Here’s a closer look at good classroom practices at each level in the
model (Terada, 2020):

SUBSTITUTION

“Substitution” means replacing traditional activities and materials—like in-

class lectures or paper worksheets—with digital versions. There is no
substantial change to the content, just the way that it is delivered.

The goal here is to keep things simple: there’s no need to reinvent the
wheel. Scan your lessons and worksheets, convert them into PDFs, and post
them online using Microsoft OneDrive, Google Drive, or a similar file-sharing
service. Think about the information you have on your walls, such as the
classroom norms, the daily schedule, or vocabulary lists, and convert them
into digital formats that students can easily reference.

It may also help to provide synchronous as well as asynchronous versions of

your lectures. If you’re holding class meetings over a videoconferencing
service like Zoom or Skype, provide a recording for students who can’t
attend. You can also create your own instructional videos for students to
view at their own pace.

AUGMENTATION

This level involves incorporating interactive digital enhancements and

elements like comments, hyperlinks, or multimedia. The content remains
60
unchanged, but students can now take advantage of digital features to
enhance the lesson.

61
For example, students can create digital portfolios to create multimedia
presentations, giving them more options to demonstrate their understanding
of a topic. And instead of handing out paper quizzes, you can gamify your
quizzes with tools like Socrative and Kahoot.

Teachers can also create virtual bulletin boards—using an app like Padlet—
where students can post questions, links, and pictures.

MODIFICATION

At this level, teachers can think about using a learning management system
like Google Classroom, Moodle, Schoology, or Canvas to handle the logistical
aspects of running a classroom, like tracking grades, messaging students,
creating a calendar, and posting assignments.

Teaching online opens up new channels of communication, many of which

can help students who have traditionally been marginalized. Research shows
that girls may be less likely to speak up in class, for example, so they may
benefit from backchannels— alternative conversations that can run
alongside instruction—that encourage participation.

Zoom’s text chat feature, meanwhile, gives students an opportunity to write

their questions out, which can feel less intrusive if there are dozens of
students participating in the call. Also, students who prefer to collect their
thoughts may benefit from slower-paced, asynchronous discussions in an
online forum or email threads.

REDEFINITION

Learning is fundamentally transformed at the “redefinition” level, enabling

activities that were previously impossible in the classroom.

For example, virtual pen pals can connect students to other parts of the
world, whether it’s with other students or experts in a field. Virtual field trips
enable students to visit locations like the Amazon rainforest, the Louvre, or
the Egyptian pyramids. After reading a book in class, you can invite the
author to chat about their work and answer questions.

Technology also provides an opportunity to bring authentic audiences into

your virtual classroom, and can make publishers out of your students. Kids
can write their own wikis or blogs for public consumption and feedback—and
platforms like Quad blogging can connect distant classrooms together so
students both write and respond. Students can tackle local problems—like
investigating the water quality of a nearby river—and invite members of the
community to assess their digital proposals.
62
 According to Fastiggi, W. (n.d.), the SAMR model is essentially a
planning tool that helps to design better learning activities for students. The
framework provides pedagogical insight into how technology can and should
be used in the classroom. The following are some of his recommendations in
light of the model:

1. Always consider whether or not the technology improves the learning

process. I have already written about what makes technology
‘appropriate ‘in a learning context. If the learning process is enhanced
through the use of technology, then it’s appropriate to use – if not,
more traditional (analogue) methods can work just as well (if not
better).

2. Collaboration is extremely important, particularly if you’re looking at

learning from a social constructivist perspective. Consider how you can
use technology to facilitate collaboration.

3. Ensure that you use technology to expose students to the outside

world. This not only helps to improve their cultural understanding and
international-mindedness, it can be great for building key literacy
skills.

Discussion Board
 Write an essay. What is the significance of being aware of a
theoretical framework (TPACK & SAMR) in preparing to become an
effective teacher (Bilbao, P. et. al. 2019)?

Learning Activities

 Using SAMR, think of how you can integrate a technology tool for
each phase to show the transition from using it to enhance
instruction leading to a transformative use of technology. Design a
task that can have a positive effect on student’s learning outcomes
(Bilbao, P. et. al. 2019).

Task or Learning Activities

Redefinition
Modification
Augmentation
Substitution

63
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64