Chapter – 5

Theodolite Traversing
Course Content: Different parts, Adjustments, Measurement of horizontal and vertical
angles, Traverse computations, Balancing of the traverse, Accuracy of traverse
Surveying.

The Theodolite:- The theodolite is the most intricate and accurate instrument used for
measurement of horizontal and vertical angles. It consists of a telescope by means of
which distant objects can be sighted. The telescope has two distinct motions, one in the
horizontal plane and the other in the vertical plane, the former being measured on a
graduated horizontal circle by means of a set of verniers, and the latter on a graduated
vertical circle by two verniers. It can also be used for various other purposes such as
laying off horizontal angles, locating points on a line, prolonging survey lines,
establishing grades, determining differences in elevations, etc.

Theodolites are primarily classified as Transit and non-transit (plain or Y, and the
Everest). A theodolite is called a transit theodolite when its telescope can be revolved
through a complete revolution about its horizontal axis in a vertical plane. The transit
type is largely used.

Theodolites are also classified as vernier theodolites, and micrometer theodolites

according a sverniers or micrometers are fitted to read the graduated circles.

Theodolites are made of various sizes varying from 8cm to 25cm diameter of the
graduated circle on the lower plate defining the size. 8 cm to 12cm instruments are used
for general survey and engineering works, while 14cm to 25cm instruments are used for
triangulation work.

Components of a Transit Theodolite:-

The Leveling Head:- It may consist of (i) two circular plates called parallel plates kept at
a fixed distance apart by a ball and socket arrangement and four screws called the
leveling or foot screws, or (ii) a tribrach plate with three arms, each carrying a leveling
screw.

The lower parallel plate has a central aperture through which a plumb bob may be
suspended. The upper parallel plate or the tribrach is supported by means of four or three
leveling screws by which the instrument may be leveled.

In the modern instruments the shifting head is provided to center the instrument quickly
and accurately. It consists of two plates movable relatively to each other and to the tripod
head. By this arrangement the whole instrument can be rotated through a small horizontal
distance relatively to the tripod.

The Two Spindles:- There are two spindles or axes (also called centers) one inside the
other. The outer axis is hollow and its interior is ground conical to fit the central vertical
axis, called the inner axis, which is solid and conical. It is essential that the two axes
should be co-axial, i.e. have a common axis, which forms the vertical axis of the
instrument.

The Lower Plate:- The outer axis is attached to the lower plate, also called the scale
plate, having its edge beveled. The edge (or limb) is silvered (i.e. covered with silver) and
graduated from 00 to 3600 in a clockwise direction. The diameter of this circle designates
the size of the instrument. The lower plate is provided with a clamp and tangent or slow
motion screw, by means of which it can be fixed accurately at any desired position. When
the clamp screw is tightened, the lower plate is fixed to the upper tribrach or parallel plate
and on turning the tangent screw, the lower plate and with it the upper part of the
instrument are rotated slightly.

The Upper Plate:- The upper plate, also called the vernier plate is attached to the inner
axis. A clamp and tangent or slow motion screw are provided for the purpose of
accurately fixing the vernier plate to the scale plate. When both plates are clamped
together and the lower clamp is loosened, the instrument can be rotated about its outer
axis; while if the lower plate be clamped, and the vernier plate be loosened, the
instrument can be revolved about the inner axis. Before either of the tangent screw is
turned, the corresponding clamp must be tightened. The upper plate carries two verniers
with magnifiers placed 1800 apart for reading angles to one minute or 20 seconds.

The vernier plate complete with the standards and telescope is sometimes called the
alidade of the theodolite.

The Level Tubes:- Two spirit levels called the plate levels places at right angles to each
other are fixed on the upper surface of the vernier plate for levelling the instrument. Of
the two plate levels, one is parallel to the horizontal axis.

The Standards:- Two uprights called standards or A frames stand upon the vernier plate
to support the horizontal axis.

The Compass:- The compass box may be either of a circular form or of a trough type.
The former is mounted on the vernier plate between the standards, while the later is either
attached to the underside of the scale of lower plate, or screwed to one of the standards.
Modern theodolites are fitted with a compass of the tubular type and it is screwed to one
of the standards.

The Telescope:- The telescope is rigidly fixed at he center of and at right angles to the
horizontal axis.
The Vertical Circle:- The vertical circle is rigidly attached to the telescope ad moves
with it. It is silvered and graduated. By means of the vertical circle clamp and tangent
screw, the telescope and with it the vertical circle can be accurately set up at any desired
position in a vertical plane.

The Index Bar (or T Frame):- The index bar is T-shaped and centered on the horizontal
axis of the telescope in from of the vertical circle. It carries two verniers at the
extremities of its horizontal arms or limbs called the index arm. The vertical leg called
the clipping arm is provided with a fork and two screws called clip or clipping screws, at
its lower extremity. By means of these screws, it is secured to a piece of metal projecting
from the cross bar on either A support. The index arm and the clipping arm together
known as the T frame. A long sensitive bubble tube called the altitude or azimuthal
bubble tube is attached to the top of the frame. It can be centered by means of the clip
screws. In some instruments it is set on the top of the telescope.

The Plumb Bob:- To center the instrument exactly over a station mark, a plumb-bob is
suspended from the hook fitted to the bottom of the central vertical axis.

Tripod:- The theodolite is supported on a tripod stand when on use.

Some Definitions:-

Centering:- It means setting the theodolite exactly over a station mark. It can be done by
means of a plumb bob suspended from a small hook attached to the underside of the
vertical axis of the theodolite.

Transiting or Plunging or Reversing:- It is the process of turning the telescope over its
supporting horizontal axis through 1800 in a vertical plane, thus bringing it upside down
and making it point exactly in the opposite direction.

Face Left:- When the vertical circle of the instrument is on the left of the observer when
taking a reading, the position is called face left.

Face Right:- When the vertical circle of the instrument is on the right of thre observer,
the position is called face right.

Face Left (F.L.) Observation:- It is an observation of an angle (horizontal or vertical)

made with the “face” of the vertical circle on the left of the observer.

Face Right (F.R.) Observation:- It is an observation of an angle (horizontal or vertical)

made with the “face” of the vertical circle on the right of the observer.

Swinging the Telescope:- It means turning the telescope in a horizontal plane. A swing
is called right or left, according as the telescope is rotated clockwise or counterclockwise.
Telescope Normal:- It implies “Bubble up” and “face: of the vertical circle left. It is alco
called Telescope Direct.

Telescope Inverted:- It means “Bubble down” and the “face” of the vertical circle right.
It is also called Telescope Reversed.

Changing Face:- It is the operation of bringing the vertical circle to the right of the
observer, if originally it its to the left and vice versa. In a transit theodolite it is done by
revolving the telescope through 1800 in a vertical plane and through 1800 in a horizontal
plane.

If observations are taken with both faces, the errors due to imperfect adjustment of the
instrument, namely, (i) the line of collimation not being at right angles to the trunion axis,
(ii) the horizontal axis (trunion axis) not being perpendicular to the vertical axis, and (iii)
thre line of collimation nor being parallel to the axis of thre altitude level or telescope
level, are eliminated.

Line of Collimation:- The line of collimation, also called the line of sight is the
imaginary line joining the intersection of the cross-hairs of the diaphragm to the optical
center of the object glass and its continuation.

Axis of Telescope:- The axis of the telescope is the line joining the optical center of the
object glass to the center of the eyepiece.

Axis of Level Tube:- The axis of the level or bubble tube is the straight line tangential to
the longitudinal curve of the level tube at the center of the tube. It is also called the
bubble line.

Vertical axis:- The vertical axis is the axis about which the telescope can be rotated in a
horizontal plane.

Horizontal axis:- The horizontal axis is the axis about which the telescope can be rotated
in a vertical plane. It is also called the trunnion axis or transverse axis.

Fundamental Lines of a Transit:-

(1) The vertical axis.
(2) The axes of plate levels.
(3) The line of collimation.
(4) The horizontal axis.
(5) The bubble line of the altitude level or telescope level.

Conditions of Adjustment:- When the transit is in perfect adjustment, the following

relations between the fundamental lines should exist.
(1) The axes of plate levels must be perpendicular to the vertical axis.
(2) The line of collimation must be at right angles to the horizontal axis.
(3) The horizontal axis must be perpendicular to the vertical axis.
 (4) The axis of he telescope level or the altitude level must be parallel to the line of
collimation.
(5) If the transit has a fixed vertical vernier, the vertical circle vernier must read zero
when the telescope level is centered or when the line of collimation is horizontal.

The Level Tube:- The level tubes, also called bubble tube, consist of a glass tube set in a
brass tube with plaster of paris. It is nearly filled with alcohol or ether, or a mixture of
both, the remaining space being occupied bu a bubble of air, which always occupies the
highest part of the tube, the center of the bubble always coming to rest at the highest
point of the tube. The whole of the interior surface or the upper half is accurately ground
to a curve so that a longitudinal section is the arc of a circle. The outer surface of the tube
is graduated in both directions from the center so that the bubble may be centered or
brought to its mid-position by observing its two ends. The length of the division is
usually 2mm. The line tangential to the circular arc at its highest point (middle of the tube
or zero of the graduations) is called the axis of the level or bubble tube. It is also termed
as the bubble line. The axis is horizontal when the bubble is central. The bubble varies in
length with changes in temperature. It is shortened with rise in temperature and thus its
sensitiveness is reduced. The level tube is attached to the top of the telescope tube by
means of capstan-headed nuts.

Sensitiveness:- The sensitiveness or sensitivity of a level tube means its capability of

showing small angular movements of the tube vertically. It depends upon the radius of
curvature of the tube which my vary 10 to 300m. The larger the radius of curvature, the
greater the sensitiveness or the longer the bubble, the more sensitive it is. The
sensitiveness is some times expressed in terms of the radius of curvature, but it is more
usually expressed in terms of the angle through which the axis of the level tube must be
tilted to cause the bubble to move through one division of the scale. When so expressed,
the sensitiveness varies inversely as the number of seconds.

Temporary Adjustment of Theodolite:- The adjustment of a theodolite ,may be divided

into two classes: temporary and permanent. The temporary adjustments are those, which
have to be made at every set up of the instrument. The permanent adjustments establish
fixed relationships between the fundamental lines of the instrument and are essential for
accuracy of observations. They remain permanent for a considerable period of time.
There are three temporary adjustments of a theodolite.
(i) Setting up the Theodolite over a station:- This includes two
operations (1) centering or setting the center of a theodolite over a
station, and (b) approximately leveling it by the tripod legs only.
(ii) Leveling up:- Having centered and approximately leveled the
instrument, it is accurately leveled with reference to the plate levels by
means of leveling (or foot) screws so that the vertical axis shall be
truly vertical.
(iii) Elimination of Parallax:- Parallax is the apparent movement of the
image with respect to the cross hairs of the diaphragm (when the
observer moves his eye) that occur because of wrong focusing of both
the object glass and the eye piece of the telescope. To eliminate
 parallax, focus the eyepiece for a clear and distinct view of the
diaphragm, and then the focus the object glass towards the object for a
clear and distinct vision.

Some Common Uses of Theodolite:-

 To Measure a Horizontal Angle.
 To Measure a Horizontal Angle by Repetition. In this method,
the angle is added several times mechanically, and the value of
the angle is obtained by dividing the accumulated reading by the
number of repetitions. It consists in measuring the angle
clockwise any desired number of times (usually six) half of
which are made with telescope normal and the other half with the
telescope inverted.
 To Measure Angles by Reiteration. In this method, several angles
are measured successively, and finally the horizon is closed, i.e.
the angle between the last station ansd the initial station is
measured. The final reading of the leading vernier should be the
same as its initial reading. If not, the discrepancy is equally
distributed among all the measured angles.
 To Measure Direct Angles.
 To Measure Deflection Angles.
 To observe magnetic bearing of a line.
 To Measure a Vertical Angle.
 Lining-in. It means establishing of points on a given straight line.
 Prolonging a Straight Line.
 To lay off a horizontal Angle.

Traverse Survey with the Theodolite:- The field work consists of (i) reconnaissance,
(ii) selection, marking and referencing of stations, (iii) running of survey lines, (iv)
picking up of the detail, and (v) booking of field notes which is same as in chain and
compass surveying. The relative directions of lines are measured by (i) the measurement
of angles between successive lines, and/or, (ii) the direct observation of bearings of the
lines. The angles measured at the different stations may be (i) included angles, (2) direct
angles or angles to the right, (3) deflection angles.
 Traversing by Method of Included Angles:- This method is chiefly used in land
surveys. When great accuracy is required, method of repetition is used to any
desired degree of precision. In this method, the bearing of the initial line, and the
included angles of a traverse are measured. In a closed traverse the angles
measured are either interior or exterior according as the traverse is run in a
counter-clockwise direction or in a clockwise direction. However, it is customary
to run a closed traverse in a counter-clockwise direction.
 Traversing by Method of Direct Angles:- This method is mostly used for open
traverses.
 Traversing by Method of Deflection Angles:- This method is chiefly employed
on open traverses. It is most suitable when the survey lines make small deflection
 angles with each other as in the case of surveys for roads, railways, canals, and
pipe lines.

Checks in Closed Traverse:-

Checks on Angular Measurements:-

 Traverse by included angles:- The sum of the measured interior angles should
be equal to (2N – 4) right angles. The sum of the measured exterior angles should
be equal to (2N + 4) right angles. Where N is the number of sides of the traverse.
In practice, there will remain a small discrepancy which is called the angular error
of closure. It should not exceed least count of the instrument X √N. This
discrepancy is distributed equally among all the angles. The angles thus corrected
should satisfy the above condition. If some of the lines of the traverse are short, it
is advisable to apply the corrections to the angles adjacent to these lines, as they
are more liable to errors than others.
 Traverse by deflection angles:- The algebraic sum of the deflection angles
should equal to 3600, considering the right-hand deflection angles as positive and
left-hand ones as negative.
 Traverse by direct observation of bearings:- The work is checked by
comparing the fore bearing of the last line with its back bearing observed at the
initial station.

Check on Linear Measurement:- As a precipitation against error in changing each line

should be measured twice. This two measurements should be made with the same
accuracy on different days and in opposite directions. In a closed traverse the sum of the
northings (distances measured north) should equal the um of the southings (distances
measured south). Similarly the sum of the eastings (distances measured east) should be
equal to the sum of the westings (distances measured west). If there be aby discrepancy,
it indicates an error in chaining.

Check in Open Traverse:- In the case of open traverse, the measurements as a whole
cannot be checked. However, the field measurements can be checked approximately by
the following methods.
 The angular errors can be determined by astronomical observations for azimuth at
regular intervals during the progress of the traverse.
 By running cut-off lines between intermediate stations.
 By observing at intervals the bearing of a well-defined prominent object lying on
one side of the traverse.

Calculation of Bearings from Angles:-

 Included Angles:- To the known whole circle bearing of any line add the
included angle between that line and the next line. If the sum is greater than 180 0
subtract 1800 and if the sum is less than 1800 add 1800. The result gives the whole
circle bearing of the next line.
 Deflection Angles:- W.C.B of any line = W.C.B. of the preceding line ±
deflection angle. Use plus sign when the deflection angle is right (clockwise) and
 minus sign when it is left (counter-clockwise). Add 3600 if the result is negative,
and subtract 3600 if it is greater than 3600. The check on the calculation work is
that, Bearing of the last line = forward bearing of the initial line + sum of positive
deflection angles – sum of the negative angles.
Calculation of Deflection Angles from Included Angles:- If the included angle is
greater than 1800, the deflection angle is right-hand or positive and is given by, deflection
angle = included angle – 1800. If the included angle is less than 1800, the deflection is
left-hand or negative and is given by deflection angle = 180 0 – included angle.

Relation between Precision of Angular and Linear Measurements:- The choice of

instruments and methods to be used for angular and linear measurements depends upon
the degree of precision required and also the purpose of the survey. The precision of
angular measurements must be same as the precision of linear measurements. In other
words, the effect of error in angular measurements will be the same as that of error in
linear measurements. Because of angular error a point gets shifted in plot by l tan  and
because of linear error the point gets shifted in plot by n, where l is the length of the line
and n is the linear measurement error and δ is the angular error. To make the errors
n
consistent we have l tan   n or, tan   which gives the required precision in angle
l
measurements when the precision in linear measurements are specified. The following
precision is recommended in theodolite traversing.

Precision recommended in theodolite traversing

Class Traverse for Angular error of Total linear Remarks
closure not to error of
exceed closure not to
exceed
1 (i) Land Surveys √N 1 in 3000 N = number
(ii) Location of roads, of angles.
railways, etc.
2 (i) Surveys of important 30 ˝ √N 1 in 5000 Linear
boundaries measurements
(ii) Survey work in cities are taken with
3 (i) Important surveys 5 ˝√N 1 in 10,000 a tape.
(ii) Accurate survey
work in cities

Sources of Error in Theodolite Work:-

 Instrumental Errors:- They are due to imperfect adjustment and structural
defects. The imperfect adjustment errors are due to (1) non-adjustment of plate
levels, (2) line of collimation not being perpendicular to the horizontal axis, (3)
horizontal axis not being perpendicular to vertical axis, (4) non-parallelism of the
axis of the telescope level and the line of collimation, (5) non-eccentricity of
centers (the inner and outer axes), (6) eccentricity of verniers, (7) faulty
graduations, and any other defects in the instrument.
  Personal Errors:- It includes (A) errors of manipulation such as (1) inaccurate
centering, (2) inaccurate leveling, (3) slip, (4) manipulation of wrong tangent
screw, (B) errors in sighting and reading because of (1) inaccurate bisection of the
point of observation, (2) non-verticality of the ranging rod, (3) displacement of
ranging rod or peg, (4) parallax, and (5) other errors such as mistakes in setting
the vernier, mistakes in reading the scales and the verniers, mistakes in reading
wrong verniers, and mistakes due to wrong booking of the readings.
 Natural errors:- these errors may caused by (1) wind induced vibration of the
instrument, (2) high temperature producing irregular refraction, (3) the sun
shining on the instrument, (4) unequal expansion of the various parts of the
instrument, and unequal settlement of the tripod stand.

Traverse Computations:-
Traverses are plotted by using a pair of mutually perpendicular reference axes of
coordinates by keeping one of the axis parallel to the meridian. The origin of the axes of
coordinates may be any point inside or outside the area being plotted. To plot a survey
map, the coordinates of points are determined and denoted by its latitude and departure.
Latitude of a point is its distance measured parallel to the meridian (North and South
line). Latitude (L) is North or positive when measured northward or upward, and is called
Northing. When measured southward or downward, it is South or negative, and is called
Southing. Departure is its distance measured parallel to the line perpendicular to the
meridian (East and West line). Departure (D) is East or positive when measured eastward
or to the right, and is called as easting, while it is West or negative when measured
westward or to the left, and is called westing.
Hence, Northing = North Latitude = + L
Southing = South Latitude = – L
Easting = East departure = + D
Westing = West departure = – D
Latitude of a line = l cos
Departure of a line = l sin
Where, l = the length of the line, θ = the reduced bearing of the line.
The latitude and departure of any point with reference to the preceding point are called
consecutive coordinates of the point. The coordinate of any point with respect to a
common origin is known as the independent coordinates of the point. They are also called
the total latitude and the total departure of a point. The independent coordinates of any
point may be obtained by adding algebraically the latitudes and the departures of the lines
between the point and the origin. Hence, X co-ordinate (or total departure) of any point of
a traverse = the X co-ordinate of the first point of the traverse + the algebraic sum of the
departures of the lines between the first point and that point. Similarly, Y co-ordinate (or
total latitude) of any point of a traverse = the Y co-ordinate of the first point of the
traverse + the algebraic sum of the latitudes of the lines between the first point and that
point.

Adjustment of Closed Traverse:-

Error of Closure:- In any closed traverse the algebraic sum of the latitudes should equal
zero, and the algebraic sum of departures should equal zero, provided the work is correct.
But owing to errors in the field measurements of angles and distances, the traverse, if
plotted according to the field measurements, will not close on paper, i.e. the end point of
the traverse will not coincide exactly with the starting point. It may be observed that all
sources of error cannot be entirely eliminated, in spite of utmost care taken in measuring
distances and directions. The distance by which the end point of survey falls short to
coincide with the starting point, i.e. the length of the line joining the beginning of the first
line to the end of the last line is called the closing error or error of closure. Thus, closing
error and the direction of the closing error are given by the relations,

e   L    D  ; and, tan  
2 2  D . The closing error is commonly expressed as
L
relative error of closure. The relative error of closure = (error of closure) / (perimeter of
e P
traverse) =  1   . The permissible linear error of closure in theodolite traverse
P e
P e2 N
surveys may be expressed by the formula, Ec  1 where, Ec = the closing
1000 12
error or error of closure in m, P = the perimeter of a traverse in m, N = the number of
sides of a traverse, e = the permissible error per angle (commonly 1 minute).

Distribution of Angular Error:- The angular error of closure in a closed treverse is the
difference between the sum of the measured angles and the theoretic sum (2N minus plus
4) right angles, where N is the number of sides of a closed traverse. It should not exceed
the least count times square root of N. When all angles have been measured with equal
care under similar conditions, this error is distributed equally among all the angles. If all
the angles were measured with the same precision, the whole error may be distributed
among the angles dependent on the short side or sides. However, if there is reason to
suspect the accuracy of some angle or angles owing to peculiar field conditions, the
whole or most of the angular error may be assigned to that angle or angles. If the angular
error is small, it may be arbitrarily distributed among two or three angles.

Adjustment of Bearings:- When the bearings of the sides of a closed traverse have been
observed, the closing error in bearing may be determined by comparing the two bearings
of the last line as observed at the first and last stations of the traverse. When the traverse
ends on a line of known bearing, it may be obtained by finding the difference between its
observed bearing and known bearing. This error is distributed among the sides of the
traverse. If N is the number of the sides of the traverse, and e the closing error in bearing,
the corrections to the bearings of the sides are:
Correction to the I’th bearing = I times e/N
Correction to the I’th angle = I times e/N.

Balancing the Traverse:- It is the implementation of corrections to the latitudes and

departures in a manner to make the algebraic sum of the latitudes equal to zero, and the
algebraic sum of departures also equal to zero.
(a) Bowditch’s rule or compass rule:- This rule is applicable when the angular and linear
measurements are equally precise. By this rule the total error in latitude or departure is
distributed in proportion to the lengths of the sides. It is the rule most commonly used in
traverse adjustment.
Correction to latitude or departure of any side = (total error in latitude or departure) x
(length of that side) /(perimeter of traverse).

Transit Rule:- This rule is applicable when the angular measurements are more precise
than the linear measurements, e.g. transit and stadia traverse.
Correction to latitude or departure of any side = (total error in latitude or departure) x
(latitude or departure of that side) /(arithmetical sum of all latitudes or departures).

Rule:-
Correction to northing of any side = ½ (total error in latitude) x (northing of that side)
/(sum of northings).
Correction to southing of any side = ½ (total error in latitude) x (southing of that side)
/(sum of southings).
Correction to easting of any side = ½ (total error in departure) x (easting of that side)
/(sum of eastings).
Correction to westing of any side = ½ (total error in departure) x (westing of that side)
/(sum of westings).

It should be noted that when the traverse is thus balanced, the lengths and bearings of the
lines are changed. When the adjustment is made by the compass rule, the lengths are
changed less, and the angles are changed more, than when it is made by the transit rule.

Traverse Table or Gale’s Traverse Table:- The computations for a closed traverse may
be made in the following steps and entered in a tabular form, which is known as Traverse
Table or Gales Traverse Table.
1. Sum up all the included angles. Their sum should be equal to 2N±4 right angles
according as the exterior or interior angles are measured, where N is the number
of the sides of a traverse.
2. If not, apply the necessary corrections to the angles so that the sum of the
corrected angles will exactly equal to 2N±4 right angles.
3. Calculate the whole circle bearings of the other lines from the observed bearings
of the first line and the corrected included angles. Compute the bearing of the first
line, which must be equal to its observed bearing. This is a valuable check on the
calculations and should not, therefore, be neglected.
4. From the W.C. bearings of the lines, deduce the reduced bearings of the lines and
determine the quadrants in which the lines lie.
5. From the given lengths and the calculated reduced bearings of the lines, compute
their latitudes and departures (consecutive coordinates).
6. Add all northings, and add all southings, and find the difference between the two
sums. Similarly, obtain the differences between the sum of all eastings and the
sum of all westings.
 7. Apply the necessary corrections to the latitudes and departures so that the sum of
the northings equals that of the southings, and the sum of the eastings equals that
of the westings.
8. From the corrected consecutive coordinates, obtain the independent coordinates of
the lines so that they are all positive, the whole of the traverse thus lying in the
first quadrant (N.E.).

Students are requested to practice the solved problem given in the book as a first
exercise and then they should attempt the unsolved problems.