UNIT I

Control Systems - Introduction

A control system is a system, which provides the desired response by controlling the output.
The following figure shows the simple block diagram of a control system.

Here, the control system is represented by a single block. Since, the output is controlled by
varying input, the control system got this name. We will vary this input with some mechanism.
In the next section on open loop and closed loop control systems, we will study in detail about
the blocks inside the control system and how to vary this input in order to get the desired
response.
Examples − Traffic lights control system, washing machine
Traffic lights control system is an example of control system. Here, a sequence of input signal
is applied to this control system and the output is one of the three lights that will be on for some
duration of time. During this time, the other two lights will be off. Based on the traffic study at
a particular junction, the on and off times of the lights can be determined. Accordingly, the
input signal controls the output. So, the traffic lights control system operates on time basis.

Classification of Control Systems

Based on some parameters, we can classify the control systems into the following ways.

Continuous time and Discrete-time Control Systems

 Control Systems can be classified as continuous time control systems and discrete time control systems based on
the type of the signalused.

 In continuous time control systems, all the signals are continuous in time. But, in discrete time control systems, there
exists one or more discrete time signals.

SISO and MIMO Control Systems

 Control Systems can be classified as SISO control systems and MIMO control systems based on the number of inputs
and outputspresent.

 SISO (Single Input and Single Output) control systems have one input and one output. Whereas, MIMO (Multiple
Inputs and Multiple Outputs) control systems have more than one input and more than one output.

Open Loop and Closed Loop Control Systems

Control Systems can be classified as open loop control systems and closed loop control systems
based on the feedback path.
In open loop control systems, output is not fed-back to the input. So, the control action is
independent of the desired output.
The following figure shows the block diagram of the open loop control system.

Here, an input is applied to a controller and it produces an actuating signal or controlling signal.
This signal is given as an input to a plant or process which is to be controlled. So, the plant
produces an output, which is controlled. The traffic lights control system which we discussed
earlier is an example of an open loop control system.
In closed loop control systems, output is fed back to the input. So, the control action is
dependent on the desired output.
The following figure shows the block diagram of negative feedback closed loop control system.

The error detector produces an error signal, which is the difference between the input and the
feedback signal. This feedback signal is obtained from the block (feedback elements) by
considering the output of the overall system as an input to this block. Instead of the direct input,
the error signal is applied as an input to a controller.
So, the controller produces an actuating signal which controls the plant. In this combination, the
output of the control system is adjusted automatically till we get the desired response. Hence,
the closed loop control systems are also called the automatic control systems. Traffic lights
control system having sensor at the input is an example of a closed loop control system.
The differences between the open loop and the closed loop control systems are mentioned in the
following table.

Open Loop Control Systems Closed Loop Control Systems

Control action is independent of the desired output. Control action is dependent of the desired
output.
 Feedback path is not present. Feedback path is present.

These are also called as non-feedback control These are also called as feedback control
systems. systems.

Easy to design. Difficult to design.

These are economical. These are costlier.

Inaccurate. Accurate.

Control Systems - Feedback

If either the output or some part of the output is returned to the input side and utilized as part of
the system input, then it is known as feedback. Feedback plays an important role in order to
improve the performance of the control systems. In this chapter, let us discuss the types of
feedback & effects of feedback.

Types of Feedback
There are two types of feedback −

 Positive feedback

 Negative feedback

Positive Feedback
The positive feedback adds the reference input, R(s) and feedback output. The following figure
shows the block diagram of positive feedback control system.

The concept of transfer function will be discussed in later chapters. For the time being, consider
the transfer function of positive feedback control system is,

Where,
 T is the transfer function or overall gain of positive feedback control system.

 G is the open loop gain, which is function of frequency.

  H is the gain of feedback path, which is function of frequency.

Negative Feedback
Negative feedback reduces the error between the reference input, R(s) and system output. The
following figure shows the block diagram of the negative feedback control system.

Transfer function of negative feedback control system is,

Where,
 T is the transfer function or overall gain of negative feedback control system.

 G is the open loop gain, which is function of frequency.

 H is the gain of feedback path, which is function of frequency.

The derivation of the above transfer function is present in later chapters.

Effects of Feedback
Let us now understand the effects of feedback.

Effect of Feedback on Overall Gain

 From Equation 2, we can say that the overall gain of negative feedback closed loop control system is the ratio of 'G'
and (1+GH). So, the overall gain may increase or decrease depending on the value of (1+GH).

 If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then the overall gain increases. In this case, 'GH' value is negative because the
gain of the feedback path is negative.

 If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then the overall gain decreases. In this case, 'GH' value is positive because the
gain of the feedback path is positive.

In general, 'G' and 'H' are functions of frequency. So, the feedback will increase the overall gain
of the system in one frequency range and decrease in the other frequency range.

Effect of Feedback on Sensitivity

Sensitivity of the overall gain of negative feedback closed loop control system (T) to the
variation in open loop gain (G) is defined as

Where, ∂T is the incremental change in T due to incremental change in G.

We can rewrite Equation 3 as

Do partial differentiation with respect to G on both sides of Equation 2.

From Equation 2, you will get

Substitute Equation 5 and Equation 6 in Equation 4.

So, we got the sensitivity of the overall gain of closed loop control system as the reciprocal of
(1+GH). So, Sensitivity may increase or decrease depending on the value of (1+GH).
 If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then sensitivity increases. In this case, 'GH' value is negative because the gain of
feedback path is negative.

 If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then sensitivity decreases. In this case, 'GH' value is positive because the gain
of feedback path is positive.

In general, 'G' and 'H' are functions of frequency. So, feedback will increase the sensitivity of
the system gain in one frequency range and decrease in the other frequency range. Therefore,
we have to choose the values of 'GH' in such a way that the system is insensitive or less
sensitive to parameter variations.

Effect of Feedback on Stability

 A system is said to be stable, if its output is under control. Otherwise, it is said to be unstable.

 In Equation 2, if the denominator value is zero (i.e., GH = -1), then the output of the control system will be infinite. So,
the control system becomes unstable.

Therefore, we have to properly choose the feedback in order to make the control system stable.

Effect of Feedback on Noise

To know the effect of feedback on noise, let us compare the transfer function relations with and
without feedback due to noise signal alone.
Consider an open loop control system with noise signal as shown below.
The open loop transfer function due to noise signal alone is

It is obtained by making the other input R(s) equal to zero.

Consider a closed loop control system with noise signal as shown below.

The closed loop transfer function due to noise signal alone is

It is obtained by making the other input R(s) equal to zero.

Compare Equation 7 and Equation 8,
In the closed loop control system, the gain due to noise signal is decreased by a factor
of (1+GaGbH) provided that the term (1+GaGbH) is greater than one.

CONTROL SYSTEMS - MATHEMATICAL MODELS

The control systems can be represented with a set of mathematical equations known
as mathematical model. These models are useful for analysis and design of control systems.
Analysis of control system means finding the output when we know the input and mathematical
model. Design of control system means finding the mathematical model when we know the
input and the output.
The following mathematical models are mostly used.

 Differential equation model

 Transfer function model