UNIT 2

MODERN MOVEMENT AND

INTERNATIONAL STYLE

Presented by: Ar. Sabeeha Haq

 SECOND PHASE OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION (1870-1914)

• It was a period of growth for pre-existing industries and expansion of new ones; such as the steel, oil and electricity fields.
• The development of new technologies led to the introduction of two things that changed the world: public transport and planes.
• Steel replaced iron in the building business. It was strong and it was cheap.

 EMERGENCE OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE

The emergence of modern architecture was a transformative period in architectural history that spanned the late 19th to mid-
20th century. It represented a radical departure from traditional styles, driven by new technologies, materials, social changes,
and philosophical shifts. Modern architecture marked a dramatic shift in the way people thought about and designed buildings.
It was characterized by functionalism, simplicity, and the use of modern materials. The key factors and developments are as
follows:

1. Industrial Revolution and Technological Advances

• Mass production: The Industrial Revolution (late 18th century) introduced mass production, which allowed for standardized
building materials, such as steel, glass, and reinforced concrete. This facilitated the construction of larger and more complex
structures.
• New materials: Steel and reinforced concrete allowed for the creation of taller and more open structures. Steel frames
replaced heavy masonry, leading to the rise of skyscrapers and lighter buildings.
• Elevators: Invention of elevators made it feasible to design taller buildings for functional urban spaces.
2. Rejection of Ornamentation
• Critique of traditional styles: Modern architecture reacted against the ornate and decorative styles of previous eras,
like Gothic Revival, Baroque, and Neoclassicism. Modernists embraced the idea of "form follows function," a
principle that argued buildings should be designed primarily based on their purpose, not aesthetics.
• Minimalism: Ornamentation was seen as unnecessary, and architects began to favor clean lines, simple forms, and
the use of modern materials that were not hidden behind decorative facades.

3. Influence of Modern Art Movements

• Cubism, Futurism, De Stijl, and Bauhaus: Modern architecture was heavily influenced by contemporary art
movements. These movements emphasized abstraction, geometry, and functionalism.

4. Key Figures and Movements

• Louis Sullivan: Known as the "father of skyscrapers," Sullivan was instrumental in shaping the modern architectural
ethos, particularly with his principle of "form follows function.“
• Le Corbusier: A pioneering modernist architect, Le Corbusier promoted the idea of the "machine for living." His
designs focused on efficiency, open spaces, and modular forms, often utilizing concrete and steel.
• Frank Lloyd Wright: Wright developed organic architecture, which sought to harmonize buildings with their
environment, though his use of open spaces and modern materials also tied him to modernism.
• International Style: This architectural style, popularized by figures like Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Philip Johnson,
emphasized simplicity, glass and steel construction, and open, functional spaces. It became the dominant form of
modern architecture after World War II
5. Urbanization and Social Changes
• Population growth and urbanization: Rapid urbanization in the 19th
and 20th centuries demanded new approaches to housing, office
buildings, and infrastructure
• Social housing movements: In response to the industrialization of
cities, there was a need for affordable and functional housing for the
working class. This led to the development of mass housing solutions
and high-rise apartment buildings.

6. World Wars and Reconstruction

• Destruction and rebuilding: The devastation of World War I and II
forced countries to rebuild quickly and efficiently. Modern
architecture, with its emphasis on functionality and the use of readily
available materials like concrete, became the natural choice for 8. Philosophical Foundations
large-scale reconstruction projects. • Functionalism: Modernists believed that a
• Post-war boom: After WWII, modern architecture spread globally as building’s design should be based on its intended
new cities and infrastructures were developed rapidly. function, moving away from the decorative
excesses of the past.
7. Technological Innovations • The Machine Aesthetic: Influenced by the
• Skyscrapers: The technological ability to construct taller and lighter industrial age, modern architects often viewed
buildings led to the rise of skyscrapers in cities like Chicago and New buildings as machines for living or working,
York. meaning they should be designed for maximum
• Innovations in glass: The development of stronger and clearer glass efficiency, without unnecessary embellishments.
allowed for modernists to create buildings with expansive windows,
contributing to a more transparent and light-filled aesthetic.
CUBISM:
A revolutionary new approach to representing reality invented in
around 1907–08 by artists Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque. They
brought different views of subjects (usually objects or figures) together
in the same picture, resulting in paintings that appear fragmented and
abstracted.
The common characteristics of the buildings of the Cubist movement
were transparency, spatial ambiguity, form-faceting, and multiplicity.
Architects also borrowed and played with concepts like abstraction,
geometrization, symbolism, distortion, fragmentation, and illusion.

The cubists wanted to show the whole structure of objects in their

paintings without using techniques such as perspective or graded
shading to make them look realistic. They wanted to show things as
they really are – not just to show what they look like.
 CHICAGO SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE
Characteristics
In the history of American art, the term "Chicago The Chicago School was defined by several innovative architectural principles
School" commonly refers to the groundbreaking and features:
skyscraper architecture developed during the [Link]-frame Construction:
period 1879-1910. One of the most important contributions of the Chicago School was the
development and use of steel-frame construction. Instead of relying on
The Chicago School of Architecture refers to a load-bearing masonry walls, buildings could be supported by a steel
group of architects and a design movement that skeleton, which allowed them to rise much higher than previously
emerged in Chicago in the late 19th and early possible. This innovation was crucial for the development of skyscrapers.
20th centuries. [Link] Plate Glass Windows:
It is particularly known for pioneering the With the structural support of steel frames, walls no longer needed to
development of skyscrapers and creating a carry the building's weight, allowing for large expanses of glass
distinct architectural style that emphasized windows.
modern materials, structural innovation, and [Link] Ornamentation:
functional design. Buildings of the Chicago School tended to emphasize functionality and
The school’s influence helped shape modern clarity in design, rejecting the excessive ornamentation. The focus was
urban architecture, especially in North America. on simple, clean lines and the honest use of modern materials.
[Link] on Verticality:
Historical Context As skyscrapers emerged, architects began to highlight the vertical nature
In 1871, the Great Chicago Fire destroyed much of these buildings through design elements like tall windows, thin
of the city, creating an urgent need for rebuilding. columns, and vertical façade.
As a rapidly growing industrial and commercial [Link] Follows Function:
hub, Chicago required new buildings that could A key philosophy associated with the Chicago School (and later the
accommodate a large population and businesses. Modernist movement) was "form follows function”.
Several important architects were part of or influenced by the
Chicago School, and their works helped shape the city’s skyline.

[Link] Sullivan:
Often referred to as the "father of skyscrapers," Sullivan
was a central figure in the Chicago School. He is credited
with helping develop the philosophy of "form follows
function" and designing some of the first true
skyscrapers. Notable works include:
i. Wainwright Building (St. Louis, 1891) –
Considered one of the earliest skyscrapers.
ii. Carson Pirie Scott Building (Chicago, 1899) – Wainwright Building Scott Building
Known for its extensive use of glass windows
and elegant yet functional design.
[Link] Le Baron Jenney:
Considered the "father of the American skyscraper,"
Jenney designed the Home Insurance Building (Chicago,
1885), widely recognized as the first skyscraper to use a
steel-frame structure, making it one of the first true
skyscrapers.
[Link] & Sullivan:
The partnership of Louis Sullivan and Dankmar Adler
produced several influential designs, including the
Auditorium Building (Chicago, 1889), which was
innovative for its combination of commercial spaces, a
hotel, and a theater in one large complex.
Home Insurance Building Auditorium Building
Early Modern Architecture (1850-1900)

Art and Craft Movement (1860-1920)

Art Nouveau (1890-1910)

Art Deco (1920-1940)

Late Modern Architecture ( (1900-1960)

Art Deco(1920-1940)
• Art deco favoured plain and
The piers read as pillars
geometrical forms.
• Heavy and solid look.
• Setbacks (inward steps)
• Narrow strips of windows
• The foremost examples are found
in New York: CHRYSLER BUILDING
and EMPIRE STATE BUILDING.
ART DECO MOTIFS

EMPIRE STATE BUILDING

CHRYSLER BUILDING
 Late Modern Architecture 1900-1960

 LATE MODERNISM IS ALSO

KNOWN AS HIGH-TECH
ARCHITECTURE OR
STRUCTURAL
EXPRESSIONISM.

 EMERGED IN 20TH CENTURY.

BUILDINGS DESIGNED IN THIS

STYLE USUALLY CONSIST OF
GLASS
• FOR THE FAÇADE , STEEL FOR
• EXTERIOR SUPPORT AND
CONCRETE
• FOR THE FLOORS AND
INTERIOR
• SUPPORTS

 BAUHAUS, A GERMAN LOUVRE MEUSEUM , PARIS

SCHOOL OF DESIGN ALSO
PAID A GREAT CONTRIBUTION
TO THIS ERA.
BANK OF CHINA TOWER, HONG KONG
 DE STIJL MOVEMENT (1917-1931) A painting that adhered to neoplastic art theory would
typically consist of a balanced composition of simple
The movement was founded by Theo van Doesburg and Piet geometric shapes, right-angled relationships and primary
Mondrian, two pioneers of abstract art, in Netherlands. The name De colors
Stijl is Dutch for "the style”.

The De Stijl movement, also known as Neoplasticism, was an

influential Dutch artistic movement founded in 1917. It extended
across various disciplines, including painting, architecture, and
design, and is known for its radical abstraction and reduction to
essentials of form and color.

De Stijl was a revolutionary artistic movement that sought to

express universal harmony through abstraction, geometric form,
and primary colors. The movement’s legacy is particularly visible in
the modernist

Historical Context
The movement was founded during a time of significant upheaval.
World War I had devastated Europe, and many artists were seeking
a new form of expression that could symbolize peace, stability, and
a sense of order. De Stijl, meaning "The Style" in Dutch, emerged in
this context as a reaction to the chaos of the time and sought to
establish a universal aesthetic language that could be understood
by all, regardless of nationality or cultural background.
Characteristics

[Link] Abstraction:
Focused on pure abstraction, using geometric
forms—primarily squares, rectangles, and
straight lines.
[Link] of Primary Colors:
One of the defining characteristics of De Stijl
was its use of a limited color palette, primarily
red, blue, and yellow, along with the non-colors
black, white, and gray. These colors were used
in their purest forms.
[Link] and Dynamic Balance:
De Stijl compositions often avoided symmetry,
favoring asymmetrical arrangements that
sought to create balance through opposition
rather than through traditional, centered
designs. This dynamic tension was central to the
movement’s philosophy of creating a
harmonious yet dynamic structure.
[Link] on Horizontal and Vertical Lines:
The movement was characterized by the
exclusive use of horizontal and vertical lines,
avoiding diagonal or curved lines.
[Link] van Doesburg:
• Theo van Doesburg was one of the founding
members of De Stijl. He was a painter, writer,
and architect.
• Van Doesburg later introduced diagonal elements
in his work, which eventually led to
disagreements with other members of the group,
especially Piet Mondrian.

[Link] Mondrian:
• Perhaps the most famous artist associated with
De Stijl, Mondrian is known for his iconic abstract
paintings featuring grids of black lines filled with
blocks of primary colors.
• Mondrian’s personal philosophy, known as
Neoplasticism, was central to De Stijl. He believed
in reducing art to its most basic forms to reflect
the underlying harmony of the universe.

[Link] Rietveld:
An important architect and designer within the
De Stijl movement, Rietveld is best known for his
Red and Blue Chair (1917) and the Rietveld
Schröder House (1924).
De Stijl in Architecture and Design Influence
• It played a significant role in the rise of minimalism and the International Style in
[Link]: architecture, with its focus on simplicity, function, and abstraction.
• The Rietveld Schröder House is the • De Stijl’s influence can also be seen in the Bauhaus school, another major modernist
most notable example of De Stijl movement that shared similar goals of uniting art, architecture, and design.
architecture. The house features an
open plan, movable partitions, and a
strong use of primary colors and
geometric forms, reflecting the
movement’s focus on simplicity and
function.
• De Stijl’s architectural influence can
also be seen in the development of
modernist architecture, particularly
in the International Style, which
shared De Stijl’s emphasis on
functionalism and abstraction.

[Link] Design:
• De Stijl also extended to furniture,
with Gerrit Rietveld’s designs being
the most prominent. His Red and
Blue Chair is a key example,
composed entirely of straight lines
and colored planes, embodying the
movement’s geometric purity and
use of primary colors.
BAUHAUS MOVEMENT (1919-33)

The Bauhaus movement was a revolutionary school of art, design, and

architecture founded in Germany in 1919 by the architect Walter Gropius.
The Bauhaus sought to unify art, craft, and technology in a way that could
respond to the needs of the modern industrial world.
It emphasized functionality, simplicity, and the integration of different
artistic disciplines, marking a turning point in modernist thought.

Historical Context
The Bauhaus was founded in the aftermath of World War I, during a time
of social and economic upheaval in Germany. It emerged as a response to
the need for reconstruction and modernization, with a focus on creating
affordable, functional, and beautiful buildings for the masses

Objectives

[Link] of Art and Craft:

• One of the core principles of the Bauhaus was to eliminate the
traditional division between "fine art" (painting, sculpture) and
"applied art" (craft, design, architecture).
• The school promoted the idea that all forms of artistic
expression should be integrated and that artists should be
trained in various disciplines, from painting to furniture-
making and typography.
2. Functionalism: Key Figures
The Bauhaus emphasized that design should
prioritize function over aesthetics, advocating for a [Link] Gropius:
principle of "form follows function". The aesthetic Founder and first director of the Bauhaus, Gropius set the
of simplicity, clarity, and clean lines became foundational vision of the movement, which emphasized the unity of
synonymous with Bauhaus design. art, craft, and technology.
3. Use of Modern Materials: 2.László Moholy-Nagy:
The movement embraced new, industrial materials Moholy-Nagy was a Hungarian artist and professor at the Bauhaus who
such as steel, concrete, glass. played a significant role in expanding the school’s focus on
4. Emphasis on Mass Production: photography, industrial design, and experimental use of materials.
Unlike previous art movements, the Bauhaus [Link] Klee:
actively promoted design for mass production. A Swiss painter and teacher at the Bauhaus, Klee’s work is known for its
This was not only a response to the industrial age playful use of color, geometry, and abstraction. He contributed to the
but also aligned with the Bauhaus's social mission school’s emphasis on color theory and the integration of artistic
to produce affordable, well-designed goods for expression with design principles.
everyday use. Bauhaus designers worked on [Link] Kandinsky:
prototypes that could be produced efficiently in Kandinsky, a Russian painter and one of the pioneers of abstract art,
factories, making modern design available to a taught at the Bauhaus and contributed his theories of color and form.
wider audience. His approach to abstraction and the spiritual qualities of art influenced
5. Integration of Technology: the school’s emphasis on connecting emotional and intellectual
The Bauhaus movement celebrated the marriage aspects in design.
of art with technology. The goal was to harness the [Link] Breuer:
potential of new technologies to create better, Breuer was an architect and designer who became well-known for his
more efficient designs for living spaces, furniture, furniture designs, particularly his Wassily Chair (1925), which used
and everyday objects. tubular steel to create a lightweight and minimalist structure.
Political Pressure and Closure Influence
In 1933, the Nazi regime forced the [Link] Style:
school to close, condemning its The Bauhaus is closely associated with the International Style of modernist architecture,
modernist ideas as "degenerate art." which emphasized minimalism, open floor plans, and the use of modern materials like
Despite its closure, the Bauhaus’s glass, steel, and concrete. Architects like Gropius and Mies van der Rohe brought these
influence continued to spread as many principles to projects worldwide, especially in the United States.
of its leading figures, including Walter [Link] on Design Education:
Gropius, László Moholy-Nagy, and The Bauhaus revolutionized design education by promoting a hands-on, workshop-based
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, emigrated approach that is still prevalent in art and design schools today.
to other countries, particularly the [Link] and Industrial Design:
United States, where they continued Bauhaus designs, particularly in furniture, remain iconic and are still widely produced and
to teach and practice. admired today.
CIAM (Congrès Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne) 1928-1959

CIAM (International
Congresses of Modern
Architecture) was a key
organization that played a
crucial role in the development
and promotion of modernist
architecture and urban
planning throughout the 20th
century.

Founded in 1928 by prominent

architects like Le Corbusier,
Sigfried Giedion, Walter
Gropius, and Hélène de Historical Context
Mandrot, CIAM sought to CIAM emerged in the aftermath of World
address the social, economic, War I, during a period of rapid
and technological challenges industrialization, urbanization, and social
of modern urbanization change across Europe.
through a functional approach The world was facing severe housing
to architecture. shortages, overcrowded cities, and outdated
infrastructure, which required innovative
architectural and urban planning solutions.
Objectives of CIAM

1. Promote Modernist Architecture:

CIAM was instrumental in advancing the principles of modernism in
architecture, which emphasized functionality and the use of new
materials like steel, glass, and concrete. It rejected historical styles
and ornamentation, advocating for the creation of structures that
responded to the needs of the modern industrialized world.

2. Functional Urban Planning:

One of CIAM’s core missions was to rethink and modernize urban
planning. They advocated for cities to be designed around the
functional needs of their inhabitants, including proper zoning for
housing, work, recreation, and transportation.

3. Housing for All:

Addressing the severe housing crisis was a major concern for CIAM.
The organization focused on designing affordable and efficient
housing for the working class, emphasizing that architecture should
serve society’s needs rather than cater to elite tastes.

4. Standardization and Industrialization:

CIAM supported the use of standardized building techniques and
mass production in architecture to make housing and urban
infrastructure more efficient and affordable.
Principles

The Athens Charter, a landmark document produced by CIAM in 1933, outlined the key principles of modern urban planning and
became a blueprint for post-war reconstruction. It was largely based on Le Corbusier’s ideas and laid out the following guidelines:

[Link] of Urban Functions:

The Athens Charter proposed that cities should be organized into distinct functional zones, each dedicated to one of four key
human activities: dwelling (housing), working, recreation, and transportation. These zones were intended to improve
efficiency and reduce congestion.
[Link] on Open Spaces:
CIAM believed that modern cities should prioritize open spaces and green areas, which would provide light, air, and
recreational spaces for residents. High-density housing was encouraged, but it was to be accompanied by ample outdoor
areas.
[Link] of Traffic and Pedestrians:
The Athens Charter emphasized the need to separate automobile traffic from pedestrian pathways to ensure safety and
efficiency. This idea was central to Le Corbusier’s vision of the modern city, where wide roads were allocated for vehicles,
and pedestrian movement was elevated or routed separately.
[Link]-Rise Buildings and Verticality:
CIAM architects, particularly Le Corbusier, advocated for the use of high-rise buildings to maximize land use and create more
open spaces. These structures were designed to accommodate large numbers of people while freeing up ground-level space
for parks and recreational areas.
[Link] Use of Resources:
The movement promoted the efficient and rational use of land, building materials, and energy. By focusing on functionality
and eliminating superfluous ornamentation, CIAM architects sought to minimize waste and create more sustainable urban
environments.
Key Figures
CIAM Congresses and Key Outcomes
[Link] Corbusier:
Over the years, CIAM held several influential congresses that shaped
Le Corbusier was a pioneering modernist architect who played
the development of modern architecture and urban planning. Some
a leading role in the organization. His vision of the "machine
of the most significant include:
for living" and his concept of the Radiant City, which called
[Link] Congress (1928):
for high-rise towers in a park-like setting, had a profound
Held in Switzerland, the first CIAM congress laid the foundation
influence on CIAM's ideas on urban planning.
for the movement. It established the organization’s mission to
[Link] Gropius:
promote modernist principles in architecture and to develop
As a founder of both CIAM and the Bauhaus, Gropius brought
new approaches to urban planning.
his experience in modernist design and architecture to the
[Link] Congress (1933):
organization. He advocated for functionalism, mass
The fourth congress, held aboard a ship traveling between
production, and the social responsibility of architects in
Marseille and Athens, resulted in the publication of the Athens
creating buildings that could meet the needs of the people.
Charter. This document became a cornerstone of modernist
[Link] Giedion:
urban planning, emphasizing the functional organization of
A Swiss historian and one of CIAM’s founding members,
cities and advocating for zoning, high-rise buildings, and open
Giedion was instrumental in documenting and promoting
spaces.
modernist architecture. He authored several key texts,
[Link] Congress (1953):
including Space, Time and Architecture, which outlined the
By the early 1950s, the rigid principles of functionalist
history and evolution of modernist thought and became one
urbanism were being questioned by younger architects. It was
of the definitive books on 20th-century architecture.
criticized for disregarding the social and emotional needs of
[Link] van Eesteren:
people living in urban environments.
A Dutch architect and urban planner, Cornelis van Eesteren
The ninth CIAM congress in France, marked a turning point, as
was another prominent figure in CIAM. His work, particularly
younger architects like Alison and Peter Smithson began
his urban plans for Amsterdam and other cities, reflected
advocating for a more human-centered approach to
CIAM’s emphasis on zoning, functionality, and the integration
architecture and urban planning, which eventually led to the
of transportation with urban development.
emergence of Team 10.
INTERNATIONAL STYLE
INTERNATIONAL STYLE (1920-1970)

The International Style is a major architectural movement that emerged in the 1920s and 1930s, in Western Europe, characterized by
a focus on functionality, simplicity, and the use of modern materials such as glass, steel, and reinforced concrete.
The term was popularized by architects and historians Philip Johnson and Henry-Russell Hitchcock in their 1932 exhibition at the
Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York.

Key Characteristics of the International Style

1. Form Follows Function:

The International Style emphasized that the form of a building
should be determined by its function rather than by decorative
elements or historical references. This principle, which was
famously articulated by modernist architect Louis Sullivan, led to
buildings with simple, geometric shapes devoid of
ornamentation.

2. Emphasis on Volume Over Mass:

Buildings in the International Style are characterized by their
focus on volume (open, flowing spaces) rather than mass.
Structures were often designed with large, open spaces and
minimal internal walls, allowing for flexible and adaptable
interiors. Le Corbusier, Villa Savoye, France
3. Use of Modern Materials:
Architects of the International Style embraced modern materials like glass, steel,
and reinforced concrete, which allowed for new forms and greater structural
flexibility. The extensive use of glass created light-filled interiors and blurred the
boundaries between inside and outside spaces.

4. Flat Roofs and Clean Lines:

The style typically featured flat roofs and simple, unadorned facades. Horizontal
and vertical lines, along with a preference for right angles, became hallmarks of
the style, resulting in a clean, minimalist appearance.

5. Open Floor Plans:

Open and flexible floor plans were a key aspect of the International Style. This was
made possible by the use of modern materials, especially steel frames and
reinforced concrete, which allowed for wide, column-free interior spaces.

6. Lack of Ornamentation:
The International Style rejected unnecessary decoration and ornamentation.
Buildings were stripped of any applied decoration, focusing solely on the purity of
form, material, and function.

7. Asymmetry:
While earlier architectural styles often relied on symmetrical designs, the
International Style embraced asymmetry. Buildings were often designed with
irregular or dynamic layouts, creating an interesting interplay between volumes
and spaces.
Le Corbusier:
A central figure in the development of the International Style, Le
Corbusier was a French-Swiss architect who promoted modernism
with his principles of functionalism, modular design, and urban
planning. His iconic works, such as the Villa Savoye (1931),
epitomized the use of concrete, open floor plans, and a minimalist
aesthetic. His concept of the Five Points of Architecture (pilotis, flat
roof, open plan, free facade, horizontal windows) became key
elements of the style.

Building based on five point of architecture

• Pilotis – These pilotis, in providing the structural support for the house.

• A free façade- meaning non-supporting walls that could be designed as the architect wished.

• An open floor plan- meaning that the floor space was free to be configured into rooms without
concern for supporting walls.

• Ribbon windows: that allow unencumbered views of the large surrounding yard .

• Roof Garden: to compensate the green area consumed by the building and replacing it on the roof.

Walter Gropius:
Founder of the Bauhaus and an influential modernist architect,
Gropius was instrumental in the spread of the International Style.
His designs, including the Bauhaus School building in Dessau (1925–
1926), embodied the principles of functionality, simplicity, and the
use of modern materials.
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe:
One of the most important figures of the International Style, Mies van der
Rohe is known for his famous phrase "less is more." His architecture focused
on clarity, open space, and the use of modern materials. Landmark
buildings like the Seagram Building in New York (1958) and the Barcelona
Pavilion (1929) exemplified the minimalism and elegance of the style.

Philip Johnson and Henry-Russell Hitchcock:

The two men were instrumental in promoting the International Style through
their 1932 MoMA exhibition, which gave the movement its name. Johnson,
an architect, and Hitchcock, an architectural historian, emphasized the
principles of functionalism, lack of ornamentation, and modern materials
in their writings and curation of the exhibition.
POST-WAR CONSTRUCTION IN EUROPE
1. Modernism as a Dominant Style
•Functionalism: Architects sought functional solutions that could address the housing crisis and infrastructure needs efficiently. This
led to a focus on utilitarian design and minimalism.
•Bauhaus Influence: Bauhaus ideals of merging art and technology, mass production, and social responsibility shaped many
reconstruction projects.
•Le Corbusier’s Principles: The Swiss-French architect Le Corbusier became a central figure. His ideas about urbanism, such as the
Radiant City, influenced the design of new cities and large housing estates. His use of béton brut (raw concrete) popularized the
Brutalist style, which became emblematic of post-war architecture.

2. Rebuilding Historic Cities

•Restoration vs. Modernization: Many European cities faced a dilemma after the war—whether to restore historic buildings and
streetscapes or to modernize their urban environments. In cities like Warsaw, the decision was made to meticulously reconstruct
historic areas, while other cities like Coventry in the UK opted for modern rebuilding.

3. Public Housing and Mass Housing Projects

•Need for Housing
•Large-Scale Housing Estates

4. Brutalism and the Use of Concrete

•Brutalism: The 1950s and 1960s saw the rise of Brutalism, a style that embraced the raw aesthetics of materials, particularly concrete.
Brutalism was often associated with social housing and public buildings due to its emphasis on low-cost materials and functional design.
PHILOSOPHIES OF MINIMALISM AND FORM FOLLOWS FUNCTION
 Above is a comparison of Sullivan’s Wainwright Building (right) and
the contemporary New York Times Building (left). Construction of
the two skyscrapers was only a few years apart, but the difference
in style is striking.

Note how Sullivan’s design starts with a distinct ground floor, then
continues with a consistent middle section, and ends with his
trademark “bulls-eye” windows at the top floor.

That was intentional. According to Sullivan, this “three-part

division” is a result of the three main functions of the building:

1. The bottom floors house the shops and retail areas. These
floors have higher ceilings.
2. Floors 3-9 are designed for office space. They all look identical
because, according to Sullivan, “having the same unchanging
Auditorium Building Wainwright Building function, [they] shall continue in the same unchanging form.”
1886-1889 1890 and 1891 3. Sullivan designed the final floor to show “that the series of
office-tiers has come definitely to an end.” The attic can afford
smaller windows because it’s lit from above by skylight.

Rather than hide the innovative steel skeleton that holds the
Aesthetically, the Wainwright Building exemplifies Sullivan's theories building upright, Sullivan incorporated it into his design. He used
about the tall building, which included a tripartite (three-part) the vertical beams of the steel frame to accentuate the height of
composition (base-shaft-attic) based on the structure of the classical the Wainwright Building. Though it’s only 10 stories tall, these
column and his desire to emphasize the height of the building. steel beams create an illusion of a much taller structure.
LE CORBUSIER
City of To-morrow

Expanding his vision from a building to a city, Corbusier gave

this theory to approach ‘urban crises’.

According to Corbusier, people would rather choose to live in

the outskirts than to be in a city, thus a city should be planned
with accommodating the central part for commerce and
covering the surrounding with greens.

The central zone should have all the skyscrapers while the
remaining residential belt to be developed in zigzag pattern with His philosophy for designing a building is laid out in his “Five
leaving the required setback. Points of a New Architecture:”

[Link], or piles: Columns that support a building’s mass,

Le Corbusier’s first foray into urban planning was the opening the ground underneath to free green space and allow
for automobile movement.
Contemporary City (Ville Contemporaine), a universal concept [Link] FREE PLAN: The separation of load-bearing columns
for a city of 3 million. from internal walls, allowing free modification of the floor plan.
[Link] FREE FAÇADE: Similar to the free plan, the façade
could be designed flexibly, since it had no structural function.
[Link] HORIZONTAL WINDOW: The free façade can be cut
horizontally to light the whole space.
[Link] ROOF GARDEN: Recover the sunlit green space lost
beneath the building with a garden on the roof.
City of To-morrow

The basic strategy behind these various schemes was to create vertical architecture and leave plenty of shared open
space in between for people to use and enjoy.

The resulting horizontal areas would serve as traffic corridors as well as public landscapes with lush greenery.
Pedestrians, cyclists, drivers and public transportation users were given dedicated routes to get around, set up
(or down) at various elevations.
VILLE CONTEMPORAINE, 1922
• Intended to house 3 million inhabitants.

• It consists of rectangle containing two cross

axial highways.

• He plots a central business district of 24

identical cruciform skyscrapers of 60-story
with density 1200 ppa (people per acre) and
covers 5% of the ground, housed both offices
and the flats of the most wealthy inhabitants,
on a 400-yard (365 meter) grid with broad park
space between them.

• The buildings in the central area were raised on

stilts (pilotis) so as to leave panaromas of
unbroken greenery at ground level.

• He thereby aims to increase density while

decreasing congestion: 95 percent of this area
would be open, and include various squares,
restaurants and theaters.
• As one moved out from the central
skyscrapers, surrounding skyscrapers
was apartment district – 8 storey
buildings arranged in zig zag rows with
density of 120 ppa set in green space
for the working class. (LIG/MIG)

• Beyond the residential blocks, is a vast

area of greenery, placing gardens for
workers and industrial districts, ports.

• At the center of the planned city was a

transportation hub.

• The main goal of the project was to

facilitate traffic, therefore; fast
automobile traffic was completely
separated from pedestrians lanes he and
glorified the use of the automobile as a
means of transportation.
Different uses—residences, industry, commerce, office work,
culture, recreation—would occupy completely different sectors
of the city.
Analogy of the city with the abstract image of a
man

• The skyscrapers (business area) of the Ville

Contemporaine were rearranged away from
the city centre at the ‘head’.

• The ‘body’ was made up of acres of housing

strips laid out in a stepping plan to generate
semi-courts of greenery containing tennis
courts, playing fields and paths.

• Traffic pattern – an orthogonal system

• Light manufacturing, freight yards and

heavy industries at the bottom
The first planned city in India, created soon after
India’s independence in 1947.
FRANK L. WRIGHT
The philosophy behind his community planning
was decentralization. In this decentralization of
cities, all services, amenities and facilities could
exist together "factories could be set side by side
with farmland and residences.”
Transit-oriented
development (TOD) is a
type of urban development
that concentrates
residential, business, and
leisure areas within
walking distance of public
transportation. TODs are
designed to be compact,
mixed-use, and
pedestrian- and cycle-
friendly.
THANK YOU 