EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY 7.1¥* Origin of Earth MW Biological Evolution $ 72/, Theories on the Origin of Life? 7.7 Important Concepts Evidences for Evolution 7 7.8 Geological Time Scale 7.4/ Examples of Evolution by Natural %9 Concept of Species Selection 79" Origin and Evolution of Man ae Adaptive Radiations the study of history of living Evolutionary biology refers to a branch of biology that deals with things on earth. In other words, evolutionary biology deals with the s have changed through time or evolved through time, What is evolution? In nature, there is a great diversity of life. All around us, th ‘Forms. The great diversity that exists today is a result of about from simple organisms of the past. _ . © ‘The word evolution has been derived from a Latin word ‘evoluere” meaning (0_ ‘unroll or unfold’. Evolution means to unfold and understand the changes that took place in living s of year. For this itis important to know two very important events. 1. Origin of life, ie., when did the first living form come into existence which is directly related to the origin of earth. 2. Evolution of life comprises of mechanisms that have les on earth. tudy of living things as they ere is enormous variety in living "3500 million years of evolution d to changes and biodiversity 7.1 ORIGIN OF EARTH Man has always been perplexed about the origin of earth. For centuries, number of theories/hypothesis have been suggested to explain the origin in their own way. Some important events leading to the origin of earth have been discussed below. © From earth when we look into the sky, we see thousands of stars, galaxies, planets and moon. All together they make a huge universe. Earth is just a tiny speck in the universe.peltionar? Biology 165 ‘The most acceptable theory about the origi is , 5 ' : igin of Earth is the B this theory, earth is about 4.6 billion (4600 million) fan old ee pong ‘Theory ding to Big Bang Theory, the followi acc eet oa ing sequence of universe originated about 15 billion (15 x 10°) years go By @ singular huge thermonuclear explosion unimaginable in physical terms. -__As the universe expanded, the temperature came down and various galaxies formed. Milky way is one such galaxy of which solar system is one small part. - Solar system (sun, earth and planets) was probably Sacre, 15 billion (41500 million) years ago out of a spherical gaseous cloud called solar nebula. “ (i) The spherical cloud of cosmic dust and gases started collapsing under the influence of its own gravity into a rotating flattened disc. (ii) The sun and the planets were formed from a spherical cloud of gases and cosmic dust which by rotation and gravitation formed sun at the centre and a swirling belt of gases around it. (iii) With time the smaller clouds condensed by gravity _ to form planets. a (iv) Earth was in a more or less gaseous state. It was a molten fire-ball (4000-8000°C) for millions of years. Eventually earth began to cool which took Fig. 7.1 Schematic millions of years and its matter began to condense representation of condensation in the form of solids, liquids and gases. of solar nebula (v) The surface of earth became solid along with volcanic eruptions giving out molten rock. They poured solid matter for millions of years and gave out enough matter to form the continents of earth. (vi) One of the major gases given out by volcanoes was steam (water vapour) which on cooling resulted in rainstorms that made the earth's oceans, rivers and Jakes. (vii) The earth’ atmosphere was mainly formed by volcanic gases like hydrogen, nitrogen, Water vapour and carbon dioxide (Fig. 7.5). oo (viii) The interaction of these gases resulted in the formation of methane and ammonia. (ix) The earth had a reducing atmosphere which meant that it did not have free oxygen. Free oxygen is not found in volcanic gases. (x) The first organisms that existed on earth must have been able to live without oxygen. welON 166 A Textbook Biology y ih (4) I is assumed that the simple one-celled organisms that resemble cyanobacteri, today came into existence about 3600 million (3.6 billion) years ago, * The water vapour fell as rain, to fill all the depressions and formed oceans, Earth was in more or less a gaseous state, It was a molten fire ball (4000-8000°C; Of Years. Eventually it cooled. Then it consisted of — (a) solid phase-the lithosphere and (b) a gaseous envelope-the atmosphere. As itcooled 10 a temperature below 100°C, (c) the liquid phase— the hydrosphere appeared, forth, DoE mit, 7.2 THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN OF Lie VS A number of theories have been given to explain the origin of life. These thecties are constan, under review and their validity is limited by the knowledge available at any given time. ty Most of the ideas on the origin of life fall into one of the four categories given below: (i) Origin of life by special creation (ii) Spontaneous generation of life (iii) Cosmic origin of life (iv) Chemical evolution of life 1. Origin of lite by special creation According to this theory, life is thought to be created by some supernatural force-the diving form, in a very short time. Life is a creation of God. Itis the oldest hypothesis. Most of the religion and civilizations still believe the creation of life to be a supernatural phenomenon of the past. By the traditional Judeo-Christian account of creation, the whole world and all the species were created in just six days. This theory of special creation has some connotations which are — @ Allliving organisms (species or types) that we see today were created as such, Life has not changed ever since its origin. (ii) The diversity was always the same since creation and will be the same in future also. Life is immutable. This theory is based on faith and there is no evidence in the scientific sense. 2. Spontaneous generation of life a ads Coins 2 fark BL Ancient Chinese, Egyptians and Greeks believed in spontaneous generation of life In fourth century B.C., the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that life could come into existence spontaneously from non-living material. People thought that snakes, fish and {og arose [Link], rats from garbage, insects from plant juices and micro-organisms from Watet and air. This theory was well accepted for hundreds of years. Many scientisis Wied differen ‘expéfiments but the results remained unconclusive. a )i poston Biology noe P 1. van Helmont’s Experiment In 17" century, van Helmont (1577—1642) performed For 21days an experiment by Keeping a dirty shirt with a few wheat aan - rains in a dark cupboard for 21 days (Fig. 7.2). At the end of the experiment mice were seen in the cupboard and so he Supported the thedy of spontaneous generation. According to him, the active agent was thought to be human sweat. . a 2. Redi’s Experiment /. Later in 1 Pea an biologist tried to test this theory of spontaneous generation. He kept dead fish, snake and meat in 4 wide mouthed flasks and left them open. He put the same things in another set of 4 flasks but sealed them thoroughly (Fig. 7.3). Redi observed little white worms and tarvae on decayed flesh in the opened flasks but didn’t find any ‘worms or flies in the sealed flasks. His experiment did support the idea that life can arise | from pre-existing life only, ie., the concept of biogenesis ‘Meat in sealed flasks > No larva { but it did not gain much support from the people, as they aes \,_ still believed in spontaneous generation of life. pig. 7:2 Experiment by van Helmont Pasteur’s Experiment In T367; Louis Pasteur, a French microbiologist finally disapproved the theory of spontaneous genéfation and gave the scientific explanation that life originated only from pre-existing life. He performed the experiment with swan Pasteur was Convinced That micro-organisms existed in the air and non-living matter like liquid is easily contaminated by these. He tried to prove itby carefully sterilising the solutions and showing that no organisms grew in the sterilised solutions. Broken neck 1. Powredthe 2. Benttheneck 3. Liguldwasbolled 4. Soluionwascooled. 5. If the neck was broken nutrient. of flask in the for several The dust particles and flask was tilted, solution shape of S minutes so that remained trapped at liquid came in contact ino the using heat bacteria were thebendotthetube. with dust or flask either killed or The solution micro-organisms. ‘ven outo ask remained sterte for Bacterial colonies or months moulds appeared in flask within afew days Fig. 7.4 Various steps in the experiment performed by Louis Pasteur[ 168 3. Cosmic origin of life but it is possible that life exists on man; planets other than the earth. This theory proposes that Iifé may not have originated on earth at all, instead some mete Cosmic dust may have carried life to earth. It is also called a theory of panspermia which ‘some spores or seeds (sperms) from an extraterrestrial source like a planet or a distant star May ha, infected the barren carth, and then evolved. According to this theory, life could have arisen once several times, in various parts of the Galaxy or Universe. This theory cannot be rejected straj away. Though there is no evidence currently available, with the discover of liquid water Jupiter's ice and the likelihood of fossils in the rocks from Mars, \ though it has yet to gain any credibility. _ oe Jinnat | SOE origin of fife, . Scientists are looking for a possibility of life on other planets. So far there is no clear e ‘4. Chemical evolution of life—scientific hypothesis The abiogenic chemical evolution of life is the most widely accepted scientific theory of, Origin of life. A. Origin of life from non-living molecules: Possible steps in the origin of life (i) Atoms: H (Hydrogen), C (Carbon), © (Oxygen), N (Nitrogen) Gases: Hydrogen (H,), Water vapour (H,0), Methane (CH,), Ammonia (NH) 7 _Carbon dioxide (CO,), Hydrocyanic acid (HCN) SAK 3 (om 2X IS TON CN atmosphere \ Br Wie Me: IRE @ Erupting soos c 3 Methane [Molecule in ocean ‘Macromolecules | — {formed in oceans |, Fig. 7.5 Synthesis of complex molecules that accumulated in primitive oceans. iden, op : benea this theory has surfaced agen A Textbook of Biolo, 8X |ion Biology 169 H,0 — a ots tee J Sugars, fatty acids and glycerol ch +HCN + H,0 + NH, ———_____, Nisogen toes ar + sugar = — > i Gi) ane acid + glycerol —___ ——» Tae “estas ‘Amino acid + amino acid Proteins Nitrogen bases + sugars + phosphates — x) Aggregates of proteins __ : " Origin of first cell re) Origin of photoautotrophs ~—> Nucleotides and nucleic acids _-» Coacervates “ + Anaerobic chemoheterotrophs 0 —> Photosynthesis —> 0, (oxygen) Itled to oxidising atmosphere, aerobic respiration and formation of ozone layer. ¢ oparin Haldane theory (B85 i “ qwo biochiemsts; the Russian, A.I. Oparin in 1923 and the Englishman, J.B.S, Haldane 1928, ndently gave the biochemical theory of origin of life. = ‘According to the Oparin-Haldane theory, the complex organic molecules would have been frmed through a series of chemical reactions in the earth's primordial soup ot we might say Darwin's ‘earn lttle pond. | — They proposed that the chemical synthesis of organic compounds occurred in the warm Shemical synthesis of organic compounc oceans. — There was abundant energy for the synthesis of these chemicals on earth, It was present in the formof’— ——— (i) Powerful ultraviolet radiations from sun since there was no ozone layer to inhibit this energy to enter the earth. ©) Gi) Radiation from radioactive rocks | @ii) Heat energy from volcanoes. (iv) Electric energy from lightning. — Various organic molecules like amino acids, sugar and nucl 8 : spontaneously Trom ammonia, methane and water. ammonia, methane and water 4— Continuous rain washed these compounds into cea an DO ve § — Since there were no living organisms to consume them and no pxygeirte destroy intermediate compounds, the Organic compounds necessary for life gradually accumulated in the oceans which became primordial soups or broths which could support life. 6 — Complex organic were formed through chemical reactions in these nutrient rich jiimoria soups ew life could have arisen : 3— Oparin suggested the formation of clusters or specialised droplets called coacervates (in Latin means clustered) which could grow, divide and replicate themselves. { — The coacervates may have produced the primitive type of cell taking other molecules from the broth, = ide bases were formed a170 . A Textbook of Bioy Oparin cons; Ry Of Ron ving to lives f0Mmation of protcin 0 be very crucial for the transf Seveloped from eee Simplest one-celled ms like cyanobacteria of today ros Mitive 4 C. Miller ana Urey’s expe a ow ly Stanley Mitte “ v to test in 1953, "4 Harola c, Urey did series of experiments and put Oparin-Haldane POS =) 5 ce aoe oo They tied t Mey the apparatus as es J euitions that might have existed on earthin the laboratory. They 7 fmisture of pases including mone first evacuated the apparatus, made it sterile and then a wethans (CH), ammonia (1 and hydrogen (H,) into it. There *y gen. He created electiic discharge in this cea en pat 800°C, "tg Gas chamber Electrodes (or electric spark) CH, gases supposed Gases NHs| tobe Present on primitive earth Boiling water ‘Condenser (to coo! hot vapour) Liquid trap (to withdraw the ~ products forried) Heat Fig. 7.6 Apparatus set up by Miller and Urey to recreate condit — Water in the flask was boiled to pr for reaction (oxygenation) (Fig. 7. _SnerBy Was Supplied by the electric sparks from electrodes in the gaseous chamber. (= ‘Atone place a trap was provided to collect the prod ~ The conditions created were of gases, heat, rain, eles have existed on earth. tions of primitive atmosphere te circulation and to provide necessary water vapour of the chemical reaction. scharge li lightning as supposed to The experiment was run continuously for about a week and analysed. 3 Results of Miller-Urey experiment: The chemicals formed during experiment included amino X then the products formed wert acids like alanine and glycine and aspartic acid, aldehydes} simple sugars like ribose, complet molecules like adenine, one of the nitrogenous bases in DNA and RNA. pS = >. aa nuchsltles, pir gre jonary Biology Jrrelivin, Macrily newt + im poli formed giving rise-to following conclusions: sions: Si n the experi coer types of OTECUTEs have be arpe abiotic synthesis of ar ‘The abiotic synthesis of organic molecules in the ex We off, ie life originated from non-living tolving. conditions suggests the abiotic ‘The nt has been repeated by.a number of scientists and many pig 3 building blocks of cells like nucleotides, amino aei primitive earth in similar ‘conditions nn” UBO-acids, ete. could have been formed on {Ss ing block ‘ ‘ould have combined to form complex polymers like proteins and Since free oxygen destroys most of the intermediate roducts, the i i ‘i , the presence of intermediate products supported the Oparin and Haldane's hypothesis of reducing atmosphere (without /oxygen) at primitive earth. (aviotic synthesis of molecules is possible only in the reducing atmosphere She abundance Uf free oxygen (as is on earth today) prevents the abiotic origin of We 6 life originated from the earth’s inorganic atmosphere in the past but it no longer happens today. Today life originates only from pre-existing life as postulated by Louis Pasteur. (The first organisms were heterotrophs. They were anaerobic, as oxygen was not found on earth. They utilised the compounds present in oceans. Latér the first photosynthetic organisms like cyanobacteria came into existence about 3300-3500 million years ago. With the evolution of “plorophyll molecule, oxygen was reledsed as a byproduct of photosynthesis and this changed the canh’s atmosphere Trom reducing to oxidising) It was also the evtd of abiosynthesis, The chemical * evolution was followed by the biological evolution.) 7.3 EVIDENCES FOR EVOLUTION M5 According to the theory of organic evolution, the life on earth has undergone a series of changes ver millions of years. The evidences for the same are provided from many sources, some of which are discussed below: - © raha. a. 4s Biba, Aahru [Link] evidence VS 6 ‘Palaeontology’ means ‘the study of fossils’. Fossils are the remains or impressions of organisms preserved in the rocks for centuries. The fossils cén be bones or teeth, impressions, casts or an entire organism (Fig. 7.7). Palaeontologists are the scientists that study =; the fossils from all over the world. From the study of the fossils ‘SY: following facts have emerged: A s _Siy There were a large number of species that lived in the Past and are extinct now meaning they do not exist any longer. 2 Fossil records show the appearance of new species at different times, making it clear that all organisms were not created at once. Oldest vertebrates are fish and = a Impressions of these fish “have been fossilized ina rock for thousands of years. — Fig. 7.7 Some fossilised structures> M2 A Textbook of Biology HD The fossil evidences reveal a gradual development of organisms with time () Palaeontology helps to reconstruct the phylogeny, ie., the evolutionary history th Craanism. The phylogeny of horse is the best example as an almost complete fossiy Tecgy has been found in North American sedimentary rocks. Phylogeny of man and clephant hat also been possible through fossil records. . () Palaeontology helps to study the forms and structure of the extinct animals. it (Wd The presence of intermediate forms in fossil records indicatethe connecting link ber tw ‘wo groups of organisms. For example, Archaeopteryx shows features of both Teptles = birds. ee 2: Blogeographical evidence v/ Biogeography means the study of pattern of distfibution of anim: plants in different parts of the “World The biogeographic map of the worlds we see today Consists of six major land masses called biogeographical realms (Fig. 7.8) 7 According to the hypothesis of continental drift proposed by Wegener, the earth has not been like this always. (i) About 200 million years ago, there was only one large land mass called Pangaea (in Greek it means earth) and all the continents that we see today were joined together. (ii) Pangaea broke apart as a result of the movements of crustal plates below the surface of the earth. The fragments began to drift northward and formed two major land masses named Laurasia and Gondwana (Fig. 7.9a) wondwana (Fi 4 ary men (2) 90 million years ago Fig. 7.9 Landmasses breaking up from a single huge landmass and drifting apart to form biogeographical realms of today, ion Biology 173 The land masses kept drifting away wy major continents (Fig. 7.9b). The oc among the continents, {iv) The organisms isolated on these land mas The geographic isolation led to the phy isolated organisms became more and species also. anples of biogeographical evidence Galapagos islands are a chain of islands situated in the Pacific Gi) ipwards and outwards and ultimately formed six ‘eans acted as barriers for movement of the organisms ses evolved independently over a period of time. 'ysiological and the behavioural changes and the more different. This led to the formation of new Met est coast of the South ° an on the Wé % ia Tree finch (vegetarian) (has. can mainland (Fig. 7.9). When 1, en rsscnorscc curved parret Ike beak in visited these islands in 1835, (eats boollee and cre, Eats ute and seeds) Flound the similarity in both plant sm=llinsects ‘animal species to those found on > ¢ mainland. He studied various We jesof a dll. coloured bird, inch \ | Wlrr rcrtoe The Galapagos finches (Fig. 7.10) ° resembIED MIE Of€S ON mainland but ie their beaks were different in size and AS Conus sine, Of the six major types, each Woodpecker tree finch was adapted to a specific kind of diet. [Creinal ancestor Spelgir pg ips Darwin concluded that a group of as cactus spine held in the finches occupied these islands about ree Cera fircch (long straight beak) 1200 years ag0. They flourished Rom mcmama due to unoccupied habitat but soon had to compete for food among themselves. The birds then invaded different environmental niches and adapted to different feeding habits. It led to the evolution of six different kinds of beaks, each one for a specific food. Eventually natural selection gave rise to various types of species. Large ground finch, Fig. 7.10 Darwin's finches on Galapagos islands 4. Evidence from comparative morphology and anatomy VS Acomparative study of the anatomical structures of different animals and plants provides a clue for evolution. The similarities in different groups point towards their common ancestry. The study of homologous, analogous and vestigial organs helps us to understand the comparative morphology and anatomy. A, Homologous organs The organs i ferent groups of [Link] the same basic structure and origin ares organs.(Fig. 7.11). They may differ in appearance and function due to specific it. adaptations of the organism to the environment. _A Textbook of Biology x 174 i Examples: pera (1) The whale’s flipper, the bat's wing, the horse's foot, the ase ee as mes ang | are the homologous organs (Fig. 7.11). They perform differen ily } anatomical structure, a They all have the same structural plan called the pentadacty! st nave humens, They approximately contain the same number of bones. ‘They eo Tad vase ulna, c: Metacarpals and phalanges. Anatomically theit on pod Nessa nerves are arranged on the same pattern. They have a similar embryoni pment, anisms must have had a comm, Homologous organs are used as an evidence that these ofg: = Radio-ulna (radius and i cannon § bone ooo Ha Basic pattem of —_ Whale’s flipper Bat's wing Horse's foot Human hand Fig. 7.11 Homologous organs G@) Homology at the molecular level is also seen in different organisms. The blood proteins of aan and apes are strikingly similar. The related organisms often show homology in the (Base sequence of nucleic acids and amino acids sequence in proteins. (\ Gi) Homology in plants. The thorn of ] Bougainvillea and tendril of Cucurbita have. | <__ the same origin. Both arise in the axillary > Position and hence are homologous. (8 The differences are attributed to adaptive” Tom ~~ modifications due to different modes of Me. Bougainvitea © This is also called divergent evolution. Divergent evolution and homology go together. Homology indicates common ancestry. Cucurbita Fig. 7.12 Homologous structures in plantsi. A Textbook of Biolog, ty Examples: The whale’ flipper, the bat’s wing, the horse's foot, the cheetahs paw and the human | are the homologous organs (Fig. 7.11). They perform different functions but have gi _/ anatomical structure, They all have the same structural plan called the pentadactyl limb. a i i il have humerus, rag They approximately contain the same number of bones. They a + Fadiys ulna, carpals, metacarpals and phalanges. Anatomically their muscles, blood vessels an nerves are arranged on the same pattern. They have a similar embryonic developmen, Homologous organs are used as an evidence that these organisms must have had common ancestor. ang mil Basic pattem of Whale's flipper Bas wing Horse's foot entadacty im Fig. 7.11 Homologous organs (i) Homology at the molecular level is also seen in different organisms. The blood proteins of Than and apes are strikingly similar. The related organisms often chow homology in the quence in proteins. ui Radio-uina (radius and ’ —{ ulna fused) ) oa \ | /~__ base sequence of nucleic acids and amino acids se (ii) Homology in plants. The thorn of 7 Bougainvillea and tendril of Cucurbita have the same origin. Both arise in the axillary.» ) Position and hence are homologous. ) © The differences are attributed to adaptive” Thom modifications due to different modes of life. 7 Bougainvilea © This is also called divergent evolution. Divergent evolution and homology go . Homology indicates common uiiabt ummm Fig. 7.12 Homologous structures in plants ancestry.; sonar BDIY : 175, | pel organs ie organs at are similar in appearance and function but are different in their origin and sails. rol we . om wings of a bir in; i : are analogous organs. = Wings of a bird are structurally different from that of an insect. The bird wi ve iowa ai wing of an insect is a fold of membrage with a few muscles, ) Sweet potato and potato are analogous. _ © Syeet potato is a modified underaround tuberous root whereas potato is a modified underground stem, They both store food in the forn OF StaTEH But differ in their structure __-Fi@- 7-43 Analogous organs (Note, there is ean No similarity in basic structure) nalogous Organs show superficial resemblances which are not evolution Membranous wing Wing of bid ee re eect rficia nary related. They merely suggest a convergent evolution, i.e., different organisms show same structural modifications due io similar habitats. = Analogous organs do not suggest the presence of a common ancestor. VG. vestigial organs ‘These organs do nat have apparent [Link] certain } organisms (Fig. 7.14). These are supposed to be the remnants of the organs that had been well developed ‘giffunctional in their ancestral state but became modified during evolution over a period of time. In humans, vermiform appendix (remnant of caecum), nictitiating membrane of eye (remnant of third eyelid), coccyx or tail vertebrae (remnant of a tail) and ‘on-functional muscles of pinna are some examples of vestigial organs. Another example is rudimentary pelvic girdle in python and porpoise. Seen ee in python and porpoise. ‘{Embryological evidence V/s A comparative study of the embryonic development reveals striking similarities in the early Steps of development in all groups of vertebrates. The young embryos of all vertebrates from Ssh to mammals have such similarities that itis almost impossible to distinguish one from another Fig. 7.15). (a) Nictitiating membrane (b) Tail vertebrae Fig. 7.14 Vestigial organs in man All of them possess the following structures:176 AA Textbook of Biology y, ig ; ise Chick (External pairs of gill clefts in the Fish Salamander Tortoise Chia pharyngeal region. In fish they form gill 3 slits and help in respiration. In adult i vertebrates gills are replaced by lungs and only one pair of gill clefts gets Fig. 7.15 Comparison of stages in the deveio, : of vertebrate embryos ment developed into eustachian tubes, (ii) Appearance of notochord in the early stages of development. Later the | notochord is replaced by vertebral column. ii) All the organisms show a tail-like structure which is retained by some of the groups only. FPF gD EO-D-G BWLO-CH)- CP ERD CO) ED § 7.4 EXAMPLES OF EVOLUTION BY NATURAL SELECTION Natural selection formed the central framework of Darwin’s hypothesis on evolution. Natural Selection brings about perpetuation of certain characteristics and elimination of others. It encourages the transmission of favourable genes that help the individuals to be better adapted in the environmen, ‘Some of the examples given below explain the mechanism of natural selection. 1. Industrial Melanism It is one of the best examples that explain the impact of environment and natural selection on the peppered moth of England. ‘The peppered moth, Biston betularia occurs in two forms. — The light coloured moth Biston betularia typica is creamy white with dark blotches and spots (Fig. 7.16a). It can hardly be seen on the light grey bark of the trees as its colouration merges with the lichens (a) Biston betularia typica (b) Biston betularia carbonara growing on the tree trunks. Fig. 7.16 Two varieties of Biston betularia peppered moth The black peppered moth Biston betularia carbonaria, the melanic form (Fig. 7.166) is supposed to be a mutant form that arose by mutation in a single gene determining S colouration. (" Changes in the population of two varieties of the moth over a period of 100 years (Fig. 7.17) (@ Before strial revolution (before 1845) only the light coloured moths wert eva jothis camouflaged well with the, lichen covered tree trunks. On the seionary Biology tution! en 7 \@ During the industrial revolution fom 1fn tt 8 Pot the population | iy Withel ression of indu: ‘was Fare. ight bark Was an easy prey for the birds and hence pe intone penn in factories producing heavy smoke and Oni Tae amnne OF coal in the trees and turned the tree trunks black ae ee pet al a Now the black moths had the advantage and so escaped predation by birds y birds. It reduced the formation of soot and hence the ee a cuneniats tree With the appearance of lichens gradually the trunks became comparatively lighter. sat decline and those of light coloured moth began to: cae ee 1850 1950 1972 95% of moths were 5% of moths were 25% of moths were light and 5% were dark light and 95% were dark ight ahd 75% were dark Fig. 7.17 Change in the peppered moth population over the last 100 years @ b. Notice the black form betularia hardly visible on the soot covered trunk of an_ oak Wee in : FSG comparison to the Notice the light form Biston betularia typica f coe Btton {incircled) hardly distinguishable on the ” lal lichen covered tree trunk in the unpolluted ‘ b area in comparison to the clearly visible dark form of the moth. Fig. 7.18 Peppered moth Biston betularia on tree trunksaN 8 A Textbook of Biology xy 2. Antibiotic resistance in bacteria Excess of antibiotics resulted in selection of resistant varieties of microbes like bacteria agai, which antibiotic are used. The use of antibiotics leads to natural selection, elimination of sensi, strains and survival of antibiotic resistant strains. These bacteria multiply and give Trigg to more antibiotic resistant population. Hence resistant organisms appear in atime scale Of mon, or years and not centuries. These are examples of evolution by anthropogenic action, 1. actig, by man. The resistance of bacterial infections to cet I selection as explained above. It is for this reason that drugs remain: need to be used with caution. stain antibiotics like penicillin is also due to n, s effective fora limited time any 7.5 ADAPTIVE RADIATIONS J — @ The emergence of nui environment is called adaptive radial e. Adaptive radiations can be seen on many islands. The island forms evolved from the individuay that came from the adjacent mainland sometime in the past. Then they adapted according the diverse habitats available in the islands. Hence migration to new environments followeg by adaptations and speciation is called adaptive radiation. 1. Divergent Evolution Adaptive radiation is also called divergent evolution because it is the evolution of different forms, from a common ancestor due to adaptation to different habitats. Examples: @ Adaptive radiation in, Jarwhr’s Tinches—of Galapagos Islands. The og Darwin's finches of the ena Galapagos islands is one Bandedanteater ys, of the best examples of oe Marsupial mouse Tasmanian "tiges-cat” adaptive radiation. Marsupial radiation — One common ancestor 7 " =) evolved into many : e Pr different species of > po i finches, each Koala Flyingphalange Tasmanian wot Kangarce exploiting a particular Fig 7.19 Adaptive radiation of Australian marsupials habitat and find source such as seeds, insects and flowers. Darwin concluded that a group of original seed eating finches occupied these islands about 10,000 years ago. They flourished due © unoccupied Tabitat but soon had to compete for food among themselves. The bitdspo stralian marsu = (jy. Australian marsupials. Darwin explai sionary Biology 9 then invaded different environm It led to the evolution of six dif (feeding habits. Eventually natural selection gay . specific food. Wve rise to various types of species. This process of 4 given geographical area starting from a point and Crabitatings) is called adaptive radiation. marsupials (pouched mammals) in Aaa Se Australia, the home of marsupials, CHcha—] was separated from the other continents more than $0 miltion ["%*| ~My > Marsupia mole years ago. These marsupials were “ee 5 then exposed to unoccupied habitats and diverse conditions, Under these circumstances primitive Australian Mouse evolution of different species in ‘iterally radial to other areas Lesser anteater we ar ‘mouse Mouse Anteater marsupials gave rise to diverse * opulation which later evolved into % meiiag =| = ¢ A number of marsupials, — each different from the other ze" (Fig. 7.19) evolved from an | Sider EE ancestral stock, but all within Poin Sauer aaanee. the Australian continent. at rant cat The significance of adaptive radiation is that it suggests the existence of divergent evolution . based on modification of homologous iy structures. ud cocoa Fig. 7.20 Convergent evolution of marsupials of 2 ent or parallel Australia and placental mammals of other continents. Convergent or parallel evolution refers to the independent development of similar characters in two different groups of organisms occupying similar habitats in different continents. Convergent evolution can be explained in terms of environment, acting through natural selection, favouring similar adaptation in different organisms for survival. Natural selection favours the changes which makes two groups look alike. In other words their phenotypes have converged. There is a striking similarity in the appearance of Australian marsupials and placental mammals (Fig. 7.20) living in similar habitats in different geographical areas. Natural selection appears to have favoured parallel evolutionary adaptations in similar habitats. 4180 Textbook of By bt 7.6 BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION With keen observations have tried to explain the evolution 'eories of evolution by Lamarck and Darwin. . Lamarcks theory of One of, the f; Eamarek in 1399. ¢4to™IS © ex called ; , h biologist, Jean lain evolution was made by the French - By 109 (the year Chay, ; Lamarck published his work in St, Zoological py arles Darwin was born). ‘i n, any Scientists ang fi earth. Give; Naturalists Fig below are “y | in the environm, @ REnY. His idea of evolution was based on the observation that th ent lead to the changed patterns in the species. Lamarck's theory of inheritance of acquired characters Was bay ©n two assumptions: (®) The use and disuse of the parts. The parts or the or ot, body which are used more and more, become longa increase in size while the parts that are not used, get wot become smaller and gradually disappear. Gi) The inheritance of acquired (y Ancestors o sirat Fig. 7.21 Jean Baptis He 9 characteristics. The of various roe iste Lamarck characteristics acquired EM (1744-1829) during the life time of an individual are transmitted to the next generation, (rear | ni ey Taller giraffe survived tails of the mice generation “) [aler arate titty Of the acquired characters, (i) Over number of { | generations 2 Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection In 1839 Darwin formulated his theory and published his book Origin of Species by Means of ‘Natural Selection. Darwin's theory of evolution b: 5 { y natural selection can be { summarised as given below: q j | } &# Over production. All organisms produce much more ra fee oe f offspring than that can actually survive. A fern plant may long legged forms evolved produce 50 million spores, and an insect like a house fly, Fis. 722 Eveluion ot grat b may lay thousands of eggs. Darwin's theory of natural select®gvolutionary Biology 181 trugegle for existe / “individuals face =. Due to over production, there is struggle for existence. The aiid Space. Only a tee ern #8 Well as Interspecific competition for food, water, ait” sor téprodice °{°™ af able to get these basic requirements and the rest fail to survive id Variations exist “one another ang thl®& Population. The offspring of the same pareats also differ from | netic Variation oY Vatiations. In addition to visible phenotypic variations, the hidden ica Tou also exist. In a population, some variability is always present for almost | individ i The vatiations are very important for evolution as some of these may ae eineividuals ‘© survive in a certain type of environment while others may not. ) Survival ofthe test or natural ‘The individuals with favourable variations have a dso only. the paurYival in the struggle, The organisms with unfavourable variations die Out and [Link] fittest indi “duals survive, reproduce and transmit their favourable characters to the next Te EO: This process of the survival of the fittest over many generations slowly Proportion of fit individuals due to the heritable favourable variations. oO new speci eereranneW SPecies. As the favourable variations of the fittest animals are inherited to the offspring, more and move of these accumulate in their generations. After several generations over_a long period of time, the organisms become so different fromthe individuals of the original species that they constitute a new species a 1 | _—~ Summary of Darwin's concept of Origin of Species by Natural Selection (. Observations Deductions or reasoning \ @) The organisms produce far more offspring than | can survive. ‘Struggle for existence \ (ii) The total number of individuals in a population [ (many fail to survive or reproduce) - ‘2 remain approxinlately cotistant 7.14. ccc \ (iii) Variations exist in the population. ion \ (iv) Individuals struggle for survival Survival of the fittest or natural selection £ (v) Survival of the best adapted individuals Ma ete Met aL) (vi) Continuous changing environment. | Origin of new species 7 YO 7 N 7.7 IMPORTANT CONCEPTS 5 QL Variations are essential for evolution. Mendel conducted series of experiments and talked about inheritable ‘factors’ influencing phenotypes. Later, Hugo de Vries brought forth the idea of mutations large differences appearing suddenly in a population. He believed that mutations caused evolution and not the minor variations as explained by Darwin. |. Hugo de Vries theory RH Um ede Vries in 1901, [proj the Mutation Theo! as lis observations on the wild /Yariety of evening primrose (Ocnothera lamarckiana). He proposed that new characteristics, appear suddenly and are in fe. a. © de Vries gave the term spontaneous mutations to variations that arrive all of a sudden, He coined the term “sports” for these and didn’t consider them important for evolution,182 A Textbook of Biolog, a Salient Features of de Vries’s theory (@_New species originate as a result of discontinuous Vi inheritable. (ii) Same mutations appear in a large number of individ (iii) Mutations are recurring, ie., same mutations appear again and again, thereby incre the chance of selection by nature. oS | (iv) Mutation may lead to gain of loss of any character, that is, they occur in all directions, (v) Mutations are different from small and directional variations proposed by Darwin, ariations. Mutations are sudden juals at the same time. 2. Gene migration (Gene flow) Ua The population rarely remain isolated from other populations of the same species. Nona, | there is migration of members between two populations of the same species. @ When members of one population enter a new population (immigrate), the migrat individuals breed within the new population. As the immigrants (migrated individuals) breq, they add new alleles to the host population. Ths is called gene migration or gene flow,» Gene migration can be defined as the movement of alleles from one po} © In some cases the immigrated individuals are not of same species but of closely relay, species, in that case, they may produce fertile hybrids due to interspecific mating. They hybrids then carry genes from one species to another. ‘© Gene migration is a powerful agent of change as it leads to exchange of genetic mater between two different populations. 3. Genetic drift Itrefers to the variations in a population that occur by chance alone rather than by natural selection, © The effect of genetic drift is more pronounced in small or isolated populations. Suppose a beetle occurs in two forms, dark coloured and light coloured. By chance, a fores fire kills most of the dark beetles in a particular region. Now the region is left with more of light coloured beetles and so it may lead to increase in population of light coloured beetlesia | that region. Such a phenomenon is called genetic drift. Genetic drift leads to loss of allelesin isolated populations. «CG. 7.8 GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE The geological time scale give a summary of the history of the evolution of earth and the time of evolution of major plants and animals th the chronological sequence. The fossils are found in the sedimentary rocks. The sedimentary rocks are formed by layers and layers of material (sand ot mud sediments) deposited one on top of another. The oldest layer forms the bottom and henct contains the oldest fossil and the top most layer is the newest and hence has the recent fossils. The age of the rock is calculated by the radioactive dating technique. Several radioacti¥é isotopes are found in nature. Each isotope has its own fixed rate of decay, called its half life. Tty | : oon Biology rife could be in years, months, days or seconds. I isthe time required for one half ofthe atoms agive” sample to disintegrate or decay. So if one knows the half life of an isotope. the age of the int an be determined by measuring how much isotope is lft. Radioactive isotope of carbon {08 half life of 5730 years and is used most commonly for knowing the age of fossils. It is also ie ied carbon dating technique. ¢ : onerp ‘The history of earth has been divided into various eras and periods. The periods quarternary and srry have been further divided into epochs, Table 7.1: Geological time scale [fraand Period Epoch ‘Agemillions | Dominant Dominant guration of years age | plant ‘animal life Lotvesss ese | On a Quartemary | Recent OL Cenozoic Pleistocene 25 ted for Pliocene | 7 | Ageof Age of about 70 Tertiary Miocene 25 angiosperms mammals million years) Oligocene 38 (Flowering Eocene 54 Plants) Mu Palaeocene 65 ‘Mesozoic Cretaceous 135 Age of (Lasted for Jurassic 195 gymnosperms | Age of ‘about 120 Triassic 240 (The first seed [ reptiles million years) ~—~ | bearing plants) Permian 285 Age of spore Carboniferous a bearing fern ~ Age of Paleozoic Devonian 420 like plants. amphibians (Lasted for -)-- “ about 360 Silurian | 450) Age of early Age of million years) land plants fish Ordovicion 520 Age of Algae J — Cambrian 570 and Protists Proterozoic Pre cambrian: 2300 Oldest bacteria Age of and origin invertebrates of life 3800 4600 7.9 CONCEPT OF SPECIES - What is a species? Species is supposed to be the basic unit of taxonomy. A species may be defined in a number of, says in various biological aspects.PS ee A Textbook ra, 4 x 184 inct similarity in the karyotype, Genetically — A group of organisms that show a dist iy y Morphologically - A species is a distinct and recognisable group of similar organisms, ~ A group of organism that share the same ecological niche. (No two. SPecig have the same niche). ; % Interbreeding — A group of organisms that can interbreed and produce a fertile offsprig roup of Pty, | apusialion Amagay wugin & Ney ULL + Ecological Origin of species = Yu. um The new species are formed from pre-existing species. : { When the populations belonging to the same species get genetically isolated, they become give rise to new species. The genetic or reprodua Me and more different over a period of time and isolation could be due to various geographical and other barriers. (i) New species may also arise due to interspecific hybridisation in which differents interbreed and give rise o fertile hybrids (generally takes place in experimental cond (ii). Speciation can also take place when members of a population migrate or are isol iers. With time the populations experience different envi Se fecmation of hace Conditions and hence adapt themselves accordingly. Ultimately they become 0 diffezy that they fail to interbreed. The reproductive isolation leads to the formation of new specie, This is called allopatric speciation! Allopatric speciation ‘allopatric’ means ‘of differey countries’) o&curs in geographically isolated populations. Nc Sympatric speciation (‘Sympatric’ means ‘together in the same land’). It refers emergence of new species in the populations that Ages Australopthece occupy the same geographical area. It is due to the development of some form of reproductive Hyobatidae Papaidae lominidae isolating mechanism that arises due to natural —— (men) selection within a geographically confined Monkeys Apes and men population. 7.10 ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF MAN {/ ee, Order primates is chiefly a product of the Cenozoic ter peat 2 era and it includes lemurs, monkeys, apes and man. Primates ‘unlike most mammals possess prehensile (grasping) hands i and feet, binocular stereoscopic vision and a highly te) developed brain. We a very good eye-hand Mammals coordination. They tend to be omnivorous and with the © exception of humans have large canine teeth. Reptiles a Fig. 7.23 A simplified line diagram _ showing the evolution of apes and ma" ”a ‘, 199 9, yore? Biology 09 py 500 ; i Table 7. Differences between ‘apes and men (®) Have a much larger brain box 1400-1450c.c. —jave # small brain box. Gibbon 100 ce () Mi gotan 395 cc, cRimipanzee 40 eer ed Have a much larger brain b la $20.c.c. ange etl ib ny dors _.y qe backbone forms a simple curving arch, The (‘pape of the pelvis and the spinal cord, se ac inly, spinal cord is also “ sare longer than legs. «) The thumb does not reach i he ( Ee te base of Much smaller brain in apes (gorilla) (ii) Have a bipedal gait, ie., walk on two feet. aes’ (iii) The backbone forms an S-shaped curve and ‘Supports the body wegen (iv)_Arms are shorter than legs. Arms are shorter than leg (¥) The -thurb-extends up fo the middle joint of the forefinger. : Longer legs Hand of aman Fig. 7.24 A few differences between apes and men ¥ Oe Gorilla Human ei | Aiton yars BEE mnyeus 9 40 million years ago 12milion years. Fig, 7.25 Evolutionary time scale of the four present day apes and manA Textbook of Big, ony 186 | 2. Evolution of man—early human ancestors as The fossil records suggest that man and modern apes had 2 different lines about 20-25 million years 480 (i) The Hominids that existea abou 24 ‘million years ago were ancestors O! both apes and humans. Apes and humans diverged out of the main line of hominid evolution at different periods (Fig. 7.25). (ii) Comparison of human and primate proteins indicate that humans are (1 more closely linked to African chimpanzee and gorillas than to other : [ primates. . (ii) Thecartictinowndirectarcestorof OP “ausnaorimenae * man is genus Ramapithecus that reel Bom sapiang existed about 14 million years g0 rime of eoluton—b (Fig. 7.26). Its fossils have been found in both Africa and India. : -alled australopithecines belonging to genus Australopitig, (iv) The first human like forms 5 existed about 5 million years ago in Te dry open grasslands of Africa. Because orap, ecus than about the earlier forms, fossil record, a lot is known about Ausiralopithect australopithecines had the following characteristic Teatures: — The brain capacity was only 350-450 c.c. as compared t0 1200-1600 c.c. of moc pancnias jon ancestor and separa, i 1400-4459 1400) 1200 900-1140 Size brain ince, — oS 8888 “Dk iu Fig. 7.26 increase in brain size during evolution oy, humans. — They probably weighed about 70-100 pounds. — They were small boned and about 3.5-5 tall. — They walked upright and were more human that there were two species A. africanus and A. ‘A. robustus remained unchanged and became extinct while A. africanus continued change till the evolution of modern man. They were in direct line of hominid evolution than ape like. Fossil evidences sugge robustus. With tir Ns, Evolution of man—from human ancestors till modern man Genus Homo is the Latin name for man. A number of species belonging to genus Homo bi been recognised from the fossil records. 1. Homo habilis was named by famous anthropologist, Louis Leakey. Dr. Leakey believe! Homo habilis to be the ancestor of modern man. It existed in Africa about 2 million ye ago and was supposed to have a larger brain. It used tools and was bipedal. Some ents argued it to be a variant of genus Australopithecus and did not place it on the same lined human evolution.187 7 piolosy i re ago -——. The Hominids yi 2Arnllon y88r8 20° —— openocus _(Aneasora of modem apes ‘and man) Apes: (Lived in Afica)e The oldest direct ancestor (Lives in Asia) 5 millon years ago-——-Australopithecus (Lived in Alica)e First human 190. lopithecus int he © Small brain size ‘Arrobustus *® Walked upright A-aticanus (became extinct) © 3-5 ftall Larger brain Bipedal 2 millon years ago ‘ \ ——-f-HoImo habs ———— © Used tools , 4.7 milion years ago —- Homo erectus =—a=———— Cranial capacity Includes 1900-1140 cc Java man Used fre and {50,000 years ago { and stone tots ‘mar * Bi Lead teet 2 shia 70,000 to 40,000 years ago Neandertha] man jomo sapiens neanderthalensis, me Sro-Magnon man-— * Eatly form of "Thomo sapiens sapiens modem humans 34,000 years ag0 == ‘Has left elaborate cave paintings 10,000 years ago —- . Moderri man Large cranial Homo sapiens capacity 1400-1450 ee. * Cuttvated plants, Note: —» This arrow indicates the domesticated animals possible line of evolution Has spread all over earth. Fig. 7.27 Summary of the time-line evolution of man according to the fossil evidences 2. Homo erectus. The earliest fossils (skulls) are known to be about 1.7 million years old. The famous fossils of Java man and Peking man of China date back to about 500,000 \\ years and are supposed to belong to the same species Homo erectus—the erect man. ‘They are believed to have migrated to Asia and Europe. ‘They had cranial capacity of about 900-1140 c.c. (Fig. 7.26) ‘They used fire and progressed with time, using refined tools. They stood upright and were taller, about 5 ft high.OO —— ee os 18g A Textbook ty, 9 Neanderthal man, Neandertal man is supposed to be primitive form of Homa m4 and hence is named as “ria sapiens neanderthalenss. : | thal man lived about 70,000 to 40,000 years ago and extended from Ba, rete modern man but was elatively short, stocky and heavily buy and \ Years ago Neanderthal man disappeared. Though the reason 8 noe cd that ahoce they diappeated duc lo the cold weatey of ter fed into modem man, 0! 4 Cro-Magnon man. tis an Sty ema of Home spies B speed ey : 80. The fossils of this period and onwards are identical to that of modern skeleg, 7 ~ Mrésembled modem man in size and appearance. an dwelling hunting has culti