Applied I Module
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rebilege999Module on Applied Mathematics I 2006EC
Table of Contents
Chapter One: Matrices and System of Linear Equations .................................................................1
1.1 Definition of a matrix and basic operations ...........................................................................1
1.1.1 Special matrices .............................................................................................................. 2
1.1.2 Operation on matrices .................................................................................................... 4
1.1.3 Properties of matrix addition and scalar multiplication...................................................5
1.2 Product of matrices and some algebraic properties, transpose..............................................5
1.2.1 Properties of matrix multiplication ................................................................................. 6
1.2.2 Transpose of a matrix ..................................................................................................... 9
1.3 Elementary row operations and echelon form......................................................................11
1.3.1 Reduced row echelon form and elementary row operations ........................................ 14
1.3.2 Definition of a matrix in reduced row echelon form .................................................... 15
1.3.3 Definition of elementary row(or column) operation ....................................................16
1.4 Rank of a matrix using elementary row operations............................................................. 17
1.5 Inverse of a matrix and its properties .................................................................................. 19
1.6 Determinants and its properties ............................................................................................23
1.6.1 Determinant of order one .............................................................................................. 23
1.6.2 Determinant of order two ............................................................................................. 24
1.6.3 Properties of a determinant ........................................................................................... 28
1.7 Determinant method of finding inverse matrices ................................................................ 31
1.8 System of linear equations and characterization of solutions ............................................. 34
1.8.1 The Gaussian elimination method ................................................................................ 37
Chapter Two: Vectors and Vector Spaces .....................................................................................42
2.1 Scalars and vectors; located vectors in 𝑅 2 and 𝑅 3 ...............................................................42
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2.1.1 Notion and terminologies ............................................................................................. 43
2.1.2 Addition and subtraction .............................................................................................. 44
2.1.3 Vectors in 𝑅 2 ................................................................................................................ 45
2.1.4 Vectors in 𝑅 3 ................................................................................................................ 47
2.2 Dot (scalar) product ............................................................................................................. 49
2.3 The orthogonal projection of one vector onto another .........................................................52
2.3.1 Direction cosines .......................................................................................................... 53
2.4 Cross (vector) product ......................................................................................................... 54
2.5 Lines and planes in 𝑅 3 ........................................................................................................ 61
2.5.1 Equations of lines in space ........................................................................................... 61
2.5.2 Equations of planes in 𝑅 3 .............................................................................................63
Chapter Three: Limit and Continuity.............................................................................................69
3.1 Definitions of limit .............................................................................................................. 70
3.2 Examples on limits .............................................................................................................. 71
3.3 One-sided limit .................................................................................................................... 78
3.4 Infinite limits and infinite limits at infinity ......................................................................... 79
3.5 Basic limit theorems ............................................................................................................ 83
3.6 Continuity of a function and the Mean Value Theorem..................................................... 87
3.6.1 One-sided continuity..................................................................................................... 89
3.6.2 Continuity on an interval ............................................................................................. 90
Chapter Four: Derivatives ..............................................................................................................94
4.1 The tangent lines ................................................................................................................. 94
4.2 Definition of derivatives...................................................................................................... 96
4.3 Basic differentiation rules ................................................................................................. 102
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4.4 The chain rule .................................................................................................................... 103
4.5 Higher order derivatives .................................................................................................... 104
4.6 Implicit differentiation .......................................................................................................106
Chapter Five: Applications of Derivatives ..................................................................................114
5.1 Extrema of a function ........................................................................................................ 114
5.2 The Rolle’s Theorem and the Mean-Value Theorem........................................................ 117
5.3 Applications of the Mean Value Theorem ........................................................................ 119
5.4 First and second derivative test ......................................................................................... 120
5.5 Graph sketching .................................................................................................................125
Chapter Six: Inverse Functions ....................................................................................................130
6.1 Inverse functions and their derivatives.............................................................................. 130
6.2 Properties of inverses ........................................................................................................ 131
6.3 Graphs of inverse functions............................................................................................... 133
6.4 Continuity and differentiability of inverse functions ........................................................ 134
6.5 Inverse trigonometric functions ........................................................................................ 138
6.5.1 The arcsine function .................................................................................................. 138
6.5.2 The arccosine function............................................................................................... 140
6.5.3 The arctangent function .............................................................................................. 141
6.6 Derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions ................................................................. 143
6.7 Hyperbolic functions ......................................................................................................... 145
6.7.1 Hyperbolic identities................................................................................................... 146
6.8 Inverse hyperbolic functions ............................................................................................. 148
6.9 L ’Hôpital’s rule ................................................................................................................152
Chapter Seven: Techniques of Integrations .................................................................................163
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7.1 Basic integration formulas ................................................................................................ 164
7.2 Integration by substitution................................................................................................. 165
7.3 Integration by parts............................................................................................................ 170
7.4 Integration by partial fractions .......................................................................................... 177
𝑃(𝑥)
7.4.1 Guide lines for partial fraction decompositions of the form 𝑄(𝑥) ............................... 178
7.5 Trigonometric integrals ..................................................................................................... 184
7.5.1 Guide lines for evaluating integrals of the form sin m x cos n dx ................................ 184
tan
m
7.5.2 Guide lines for evaluating integrals of the form x sec n xdx ........................... 186
7.6 Trigonometric substitutions .............................................................................................. 189
7.7 Improper integrals ............................................................................................................. 193
7.7.1 Integrals over unbounded intervals............................................................................. 194
7.7.2 Integrals with unbounded integrands .......................................................................... 196
7.8 Application of the integral ................................................................................................ 199
7.8.1 Area ............................................................................................................................ 199
7.8.2 Volume ....................................................................................................................... 203
[Link] The cross-section method .......................................................................... 203
[Link] The Disc method ........................................................................................ 204
[Link] The Washer method ................................................................................... 207
[Link] The Shell method ....................................................................................... 210
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INTRODUCTION
This module is designed to introduce University students the basics of the course applied
Mathematics I. To be able to do this, the module is divided into seven different chapters .Each
chapters is provided with appropriate examples and exercise that elaborates the concepts
,principles and theorems presented.
The first two chapters explains matrix and determinant and vectors .Topics that includes are
types of matrix, techniques of matrix algebra, rank of matrix, solving system of linear equations
with different methods, and determinants and inverse of matrix, vectors product ,cross product of
two vectors, lines and planes
The last five chapters deal with the concept of limit is central to the study of calculus. Limits
underlie the two most important concepts in calculus: the derivative and the integral. If a student
does not have a robust understanding of limits, this can pose a threat to his future ability to
understand the mathematics behind how derivatives and integrals are computed.
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CHAPTER ONE
Matrices and System of Linear Equations
Introduction
The concepts of matrices had its origin in various types of linear problems, the most important of
which concerns the nature of solutions of any given system of linear equation. Matrices are also
useful in organizing and manipulating large amounts of data.
Today, the subject of matrices is one of the most important and powerful tools in Mathematics
which has found applications to a very large number of disciplines such as Engineering, Business
and Economics, Statistics etc.
Objectives
At the end of this chapter the readers should be able to:
Define the term matrix.
Understand the properties of a matrix.
Define the inverse, transpose and determinant of a matrix.
Find the inverse, transpose and determinant of a matrix.
Understand the properties of a determinant.
Determine echelon form of a given matrix.
Solve systems of linear equations.
1.1 Definition of a Matrix and Basic Operations
Definition 1.1: A matrix is any rectangular array of real numbers or variables of the form
a11 a12 a1n
a21 a22 a2 n
…………………………. (1)
a amn
m1 am 2
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The numbers or the variables in the matrix are called entries or elements of the matrix. If a
matrix has m rows and n columns then we say that its size is m by n (mxn) matrix .An nxn
matrix is called a square or a matrix of order n. A 1x1 matrix is simply a real number .Matrices
will be denoted by capital bold –faced letters A, B etc or by (aij ) or (bij ) .
For instance if
1 4 5 1 3
0
A= 0 8 0 B= 1 …………………….. (2)
4 7 9 6 3
2
then A is 3x3 square matrix or a matrix order 3 while B is 2x3 matrix .The entries in the ith row
and jth column of mxn matrix of B is written aij .For an nxn square matrix ,the entries
a11 , a22 ,. . ., ann are called the main diagonal element .The the main diagonal entries for
the matrix A (2) are 1,8 ,9 .
Definition 1.2: [Column and row vectors]
a1
a
An nx1matrix 2 is called a column vector. A 1xn matrix (a1 , a2 ,.., an ) is called a row vector.
a
n
1.1.1 Special Matrices
In matrix theory there are many special kinds of matrices that are important because they posses
certain properties .The following is a list of some of these matrices.
a) A matrix that consists of all zero is called a zero matrix and is denoted by Omxn
0 0 0
0 0 0
For example O2 x1 O2 x 2 O3x 3 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
b) An nxn matrix A is said to be a triangular matrix if all its entries below the main diagonal
are zeros or if all its entries above the main diagonal are zeros,[in other words a square matrix A
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is triangular if 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 > 𝑗 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0, 𝑖 < 𝑗].More specially ,in the first case the matrix is
called upper triangular and in the second case the matrix is called lower triangular .The following
matrices
2 5 6 11
2 0 0 0
0 4 7 0
5 6 0 0
0 0 7 3 4
9 5 0
0
0 0 10 7
3 9 2
Upper triangular matrix Lower triangular
An nxn matrix A is said to be a diagonal matrix if all its entries not on the main diagonal are
zeros. In terms symbolism D= (dij)nxn , D is diagonal matrix if d ij 0 for i j .The matrix D
thus is given by
d11 0 0
0 d 22 0
D
…………………………. (3)
0 d nn
0
(c) If in (3) if all the diagonal elements are equal, it is referred to as a scalar matrix 𝑺𝒏 , and if
these elements are equal to 1, we have a unity or identity matrix 𝑰𝒏 of order 𝑛.
c 0 0 1 0 0
0 c 0 0 1 0
Sn In
Thus,
0 0 c 0 0 1
are respectively a scalar and identity matrix.
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1.1.2 Operation on Matrices
Defination1.3 [Equality of Matrices]
Two matrices 𝑨 = 𝒂𝒊𝒋 and 𝑩 = 𝒃𝒊𝒋 are equal if 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑏𝑖𝑗 for each 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑗. In other
𝒎×𝒏 𝒎×𝒏
words, two matrixes are equal if and only if they have the same size and their corresponding
entries are equal.
Matrix Addition
When two matrices A and B are of the size we can add them by adding their corresponding
entries
Definition 1.4 If A and B are mxn matrices, then their sum is
A B (aij bij ) mxn .
Example 1: Addition of two matrices.
2 1 3 4 7 8
a) A 0 4 6 and 9 3 5 ,then
6 10 5 1 1 2
24 1 7 3 8 6 6 5
A B 09 43 6 5 9 7 11
6 1 10 (1) 5 2 5 9 3
b) The sum of
1 3 4 1 0
A and B
2 5 7 1 0
is not define, since A and B are of different sizes.
Definition 1.5 [Scalar Multiplication of a matrix]
If k is a real number, then the scalar multiple of a matrix A is
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ka11 ka12 ka1n
kaij mxn
ka ka22 ka2 n
kA 21
ka kamn
m1 kam 2
In other words, to compute kA, we simply multiply each.
For instance, from definition 1.5
2 0 5 5.2 5.0 5.5 10 0 25
5 1 3 4 5.1 5.3 5.4 5 15 20
3 6 1 5.3 5.6 5.1 15 30 5
The difference of two mxn matrices defined in usual 𝐴 − 𝐵 = 𝐴 + (−𝐵) 𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒 − 1𝐵 = −𝐵
1.1.3 Properties of Matrix Addition and Scalar Multiplication
Suppose 𝐴, 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 are 𝑚𝑥𝑛 matrices and and are scalars .Then
i) 𝑨+𝑩= 𝑩+𝑨 (𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
ii) (𝑨 + 𝑩) + 𝑪 = 𝑨 + (𝑩 + 𝑪) (𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
iii) ( A B) A B
iv)
( ) A A A
v) ( ) A (A)
vi) 1𝐴 = 𝐴
Note: Each of the above six properties can be proved by using definition 1.4 and 1.5
1.2 Product of Matrices and Some Algebraic properties, Transpose
Definition 1.6:Let the number of columns in matrix 𝐴 be the same as the number of rows in
matrix 𝐵, then the matrix product 𝐴𝐵 exists and the element in row 𝑖 and column 𝑗 of 𝐴𝐵 is
obtained by multiplying the corresponding elements of row 𝑖 of A and column j of B and adding
the product.
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In other words if matrix A has n column and matrix B has n rows then the ith row of A is
b1 j
b2 j
.
(ai1 , ai 2 ,..., ain ) and j th column of B .Thus if C=AB then
.
.
bnj
n
Cij ai1b1 j ai 2b2 j ainb1n aik bkj
k 1
Moreover the number of rows and the number of columns of C are equal to the number of rows
of A and the number of column of B, respectively .Thus
1 2
3 4 2 1
3 4
Example 1:if A 1 2 3 1 and B .
0 1 2 3 1 0
1 1
3 12 2 1 6 16 0 1 16 23
Then AB 1 6 3 1 2 8 0 1 9 11
03 23 0 4 03 2 7
We note here that the size of A is 3x4 and the size of B is 4x2 consequently the size of AB is
3x2.
1.2.1 Properties of Matrix Multiplication
In defining the properties of matrix multiplication below, the matrix 𝐴, 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑪 are assumed to
be of compatible dimensions for the operations in which they appear.
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Property I: Matrix multiplication is, in general, not commutative. That is 𝑨𝑩 𝑩𝑨. Observe
that in Example 1 of section 𝑩𝑨 is not even define because the first matrix in this case 𝐵 does
not have the same numbers of columns as the number of rows of the second matrix A.
Property II: From AB=0, it does not follow that either A=0 or B=[Link] O’S are null matrix of
appropriate order.
Example 2: For matrices A and B are given by
1 0 0 0
A= and B=
1 0 1 1
0 0
We have, AB= is a null matrix even though A or B is not a null matrix.
0 0
Property III: The relation AB=AC or BA=CA does not imply that B=[Link] cancelation law
does not hold in general as in a real numbers.
Example 4 For the matrices
1 2 3 1 2 3 2 3 4
A 1 1 2 B 1 1 1, C 2 2 0
1 4 3 2 2 2 1 1 1
We have, by direct multiplication
9 10 7
AB 6 7 6 AC , although B C
9 8 1
Property IV: Matrix multiplication is associative That is
A (BC) = (AB) C
Property V: The multiplication of matrices is distributive with respect to addition i.e
A(B+C)=AB+AC (B+C)A=BA+CA
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Example 5
1 2 2 1 1 0
A= B= and C=
3 4 3 2 2 1
Verify that A (BC) = (AB) C and A (B+C) =AB+AC
Solution:
1 2 4 1 6 5
A(BC )
3 4 1 2 16 11
4 5 1 0 6 5
( AB )C
6 11 2 1 16 11
Thus
6 5
A( BC ) ( AB )C
16 11
1 2 3 1 1 7
A( B C )
3 4 1 3 5 15
4 5 5 2 1 7
AB AC
6 11 11 4 5 15
Therefore
A(B+C)=AB+AC.
Notation: Since A (BC)=(AB)C, one may simply omit the parentheses and write ABC.
The same is true for a product of or more matrices .In the case where an nxn matrix is multiplied
by itself a number of times, it is convenient to use exponential notation. Thus, if k is a positive,
then
Ak
AA
A
k times
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1 1
Example 6 if A
1 1
1 11 1 2 2
Then A2
1 11 1 2 2
1 1 2 2 4 4
A3 AAA AA 2
1 1 2 2 4 4
And in general
2 n1 2 n1
A n1
n
2 2 n1
Example 7 Simplify the following matrix expression
A(A+2B)+3B(2A-B)-A2+7B2-5AB
Solution: Using the properties of matrix we get
A( A 2 B) 3B(2 A B) A2 7 B 2 5 AB A2 2 AB 6 BA 3B 2 A2 7 B 2 5 AB
3 AB 6 BA 4 B 2
1.2.2 Transpose of a Matrix
Definition 1.7 The transpose of a matrix A, denoted AT, is the matrix whose column are the rows
of the given matrix A. Symbolically the transpose of an mxn matrix A= aij mxn is nxm matrix
AT= aij
T
nxm
a ji nxm Where aij a ji .
T
For example, if
Theorem 1.1 Suppose A and B are matrices and k a scalar. Then
i) ( AT )T A ii ) ( A B)T AT B T
iii ) ( AB )T B T AT iv ) (kA)T kAT
Proof: We give here the proof of iii) here the rest is left as exercise
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Note that
A aik mxn , B bkj nxr
then
B A bik
T T
a
T
rxn kj
T n T T
bik akj
n
a jk bki (1)
k 1 rxm k 1 rxm
nxm
and the last step follows from the definition of a transpose .Also
n
AB aik mxn bkj nxr aik bkj
k 1 mxr
Which on being transpose (i.e., on interchanging the subscript i and j ) gives
n
( AB )T a jk bki (2)
k 1 rxm
Now iii) follows from (1) and (2)
The remaining properties can e proved similarly.
Definition 1.8 An nxn matrix A= aij is said to be
i) Symmetric if aij a ji for all i and j, that is if AT=A.
ii) skew –symmetric if aij a ji for all i and j ,that is AT=A
The following are examples of symmetric matrices
2 3 4
1 0
3 1 5
0 4 4 5 3
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Activity 1.1
1 3 1 2 3 2 4 5
1. If A B C
0 4 5 0 1 1 0 0
Then find
a) A+C b) B – C c) AB d) AC e) BTAT f) (AB)T
g) Determine the following elements of D = AB + 2C, without computing the complete matrix
d12 and d 21
2. Let A be 3 × 5 matrix, B be 5 × 2 matrix, C be 3 × 4 matrix, D be 4 × 2 matrix, E be 4 × 5
matrix, give the size of 2(EB) + DA b) CD – 2(CE)B.
3. Simplify A(A – 4B) + 2B(A + B) – A2+ 7B2 + AB.
4. Show that for a square matrix A=(aij)
i) A + AT is a symmetric matrix
ii) A – AT is skew-symmetric matrix
iii) AAT and ATA, A2 are symmetric matrices.
1.3 Elementary Row Operations and Echelon Form
We use matrices to describe systems of linear equations. There are two important matrices
associated with every system of linear equations. The coefficients of the variables form a matrix
called the matrix of coefficients of the system. The coefficients, together with the constant terms,
form a matrix called the augmented matrix of the system. For example, the matrix of coefficients
and the augmented matrix of the following system of linear equations are as shown.
x1 x2 x3 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 2
2 x1 3x2 x3 3 2 3 1 2 3 1 3
x1 x2 2 x3 6 1 1 2 1 1 2 6
matrix of coefficient augmented matrix
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Observe that the matrix of coefficients is a sub matrix of the augmented matrix. The augmented
matrix completely describes the system.
Transformations called elementary transformations can be used to change a system of linear
equation into another system of linear equations that has the same solution. These
transformations are used to solve systems of linear equations by eliminating variables. In practice
it is simpler to work in terms of matrices using equivalent transformations called elementary row
operations. These transformations are as follows:
Elementary Transformations
1. Interchanging two equations
2. Multiplying both sides of an equation by a nonzero constant
3. Add a multiple of one equation on to another equation.
Elementary Row Operations
1. Interchanging two rows of a matrix
2. Multiply the elements row by a nonzero constant
3. Add a multiple of the elements of one row to the corresponding elements of another row.
Systems of equations that are related through elementary transformations, and thus have the
same solutions, are called equivalent systems. The symbol is used to indicate equivalent
system of equations. The next example compares the elementary transformation with elementary
row operations.
Example 1: Solve the following system of linear equations.
x1 x2 x3 2
2 x1 3x2 x3 3
x x 2 x 6
1 2 3
Solution: Elimination Methods
x1 x2 x3 2
Initial system 2 x1 3x2 x3 3
x1 x2 2 x3 6
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nd rd
Eliminate x1 from the 2 and 3 equations
x1 x2 x3 6
eq (2) 2eq (1) eq (2)
x2 x3 1
eq (3) eq (3) eq (1)
2 x2 3x3 6
st rd
Eliminate x2 from the 1 and 3 equations
x1 2 x3 3
eq (1) eq (1) eq (2)
x2 x3 1
eq (3) eq (3) 2eq (2)
5 x3 10
rd
Make coefficient of x3 in 3
x1 2 x3 3
1
x2 x3 1 eq (3) eq (3)
5
x3 2
Eliminate x3 from 1st and 2nd equations
x1 1
x2 1
x3 2
The solution is x1=-1,x2 = 1,x3 =2
Matrix Method
1 1 1 2
Augmented matrix 2 3 1 3
1 1 2 6
We refer to the first row as the pivot row, and then we have:
1 1 1 2
0 1 1 1 , R2 R2 2 R1 , R3 R3 R1
0 2 3 8
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Create appropriate zeros in column 2
1 0 2 3
0 1 1 1 R1 R1 R2 , R3 R3 2 R2
0 0 5 10
Make the (3,3) element 1
1 0 2 3
1
0 1 1 1, R3 R3
0 0 1 2 5
Create zeros in column 3
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 , R1 R1 2 R3 , R2 R2 R3
0 0 1 2
Matrix corresponding to the system
x1 1
x2 1
x3 2
Thus the solution is x1=-1,x2=1,x3=2
Exercise 1: Solve the following system of linear equations.
x1 2 x2 4 x3 12
2 x1 x2 5 x3 18
x1 3x2 3x3 8
1.3.1 Reduced Row Echelon form and Elementary Row Operations:
In above motivating example, the key to solve a system of linear equations is to transform the
original augmented matrix to some matrix with some properties via a few elementary row
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operations. As a matter of fact, we can solve any system of linear equations by transforming the
associate augmented matrix to a matrix in some form. The form is referred to as the reduced row
echelon form.
1.3.2 Definition of a Matrix in Reduced Row Echelon Form:
A matrix in reduced row echelon form has the following properties:
1. All rows consisting entirely of 0 are at the bottom of the matrix.
2. For each nonzero row, the first entry is 1. The first nonzero entry is called a leading 1.
3. For two successive nonzero rows, the leading 1 in the higher row appears farther to the left
than the leading 1 in the lower row.
4. If a column contains a leading 1, then all other entries in that column are 0.
Note: a matrix is in row echelon form as the matrix has the first 3 properties.
1 3 0 0 2 1 0 0 3 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 0
Example
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
are the matrices in reduced row echelon form.
1 2 3 4
0 1 9 6
The matrix 0 is not in reduced row echelon form but in row echelon form
0 1 9
0 0 0 0
since the matrix has the first 3 properties and all the other entries above the leading 1 in the third
column are not 0.
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1 0 8 9
0 1 6 4
The matrix are not in row echelon form (also not in reduced row echelon form)
0 1 3 3
0 0 0 0
since the leading 1 in the second row is not in the left of the leading 1 in the third row and all the
other entries above the leading 1 in the third column are not 0.
1.3.3 Definition of Elementary Row(Or Column) Operation
Elementary row (or column ) operation on a matrix A inculding the following :
i) Interchanging any two rows (or column)
i.e Ri R j or Ci C j ii) Multipling a row (or column ) by a non zero scalar.
i.e Ri Ri or C j C j
iii) Replacing the i th row (or column ) by α times the jth row (or column) plus the i th row (or
column).
i.e Ri R j Ri or Ci C j Ci
Defination 1.10 A matrix A is said to be row (or colunm) equivalent to a matrix B if B can be
obtained by appling a finite sequence of elemntary row (or column ) operations to A.
Example :The following four matrices are row equivalent .
0 0 1 2 3 3 6 9 0 0 1 2 0 0 1 2
A 2 3 0 2 B 2 3 0 2 C 2 3 0 2 D 2 3 0 2
3 3 6 9 0 0 1 2 1 1 2 3 1 3 6 5
Because of
B is obtained from A by interchanging row 1and row 3 .(i.e R1 R3 )
1 1
C is obtained from A multiply the third row of A by . (i.e R3 R3 )
3 3
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D is also obtained from A multiply the second of A by -2. (i.e R2 2R2 )
Note: 1) Every nonzero m×n matrix can be transformed to a unique matrix in reduced row
echelon form via elementary row operations.
2) If the augmented matrix [A:b] can be transformed to the matrix in reduced row echelon
form [C:d] via elementary row operations, then the solutions for the linear system corresponding
to [C:d] is exactly the same as the one corresponding to [A :b]
Activity 1.2
1. Reduce the following matrices to row echelon and reduced row echelon forms.
2 2 4 4
2 0 1 0 1 2 3
2 3 4 5
a) 5 1 0 b) c) 0 1 3 2
0 1 3 3 4 5 6 0 3 9 3
4 5 6 7
1.4 Rank of a Matrix Using Elementary Row Operations
Defination 1.11: Let A be mxn matrix and U be an echelon or the reduced echelon form of
[Link] rank of A is denoted by Rank(A) and is define as the number of non-zero rows of U.
i.e if a matrix A is carried to a row-echelon matrix U by elementary row operations, then the
number of leading 1s in U is called the rank of A.
Example: Find the rank of each of the following matrices.
1 1 2 3 2 1 2
A 3 1 1 B 1 1 3 5
1 3 4 1 1 1 1
Solution : We transform the matrix A in to row –echelon form by using elementary row
operations.
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1 1 2 1 1 2
A 3 1 1 0 4 5 , R2 3R1 R2 and R3 R1 R3 ,
1 3 4 0 4 2
1 1 2
0 4 5 , R3 R2 R3
0 0 3
1 1 2
4 1 1
0 1 , R2 R2 and R3 R3
5
4 3
0 1 1
is row echelon [Link] Rank(A)=3
3 2 1 2 3 2 1 2
B 1 1 3 5 0 5 10 13 , R2 3R2 R1 and R3 3R3 R1
1 1 1 1 0 5 2 1
3 2 1 2
0 5 10 13 , R3 R2 R3
0 0 12 12
2 1 2
1
3 3 3
13 1 1 1
0 1 2 R1 R1 , R2 R2 and R3 R3
5 3 5 12
0 0 1 1
2 1 2
1
3 3 3
13
0 1 2 , R3 2 R3 R2
5
3
0 0 0
5
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is row of echelon form and also the number of leading 1’s is [Link] Rank(B)=3
1.5 Inverse of a Matrix and its Properties
We motivate the idea of the inverse of a matrix by looking at the multiplicative inverse of a real
number. If number b is the inverse of a, then
ab=1 and ba=1
1
for example is the inverse of 2 and we have
2
1 1
2( )=( )2=1
2 2
These are the ideas we extend to matrices.
Definition 1.12 An n×n matrix A is said to be nonsingular or invertible if there exists a matrix B
such that AB=BA=In. The matrix B is said to be the multiplicative inverse of A. Note: If B and C
are both multiplicative inverses of A, then
B = BIn = B(AC) = (BA)C = InC = C.
Thus an invertible matrix has a unique inverse.
Example 1: Show that the matrix B is the inverse of matrix A if
2 0 1 3 1 1
A 5 1 0 B 15 6 5
0 1 3 5 2 2
Solution: Observe that
2 0 1 3 1 1 1 0 0
AB 5 1 0 15 6 5 0 1 0 I 3
0 1 3 5 2 2 0 0 1
And
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3 1 1 2 0 1
BA 15 6 5 5 1 0 I 3
5 2 2 0 1 3
Thus AB=BA=I3,which shows matrix Bis the inverse of A.
Note:i) Inverse of a matrix B is only defined for square matrices.
ii)A matrix may not be invertable even if it is square matrix.
0 1
For example ,let A ,then if A is invertable ,then there exists a matrix say
0 0
x x' 0 1 x x' y y' 1 0
B such that
y y ' 0 0 y y ' 0 0 0 1
Implying 0=1, which is absurd. Thus A is not invertible.
Definition 1.13: An n×n matrix is said to be singular if it does not have a multiplicative inverse.
Notation: Let A be an invertible matrix. We denote its inverse by A-1.
Gauss-Jordan Elimination for finding the inverse of a matrix
Let A be an n×n matrix.
1. Adjoin the identity n×n matrix In to A to form the augmented matrix (A: In)
2. Compute the reduced echelon form of (A: In). If the reduced echelon form is of the type
(In: B), then B is the inverse of A. If the reduced echelon form is not of the type (In: B), in that
the first n×n submatrix is not In, then A has no inverse.
Example 2: Determine the inverse of the matrix
1 1 2
A 2 3 5
1 3 5
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Solution:Applying the method of Gauss-Jordan Elimnation ,we get
1 1 2 1 0 0 1 1 2 1 0 0
R2 R2 2 R1
( A : I3 ) 2 3 5 0 1 0 0 1 1 2 1 0 ,
1 3 0 2 R3 R3 R1
5 0 0 1 3 1 0 1
1 1 2 1 0 0
0 1 1 2 1 0 , R2 R2
0 2 3 1 0 1
1 0 1 3 1 0
0 1 1 2 1 0 , R 1 R1 R2 ,
0 0 1 3 2 1
R3 R3 2 R2
1 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 5 3 1, R1 R1 R3 ,
0 0 1 3 2 1
R2 R2 R3
Thus
0 1 1
1
A 5 3 1
3 2 1
The following example illustrates the application of the method for a matrix that does not have
an inverse. Letter on in this chapter we devise more effective method to decide whether a matrix
invertible.
Example 3: Determine the inverse of the matrix below, if it exists.
1 1 5
A 1 2 7
2 1 4
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Solution: Applying the method of Gauss-Jordan Elimnation we get
1 1 5 1 0 0 1 1 5 1 0 0
( A : I3 ) 1 2 7 0 1 0 0 1 2 1 1 0 R2 R2 R1 and R3 R3 2 R1
2 1 4 0 0 1 0 3 6 2 0 1
1 0 3 2 1 0
0 1 2 1 1 0 , R1 R1 R2 and R3 R3 3R2
0 0 0 5 3 1
There is no need to proceed further. The reduced echelon from cannot have a one in the (3,3)
location. That is the reduced echelon form cannot be of the form (In: B). Thus A-1does not exist.
Activivity 1.3
1. Find the inverse of the matrix below if it exists.
2 1 3 1 2 3
1 1
a) b) 0 2 1 c) 1 2 1
2 3 1 1 2 5 2 3
Properties of Inverse Matrices
Let A and B be invertible matrices and c a nonzero scalar. Then
1. A 1
1
A
1
2. (cA) 1 A 1
c
3. ( AB ) 1 B 1 A 1
4. ( A n ) 1 ( A 1 ) n
5. ( AT ) 1 ( A 1 ) T
we verify the 1st and 3rd results to illustrate the techniques involved leaving for the reader the
remaining results to verify.
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i) (A-1)-1 =A this results followes directly from the defination of inverse of a matrix .Since A-1 is
the inverse of A ,we have
AA-1=A-1A=In
This statement also tells us that A is the inverse of [Link] (A-1)-1=A
iii)(AB)-1=B-1A-1 we want to show that the matrix B-1A-1 is the inverse of the matrix [Link]
get,using the properties of matrices,
AB ( B 1 A 1 ) A( BB 1 ) A 1
AI n A 1
AA 1 I n
Similarly ,it can be shown that (B-1A-1)(AB)=In.
Thus (B-1A-1) is the inverse of the matrix AB.
Activety 1.4
5 1 2 1
1. If A , then A1
9 2 9 5
Use this information to determine
a) (2 AT ) 1 b) A3 c) ( AAT ) 1
1.6 Determinants and its Properties
To every square matrix A=[aij]nxn is associated a number or an expression called
the determinant of A and is denoted by |A| or det (A).
1.6.1 Determinant of Order One
Let A=[a11] be a square matrix of order one. Then det (A) = [Link] definition, if A is invertible,
then a11 0 and so det A≠0. Also, conversely if det (A)≠0, then a11 0 and so, A is invertible.
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1.6.2 Determinant of Order Two
The determinant of a 2×2 matrix is given by
a11 a12
a11a22 a21a12
a21 a22
Example 1:Determine the determinant of the following matrices
1
1 5 6
a. b. 9
7 10 1 3
3
1 5
Solution:a. det( ) 1.10 7.5 10 35 25
7 10
1
6 1 1 1 1 1
b. det( 9 ) .3 6
1 3 9 3 3 2 6
3
Defination 1.14:Let A=[aij] and Mij be the (n-1)x(n-1) matrix obtained from A by deleting the I
row and j column containing [Link] det(Mij) is called the minor of [Link] define the cofactor Cij
of aij by Cij=(-1)i+j det(Mij)
Example 2 Determine the minors and cofactors of the elements a11 and a32 of the following
matrix A.
1 8 0
A 5 2 3
0 0 1
Solution:Applying the above defination we get the following.
Minor of a11:
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2 3
det(M11)= 2 0 2 ,By deletining the 1st row 1st column.
0 1
And the cofactor of a11:
C11=(-1)1+1 det(M11)=2
1 0
Minor of a32=det(M32)= 30 3
5 3
The cofactor of a32:
C32=(-1)3+2 det(M32)=-3
Theorem1.2 :If A is an nxn matrix with n 3 ,then det(A) can be expressed as the a cofactor
expansion using any row or column of A.
i.e., det( A) ai1Ci1 ai 2Ci 2 ... ain Cin . or
a1 j C1 j a2 j C2 j ... anjCnj
for i=1,. . .,n and j=1,. . .,n.
Note:One can often save work by expanding along the row or column that contains the most
[Link] is a useful rule that can be used to give the sign part (-1)i+j, of the cofacotors in these
[Link] rule is sumarized in the following array.
If, for example ,one expands in terms of the second row ,the signs will be - + - [Link] signs
alternate as one goes along any row or column.
Example 3:To evaluate the determinant of
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0 2 3 0
0 4 5 0
0 1 0 3
2 0 1 3
Solution:One would exxpand down the first [Link] first three terms will drop out,leaving
2 3 0
2 3
2 det( 4 5 0 ) 2.3 det( ) 2.3(2) 12
1 0 3 4 5
2 1 4 9
3 2 7 3
Example 4:Caluculate det( )
0 0 0 0
4 3 2 5
Solution:Choose row 3 ,since it has the most zeros.
2 1 4 9
3 2 7 3
det( ) =[Link]( )+ [Link]( )+[Link]( )+[Link]( )=0
0 0 0 0
4 3 2 5
This example illustrate es the fact that if amatrix has a row (or column ) containing all zeros the
determinant is zero.
2 7 3 2
0 3 4 3
Example 5:Calculate det( )
0 0 6 4
0 0 0 10
Solution:Choose column 1 since it has the most zeros.
2 7 3 2
3 4 3
0 3 4 3
det( )=2det( 0 6 4 , expand by column 1.
0 0 6 4
0 0 10
0 0 0 10
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6 4
= 2(3) det( ) 2(3)(6)(10) 360
0 10
Another look at Example 3 shows us that the determinant of the given matrix was the product of
the diagonal element .Although this does not happen for all matrices ,it does if the matrix is
upper or lower triangular matrix.
Theorem1.3 If A be a nxn matrix is upper (or lower ) triangular,then det(A)= a11a22...ann .
Proof: Let us use the principle of mathematical induction. The proposition P(n) is as follows: An
n × n upper triangular matrix A has determinanta11 a22 ... ann First, we check p(n).When n=2
a a
A 11 12
0 a22
and by definition det( A)=a11a22 . The proposition is true for n=2 . For the induction hypothesis
we suppose that P(k) is true. That is, suppose that if Ak×k is upper triangular then
det(Ak×k )= a11a22 ... akk .
To complete the proof ,we must show that det( Ak 1xk 1 ) a11a22 ...a( k 1)( k 1) .
a11 a12 ... a1k a1k 1
0 a22 ... a2 k a2 k 1
Writing Ak+1k+1=
0
0 0 0 akk akk 1
0 0 0 0 ak 1k 1
We compute det(Ak+1xk+1) by using row k+1 to find
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det( Ak 1k 1 ) (1) 2 k 2 ak 1k 1 det( Akxk )
By induction ak 1k 1 (a11 akk )
hypothesis
a11 akk ak 1k 1
Thus by the principle of mathematical induction ,the propostion is true for all n.
So, if A is upper or lower triangular, the determinant is easy to calculate. To use this fact, we can
row-reduce a matrix to upper or lower triangular form, calculate the determinant of the resulting
matrix, and then relate that determinant to the determinant of the original matrix.
Activty1.5
2 0 3 9
4 0 1 5
[Link] A ,then find the following minors and cofactors of A.
5 8 2 5
0 3 6 7
a. M12 and C12 b) M43 and C43.
[Link] the determinant of the following matrix using as little computation as possible.
1 2 3 0
4 0 5 0
B
7 3 8 4
3 9 3 0
1.6.3 Properties of a Determinant
The following theorem tells us how elementary row operation affect determinants. It also tells us
that these operations can be extended to columns.
Theorem 1.4 Let A be an n × n matrix and c be a nonzero scalar.
a) If a matrix B is obtained from A by multiplying the elements of a row (column) by c then
|B| = c|A|.
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b) If a matrix B is obtained from A by interchanging two rows (column) then |B| = –|A|
c) If a matrix B is obtained from A by adding a multiple of one row (column) to another
row(column), then |B| = |A|.
The proof is left as exercise.
Example 6:Evalute the following determinant
3 4 2
1 6 3
2 9 3
Solution: We examine the rows and columns of the determinant to see if we can create zeros in
a row column the above operations. Note that we can create zeros in the second column by
adding twice the third column to it:
3 4 2 3 0 2
1 6 3 1 0 3 , C2 C2 3C3
2 9 3 2 3 3
Expand this determinant in terms of the second column to take adevantage of the zeros.
3 2
= (3) ( 3)(9 2) 21.
1 3
We shall find that matrices that have zero determinant play a significant role in theory of
matrices.
Defination1.14: A square matrix A is said to be singular if A 0 .A is nonsingular if A 0.
The following theorem gives information about some of the circumstance under which we can
expect a matrix to be singular.
Theorem 1.5 Let A be a square matrix. A is singular if
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a) all the elements of a row (column) are zero.
b) two rows (columns) are equal.
c) Two rows(columns) are proportional.
Example 7 :sho that the following matrices are singular.
2 0 7 2 1 3
a) A 3 0 1 b) B 1 2 4
4 0 9 2 4 8
Solution:
a) All the elements in column 2 of A are zero. Thus |A| = 0.
b) Observe that every element in row 3 of B is twice the corresponding element in row 2. We
write
(row 3) = 2(row 2)
Row 2 and row 3 are proportional. Thus |B| = 0.
The following theorem tells us how determinants interact with various matrix operations. The
examples following it demonstrate the theorem in use.
Theorem 1.6 Let A and B be n × n matrices and c be a nonzero scalar.
a) Determinant of a scalar multiple : |cA|=cn|A|
b) Determinant of a product: |AB| = |A||B|
c) Determinant of a transpose: |At| = |A|
1
d) Determinant of an inverse: A 1 (assuming A-1 exists).
A
Example 8 If A is a 2×2 matrix with |A| = 4, use Theorem 2.22 to compute the following
determinants.
a) |3A| b) |A| c) 5 At A1 ,assuming A-1 exists.
Solution:a) |3A|=(3)2|A| =9x4=36
a) |A2 | = |AA| = |A||A| =(4).(4) =16
1
b) 5 At A1 52 At A1 25 A 25
A
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Exampe 9:Prove that A1 At A A
Solution: by the properties of matrices ,determinants, and real numbers we get
1
A1 At A ( A1 At ) A A1 At A A1 At A AA A.
A
Activity 1.5
x 1 2
[Link] all the values of x that make the following determinant zero.
x 2 x 1
1 1 3
[Link] A 2 0 4 then |A| = –2. Use this information, together with the properties of
1 1 2
determinants, to compute the determinant of the following matrices.
1 1 3 2 0 4 1 1 3
a) 2 0 4 b) 1 1 3 c) 4 2 10
2 2 4 1 1 2 1 1 2
[Link] A and B are 3 × 3 matrices and |A|= – 3, |B| = 2, compute the following determinants.
a) AB b) AAT c) ( AB 1 )T
1.7 Determinant Method of Finding Inverse Matrices
We first introduce tools necessary for developing a formula for the inverse of nonsingular
matrix.
Definition 2.23: Let A be an n × n matrix andC ij be the cofactor of [Link] matrix whose (i, j)th
element is Cij is called the matrix of cofactors. The transpose of this matrix is called the adjoint
of A and is denoted adj(A).
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T
C11 C12 C1n C11 C12 C1n C11 C21 Cn1
21
C C C 2n 21
C C C 2n C C C n2
22
, then 22
12 22
C C C C C C C C C
n1
n 2nn n1 n2 nn 1n
2 nnn
matrix of cofactors adjoint matrix
Example 10 : Find the matrix of cofactors and the adjoint matrix of the matrix
2 1 3
A 4 5 2
3 1 4
Solution:The cofactors of A are
5 2 4 2 4 5
C11 18 C12 10 C13 11
1 4 3 4 3 1
1 3 2 3 2 1
C 21 7 C 22 1 C 23 5
1 4 3 4 3 1
1 3 2 3 2 1
C31 17 C32 8 C33 14
5 2 4 2 4 5
Thus the matrix of cofactor of this matrix is
18 10 11
7 1 5
17 8 14
and the adjoint of A is the transpose of this matrix
18 7 17
adj ( A) 10 1 8
11 5 14
Theorem 1.7Let be a square matrix with det(A) 0. A is invertable with
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1
A1 adj ( A)
A
Proof: as exersise
a11 a12 a a12
Example 11: For a 2x2 matrix ,the adjoint Adj ( A) 22
a21 a22 a21 a11
1 a22 a12
If A is nonsingular ,then A1
a11a22 a12a21 a21 a11
Example 12: use the result of Theorem 1.25 to compute the inverse of the matrix
2 1 3
A 4 5 2
3 1 4
Solution: A is computed and found to be -[Link] matrix was discussed in example [Link]
we found that
18 7 17
adj ( A) 10 1 8
11 5 14
The formula for the inverse of a matrix gives
18 7 17
13 13 13
10 1 8
adj ( A)
1
A 1
13 13 13 13
11 5 14
13 13 13
Activity 1.6
1. Determine whether the following matrices have inverse. If a matrix has an inverse, find the
inverse using the formula for the inverse of a matrix.
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1 2 3
1 4
a) b) 0 1 2
3 2 4 8 7
We now discuss the relationship between the existence and uniqueness of the solution to a
system of n linear equations in n variables and the determinant of the matrix of coefficient of the
system.
1.8 System of Linear Equations and Characterization of Solutions
Theorem 1.8: (Cramer’s Rule). Let A be an n × n nonsingular matrix and let B ∈ Rn. Let Ai be
the matrix obtained by replacing the ith column of A by B. If X is the unique solution to AX =B,
then
Ai
xi , for i 1,2,..., n
A
Theorem 1.9 Let AX = B be a system of n linear equations in n variables.
i) If A ≠ 0, then AX = B has a unique solution. The system has a trivial solution that
is X=0 if B = 0.
ii) If A = 0, and at least one of the Ais is nonzero the system has no solution. For, if
A = 0 and |A1| ≠ 0, then X A =|A1| leads to a contradiction. Such systems are
called inconsistent
iii) If A = 0 and Ai 0 , i =1,2,. . . ,n the system my ave an infinite number of
solutions or may not have a solution. A system having an infinite number of solutions is called
dependent.
Definition 1.14 If AX = 0 then the system of equations is said to be homogeneous.
Example 1:Solve
3x1 x2 x 3
x1 x2 x3 6
x1 x2 x3 4
by using Cramer,s rule.
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Solution: First we calculte det(A).
3 1 1 3 1 1
det( A) 1 1 1 1 1 1 , R3 R2 R3
1 1 1 2 0 0
1 1
2 4
1 1
3
Now substute B 6 for column 1 and calculate
4
4 1 1 4 1 2
det 6 1 1 det 6 1 0
4 1 1 4 1 0
x1 , C C C 4 1
4 4 4
3 2 3
Similarly
3 4 1 3 0 1
det 1 6 1 det 1 2 1
1 4 1 1 0 1
x2 , C 4C C
4 4
2 2 3
8
2
4
3 1 4 3 1 4
det 1 1 6 det 4 0 10
1 1 4 2 0 2
x3 , R R R and R R R
4 4
2 2 1 3 2 3
12
3
4
The answer checks, by direct substitution.
The following two systems of linear equations, each of which has a singular matrix of
coefficients, illustrate that there may be many or no solutions.
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x1 2 x2 3x3 1 x1 2 x2 3x3 3
3x1 4 x2 5 x3 3 1
2 x x 2 3 x3 3
2 x1 3x2 4 x3 2 x x 2x 0
1
2
3
many solution no solution
x1 t 1, x2 2t , x3 t
Example 2: Determine values of r for which the following system of equations has nontrivial
solutions. Find the solutions for each value of r.
(r 2) x1 (r 4) x2 0
2 x1 (r 1) x2 0
Solution: This system is a homogeneous system of linear equations. It thus has the trivial
solution by Theorem 2.26 (i). The same theorem part (iii) tells us that there is the possibility of
other solution only if the determinant of the matrix of coefficients is zero.
Equating this determinant to zero, we get
r2 r4
0
2 r 1
(r 2)(r 1) 2(r 4) 0
r2 r 6 0
(r 2)(r 3) 0
Thus the determinant is zero if r=-3 or r=2.
r=-3 result in system
x1 x2 0
2 x1 2 x2 0
This system has infinitely many solutions x1 m, x2 m, for m
r=2 the result of system
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4 x1 6 x2 0
2 x1 3x2 0
This system has many solutions
3m
x1 , x2 m, for m
2
Cramer’s rule gives us a convenient method for writing down the solution to an n × n system of
equations in terms of determinants. In this method we can solve for any one of the x is with out
solving the solution of the entire system. However to compute the solution of the system as a
whole, one must evaluate n + 1 determinants of order n. Evaluating even two of these
determinants generally involves more computation than solving the system using Gaussian
Elimination that we are going to see bellow.
1.8.1 The Gaussian Elimination Method
Let AX = B be a linear system of equations then
1. Write down the augmented matrix of the system of linear equations.
2. Find an echelon form of the augmented matrix using elementary row operations.
3. Write down the system of equations corresponding to the echelon form.
4. Use back substitution to arrive at the solution.
Example 3 Solve the following system of linear equations using the method of Gaussian
elimination.
x1 2 x2 3x3 2 x4 1
x1 2 x2 2 x3 x4 2
2 x1 4 x2 8 x3 12 x3 4
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Solution: Solving the augmented matrix, create zeros below the pivot in the first column.
1 2 3 2 1 1 2 3 2 1
[ A : b] 1 2 2 1 2 0 0 1 3 1 , R2 R2 R1 , R3 R3 2 R2
2 8 12 4 0 0 2 8 6
4
1 2 3 2 1
0 0 1 3 1 , R3 R3 2 R2
0 0 0 2 4
1 2 3 2 1
1
0 0 1 3 1 , R3 R3
0 0 0 1 2 2
We have arrived at the echelon form.
The corresponding system of equation is
x1 2 x2 3x3 2 x2 1
x3 3x4 1
x4 2
The system is now solved by back substitution i.e. the value of x4 is substituted into the second
equation to give x3 . x3 and x4 are then substituted into the first equation to get x1 .
We get
x3 3(2) 1
x3 5
Substituting x4=2 and x3=-5 into the first equation we have
x1 2 x2 3(5) 2(2) 1
x1 2 x2 10
x1 2 x2 10
Let 𝑥2 = 𝑡, hence the system has infinitely many solutions.
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Therefore the solution set is (-2t+10,t,-5,2)t
Example 4 Determine the value of k so that the following system of unknown x, y, z has
(i) a unique solution, (ii) no solution, (iii) an infinite number of solutions.
x y z 1
2 x 3 y kz 3
x ky 3 y 2
Solution: The augmented matrix determined by the system is
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
[ A : b] 2 3 k 3 0 1 k 2 1, R2 R2 2 R1 , R3 R3 R2
1 k 3 2 0 k 1 1
4
1 1 1 1
0 1 k 2 1 , R3 R3 (k 1) R2
0 0 (k 1)(k 2) 4 2 k
1 1 1 1
0 1 k 2 1
0 0 (2 k )(k 3) 2 k
The system has a unique solution if the solution if the coefficient of z in the third equation is not
zero; that is, if k ≠ 2 and k ≠ -3. In case k = 2, the third equation reduces to 0 = 0 and the system
has infinite equation reduces to 0 = 5 and the system has no solution.
Summarizing (i) k ≠ 2 and k ≠ 3, (ii) k = -3, (iii) k
Activity 1.5
1. Solve the following systems of equations using
a. Cramer’s rule (if possible)
b. Gaussian elimination method
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2 x1 7 x2 3x3 7 x1 6 x2 x3 3
i) x1 2 x2 x3 3 ii ) x1 2 x2 3x3 2
x1 5 x2 2 x3 5 4 x1 2 x2 5 x3 5
Review Exersise
1. Find the inverse of the following matrices if possible
1 3 7 5
1 2 3 1 0 1
1 3 1 2 1 3
(a) (b) 3 1 2 (c ) (d ) 2 1 2
8 4 9 5 6 2 0 1 4 1 2 1
1 1 1 3
1 1 0
[Link] the values of x for which the matrix A= 1 0 1 is invertible. In that case give A-1.
1 2 x
3. Find the determinants of the matrices in 1above.
4. What is the determinant of the product matrix below?
1
1 2
1 2 0 2 0 1 3
0 1 0
1
2 1 0 0 1
0 2
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
1 2 0 1 2 0
5. Given that 2 1 0 A 2 1 0 5I 3 ,what is det(A)?
0 0 1 0 0 1
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6. Find the determinant and inverse of the following matrix
1 0 0 0
1 1 1 xm x x
0 1 0 0
(a) (b) a b c (c) x xm x
0 0 1 0 a2
a
b2 c 2 x
x x
b c d
7. For what values of k wills the system
x1 x2 kx3 0
x1 kx2 x3 0
kx1 x2 x3 0
have a non-trivial solution? In each case what are these solutions?
8. Solve each of the following system of linear equations by using:
i) Gaussian elimination method
ii) Cramer’s rule, whenever possible
2x y 6z 6 3x 4 y 7 z 0
2x 5 y 1 3x 2 y z 1
(a) (b) c) 3x 2 y 2 z 2 d ) y 2z 3
3x 2 y 4 x 2 y 9z 9
x y 2z 4 x 3 y z 5
x y z w 4
2 y z 3w 4
e)
2 x y z 2w 5
x yw4
9. A man refused to tell anyone his age, but he likes to drop hints about it. He then remarks that
twice his mother’s age add up to 140 and also that his age plus his father’s age add up to 105
Furthermore, he says that the sum of his age and his mother’s age is 30 more than his father’s
age. Calculate the man’s age or show that his hints contradict one a
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CHAPTER TWO
Vectors and Vector Spaces
Introduction
To apply calculus in many real-world situations and in higher mathematics, we need a
mathematical description of three-dimensional space. In this chapter we introduce three-
dimensional coordinate systems and vectors. Building on what we already know about
coordinates in the xy-plane, we establish coordinates in space by adding a third axis that
measures distance above and below the xy-plane. Vectors are used to study the analytic
geometry of space, where they give simple ways to describe lines, planes, surfaces, and curves in
space. We use these geometric ideas to study motion in space and the calculus of functions of
several variables, with their many important applications in science, engineering, economics, and
higher mathematics.
Objectives
At the end of this chapter the readers should be able to:
Define vectors in 𝑅 2 and in 𝑅 3 .
Understand the properties of vectors.
Define and use dot and cross products of two vectors.
Calculate the dot and cross product of two vectors.
Define and use equation of a line and a plane in space.
2.1 Scalars and Vectors; Located Vectors in R2 and R3
A scalar is simply a real number, a complex number or a quantity that has magnitude but no
direction. For instance length, temperature, and blood pressure are represented by real numbers
hence are scalar quantities. A vector, on the other hand, is usually described as a quantity that has
both magnitude and direction. Geometrically, a vector is represented by a directed line segment
that is an arrow and is written either as a boldface symbol v or AB for instance weight, velocity,
frictional force are vector quantity.
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2.1.1 Notation and Terminologies
A vector whose initial point is A and whose terminal point is B is given by AB and the
magnitude (or length) of a vector AB is denoted by AB .Moreover two vectors that have the
same magnitude and the same direction are said to be equal. Thus in fig 1 below AB CD
Because of this property of vectors that we can move vectors from one position to another
provided its magnitude and direction are maintained, so we say that vectors are free by their very
nature. The negative of a vector AB , written – AB , is a vector that has the same magnitude as
AB but opposite in direction. If, k ≠ 0 then k AB is a vector that is k as long as AB . When
k=0 we say 0 AB = 0 (zero vector). Two vectors are said to be parallel if and only if they are
nonzero scalar multiples of each other.
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2.1.2 Addition and Subtraction
Two vectors can be considered as having a common initial, such as in fig [Link], if nonparallel
vectors AB and AC are the sides of a parallelogram as in fig 3b, we say the vector that is the
main diagonal, or AD , is the sum of AB and AC and we write
AD = AB + AC
The difference of two vectors AB and AC is defined by
AB - AC = AB +(- AC )
As seen in fit 4(a), the difference AB - AC can be interpreted as the main diagonal of a
parallelogram with sides AB and - AC . However, as shown, in fig 4b, we can also interpret it
as the third side of a triangle with sides AB and AC . In this second interpretation, observe that
the vector difference CB = AB - AC points toward the terminal point of the vector from which
we are subtracting the second vector. If AB = AC , then AB - AC = 0(zero vector)
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2
2.1.3 Vectors in R
To describe a vector analytically, let us consider vectors in two-dimensional coordinate plane.
The vector with initial point the origin O and terminal point P(x1,y1) in fig 5, is called a position
vector of the point P and is denoted by OP x, y
2
In general, a vector a in R is any ordered pair of real numbers the kind
a a1 ,a2
The numbers a1 and a2 are said to be components of the vector a.
As we shall see in the first example, the vector a is not necessarily a position vector.
Example 1
The displacement between the point (x,y) and (x+4,y+3) in fig 5a is written <4,3>. As seen in
fig. 6b, the position vector of <4,3> is the vector emanating from the origin and terminating at
the point P(4,3).
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2
In R addition, subtraction, multiplication of vectors by scalars, and so on, are defined in terms
of their components.
Definition 2.1: Let a= a1 , a2 and b b1 , b2 be vectors in R2 ,then
i) Addition : 𝑎 + 𝑏 = a1 b1 , a2 b2
ii) Subtraction: 𝑎 − 𝑏 = a1 b1 , a2 b2
iii) Equality : 𝑎 = 𝑏 if and only if a1 b1 and a2 b2
iv) Scalar multiplication: ka ka1 ,ka2
Example 2: if 𝒂 =< 1,4 > and 𝒃 =< −6,3 >,find 𝒂 + 𝒃, 𝒂 − 𝒃 and 𝟐𝒂 + 𝟑𝒃.
Solution: By definition 2.1
𝒂 + 𝒃 =< 1 + −6 , 4 + 3 >=< −5,7 >
𝒂 − 𝒃 =< 𝟏 − (−𝟔),4 − 3 >=< 7,1 >
𝟐𝒂 + 𝟑𝒃 =< 2,8 > +< −18,9 >=< 2 + (−18),8 + 9 >=< −16,17 >
Definition 2.2 The magnitude, length, or norm of a vector a a1 ,a2 is denoted by
a , and defined by
a a1 a2
2 2
Example 3 : If a 6,2 , then a 6 2 (2) 2 40 2 10
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Clearly a 0 , for any vector a =0 if and only if a=[Link] we define a unit vector as a
vector with norm unity. We can obtain a unit vector u in the direction of a by multiplying a by
1 1
i.e u a
a a is a unit vector in the direction of a.
Example 4: Given a=<6,-2>,form a unit vector in the direction of a and in the opposite
direction of a.
Solution:- We sow in example 3 that the norm of a is 2 10 . Thus the unit vector u in the
direction of a is given by
1 1 3 1
u a 6,2 ,
2 10 2 10 10 10
And the opposite direction of a is given by
3 1
u ,
10 10
2
There are two especial unite vectors in R that simplify describing and operating on vectors
which are
i=<1,0> and j=<0,1>
any vector a a1 ,a2 ,can be written as a sum
a a1 , a2 a1 ,0 0, a2 a1 1,0 a2 0,1 a1 i a2 j
Example 5 : Vector operations using i and j.
a. 4,7 4i 7 j b) (2i 5 j ) (8i 13 j ) 10i 8 j c) i j 2
3
d) a 6i 4j and b 9i 6j are parallel vectors since b a
2
3
2.1.4 Vectors in R
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3
A vector a in R is an ordered triple of real numbers a=<a1,a2,a3> where a1 ,a2 ,a3 are the
3
components of the vector. The set of all vectors in R3will be denoted by the symbol R . The
position vector of a point P(x1, y1, z1) in space is the vector OP <x1, y1, z1> whose initial point is
the origin O and whose terminal point is P.
The component definition of addition, subtraction, scalar multiplication and so on are natural
2
generalizations of those given for vectors in R
Definition 2.3: Let a a1 , a2 , a3 and b b1 , b2 , b3 be vectors in3 .Then
i) Addition : a b a1 b1 , a2 b2 , a3 b3
ii ) Subtractio n : a b a1 b1 , a2 b2 , a3 b3
iii ) Scalar multipicat ion : ka ka1 , ka2 , ka3
iv ) Equality : a b if and only if a1 b1 , a2 b2 , a3 b3 .
v) Zero vectors 0 0,0,0
vi) Magntude : a a1 a2 a3
2 2 2
Example 6 Find the vector p1 p2 if the points P1 and P2 are given by P1(4,6,-2) and P2 (1,8,3).
Solution: Observe that we may sketch the vectors as in the figure below
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Fig 8
2 3 6
, ,
Example 8 Find the norm of a where a= 7 7 7
Solution: By definition 1.3vi
2 3 6 4 9 36
2 2 2
a 1
7 7 7 49
Thus a is a unit vector.
2
As we have special unit vectors in R (i and j) we also have special unit vectors in R3
defined as
i=<1,0,0> ,j=<0,1,0> and k=<0,0,1> so that any vector a a1 , a2 , a3 may be written as
a a1 , a2 , a3 = a1 1,0,0 a2 0,1,0 a3 0,0,1
= a1i a2 j a3 k
2.2 Dot (Scalar) Product
In this and the following section, we shall consider two kinds of products between vectors that
originate in the study of mechanics, electricity and magnetism. The first of these products,
known as the dot or inner or scalar product, yields a scalar.
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Definition 2.4: Let a a1 , a2 , a3 and b b1 , b2 , b3 be vectors in3 . Then the dot product of
a and b is the number a.b defined by
a.b= a1b1 a2b2 a3b3
Observe that if a= a1 , a2 , a3 the norm of a is given by
a a1 a2 a3 a.a or
2 2 2
a.a a
2
In particular
i j k 1
Example 1 Find the scalar product of a =< 4 , -2 , 1 > and b =< 2 , 0 , 3 >
Solution: From definition 2.4 we se e that
𝒂. 𝒃 = (4𝑥2) + (−2𝑥0) + (1𝑥3) = 11
The scalar product satisfies many of the laws that hold for real numbers. For example
𝑖) 𝑎. 𝑏 = 𝑏. 𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑐𝑎 . 𝑏 = 𝑎. 𝑐𝑏
𝑖𝑖) 𝑎. (𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑎. 𝑏 + 𝑎. 𝑐 𝑖𝑣) (𝑎 + 𝑏+). 𝑐 = 𝑎. 𝑐 + 𝑏. 𝑐
The following theorem gives us the relation between the dot product of two vectors and the angle
between them.
Theorem 2.1 If a and b are two nonzero vectors in either R2 or R3 and θ is the angle between
them, then
a.b= a b cos , where 0
Proof: We will prove the result for R2 while a a1i a2 j and b b1i b2 j . The proof for
vectors in R3 is similar.
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The vectors a, b and b-a, may be used to form a triangle as in fig below, then
by the low of cosines we have
We can observe from theorem 2.1 above is that if the two vectors are perpendicular to
each other i.e. 𝜃 = 90° then 𝑎. 𝑏 = a b cos 0 and conversely. This proves corollary
below.
Corollary 2.1 The nonzero vectors a and b are perpendicular to each other if and only if
𝑎. 𝑏 = 0
The other important result that we get from theorem 2.1 is that
a.b
cos
a b
which intern implies, the angle between a and b is uniquely determined 0 ≤ .
Example 2: a) The vector 0 is perpendicular to every vector in R
b) 𝑇𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 < 3,2 > 𝑎𝑛𝑑 < −4,6 > 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑅2,
𝑐) 𝑇𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 < 2, −3,1 > 𝑎𝑛𝑑 < 1,1,1 > 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑜𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑅3
Example 3 : Determine the angle between the vectors
u i and v i k in 𝑹𝟑
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Solution: Since 𝒖. 𝒗 = 𝟏, u 1, v 2 and if istheangle betewwen u and v, we have
u.v 1
cos
u v 2
1
Consequently arccos 45
2
2.3 The Orthogonal Projection of One Vector onto Another
Suppose that two nonzero vectors a and b are positioned as Fig (a) and (b) below and that the
sun casts a shadow on the line containing a vector parallel to a which we call the projection of
b onto a and denoted by .
Since is parallel to a, it must be a scalar multiple of a. The length of
is evidently, b cos where θ is the angle between a and b (0 ≤ ). It follows that
Hence irrespective of the angle θ we have
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a a.b a a.b
= b cos b
a a2a
a a b
Now we are prepared to define the .
Definition 2.5 Let a be a nonzero vector. The projection of vector b on to a ( ) is defined
by
a.b
= 2
a
a
Example 4: Let 𝑎 = 𝑖 + 𝑗 and 𝑏 = 𝑖 + 2𝑗 + 5𝑘.Find .
Solution: Observe that 𝒂. 𝒃 = 1 + 2 = 3 and a 2 ,hence
a.b 1 1 1
= 2
a= 2
(i j ) i j
a ( 2) 2 2
2.3.1 Direction Cosines:
For a nonzero, a a1i a2 j a3 k in 3 the angle α,β, and γ between a and the unit vectors 𝑖, 𝑗,
and 𝑘, respectively, are called direction angles of a. See Fig below, then
We say that cos , cos , cos and are the direction cosines of a. The direction cosines of a none
zero vector a are simply the components of the unit vector .
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1
a = a1 i a2 j a3 k cos i cos j cos k
a a a a
1
Since the magnitude of a is 1, it follows from the last equation that
a
cos 2 cos 2 cos 2 1
Example 5: Fine the direction cosines of the vector a 2i 5 j 4k.
Solution: a 2 2 52 4 2 45 3 5 , we see that the direction cosine are
2 5 4
cos , cos , cos
3 5 3 5 3 5
Observe that in Example 5 above that
4 25 16
cos 2 cos 2 cos 2 1
45 45 45
2.4 Cross (Vector) Product
In this section, we introduce the cross (vector) product of two vectors and its applications. The
cross product is the other special product of two vectors, which yields vector unlike that of the
dot (scalar) product.
Definition2.6: The cross product axb of two vectors a a1i a2 j a3 k and b b1i b2 j b3 k in
R 3 define by
axb (a2b3 a3b2 )i (a3b1 a1b3 ) j (a1b2 a2b1 )k
An easy way to remember the last equation is to write it in a determinant form i.e.
i j k
axb a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
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Then evaluating it by repeating the first and second columns and multiplying it as follows
i.e subtract the sum of the product of the “southwest” diagonals form that of the product
of the “southeast” diagonals.
Example 1 Let u i 2 j 3k and v j 4k .Determine the cross product 𝑢 × 𝑣 and 𝑣 × 𝑢.
Solution: From the definition of cross product we have
𝑢𝑥𝑣 = [−2(4) − 3(1)]𝑖 + [3(0) − 1(4)]𝑗 + [1(1) − (−2)0]𝑘 = −11𝑖 − 4𝑗 + 𝑘
𝑣𝑥𝑢 = [1(3) − (−2)4]𝑖 + [4(1) − 0(3)]𝑗 + 0(−2) − (1)1]𝑘 = 11𝑖 + 4𝑗 − 𝑘
Notice that the vector 𝑢 × 𝑣 and 𝑣 × 𝑢 in Example 1 are negatives of each other. This is not a
coincidence; in fact it directly follows from the definition of cross product of two vectors as we
may see in the theorem below.
Theorem 2.2 Let 𝑎 = 𝑎1 𝑖 + 𝑎2 𝑗 + 𝑎3 𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 𝑏1 𝑖 + 𝑏2 𝑗 + 𝑏3 𝑘 𝑖𝑛 𝑅 3 . Then
𝒂) 𝒂 × 𝒂 = 𝟎 𝒄) 𝒂 ⋅ (𝒂 × 𝒃) = 𝟎
𝒃) 𝒂 × 𝒃 = – (𝒃 × 𝒂) 𝒅) 𝒃 ⋅ (𝒂 × 𝒃) = 𝟎
Proof: a) By definition of cross product we have
i j k
axa a1 a2 a3
a1 a2 a3
since a determinant with two equal rows is zero (13N1otice 0 is vector).
a) Further, using properties of determinants, we get
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i j k i j k
(axb) a1 a2 a3 b1 b2 b3 (bxa ) 2
b1 b2 b3 a1 a2 a3
Since interchanging rows leads us to the negative of the original determinant.
b) Using the definition of dot product, cross product and determinant we have
i j k a1 a2 a3
a.(axb) a1i a2 j a3 k a1 a2 a3 a1 a2 a3 0
b1 b2 b3 b1 b2 b3
It can be proved similarly that b⋅(a × b) =0.
Note: From c) and d) of theorem 1.15 we conclude that the vector 𝒂 × 𝒃 is perpendicular to
both a and b.
Example 2 The cross product of any pair of vectors in the i, j, and k can be obtained by the
circular pattern illustrated in Fig. Below that is
𝒊 × 𝒋 = 𝒌 𝒋 × 𝒊 =– 𝒌
𝒋 × 𝒌 = 𝒊 𝒌 × 𝒋 =– 𝒊
𝒌 × 𝒊 = 𝒋 𝒊 × 𝒌 =– 𝒋
Example 3 Let 𝒂 = 𝒊 – 𝒋 + 𝟑𝒌 and 𝒃 = 𝟐𝒊 – 𝟑𝒋 – 𝒌. Find a vector perpendicular to a and b.
Solution: By theorem 1.15 the cross product 𝒂 × 𝒃 is one such vector thus the vector that is
perpendicular to both a and b is given by
i j k
axb 1 1 3 (1 9)i (6 1) j (3 2)k 8i 7 j 5k
2 3 1
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Other properties of the cross product that follow readily from the definition of cross product are
i) ca × b = c(a × b) = a × (cb) ii) a × (b + c) = (a × b) + (a × c)
iii) (a + b) × c = (a × c) + (b × c).
Theorem 2.3 Let 𝒂 and 𝒃 be vectors in R3. Then axb a b s in , where θ (0≤θ≤π) is the
angle between 𝒂 and 𝒃.
Proof: Let 𝒂 = 𝒂𝟏 𝒊 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒋 + 𝒂𝟑 𝒌 and = 𝒃𝟏 𝒊 + 𝒃𝟐 𝒋 + 𝒃𝟑 𝒌 . Using the definition of norm of
a vector, we get
axb (a2b3 a3b2 ) 2 (a3b1 a1b3 ) 2 (a1b2 a2b1 ) 2
2
On expanding the squares, this can be rewritten as
(a 21 a2 a3 )(b1 b2 b3 ) (a1b1 a2 b2 a3b3 ) 2
2 2 2 2 2
a 2 b (a.b) 2
2
a b ( a b cos ) 2
2 2
a b a b cos 2
2 2 2 2
a 2 b (1 cos 2 )
2
a b sin 2
2 2
Since sinθ≥0 for (0≤θ≤π), we can take the square root of each side of the equation and obtain
axb a b sin
Corollary 2.2 Two nonzero vectors 𝒂 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒃 are parallel if and only if 𝒂 × 𝒃 = 𝟎.
Proof: Left as exercise.
The result of theorem 2.3 leads to the area of a triangle that is defined by two vectors.
Consider the triangle whose edges are the vectors 𝑢 and 𝑣. See the fig below.
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1
Area of triangle (base) xheight
2
1
u v sin
2
1
uxv
2
1
Thus area of triangle with edges 𝒖 and 𝒗 = uxv .
2
Example 3 Determine the area of the triangle having vertices 𝐴(3, −1,2), 𝐵(1, −1, −3), 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐶(4, −3, 1).
Solution: The points B and C define the following edge vectors, starting from point A.
𝐴𝐵 =< 1, −1, −3 > −< 3, −1,2 >=< −2,0, −5 >
𝐴𝐶 =< 4, −3,1 > −< 3, −1,2 >=< 1, −2, −1 >
i j k
And 𝐴𝐵 𝑋𝐴𝐶 = 2 0 5 10i 7 j 4k
1 2 1
1
Thus, the area of the triangle =( )|| 𝐴𝐶 × 𝐴𝐵 ||.
2
1
10i 7 j 4k
2
1
165
2
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The other important application of the vector (cross) products is in finding the volume of a
parallelepiped.
Consider the parallelepiped whose edges are defined by the vectors a, b, and c. See fig below.
The area of the base is twice of the area of the triangle defined by vectors a and b.
Thus,
area of base = ||𝑎 × 𝑏||. Further, volume = ||𝑎 × 𝑏|| × , where h is the height.
Observe that
h=
c.(axb )
2
(axb )
axb
c.(axb )
axb
Thus the volume of a parallelepiped with adjacent edges 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒄 .The expression 𝒄. (𝒂𝒙𝒃) is
called the triple scalar product of 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒄. It can be conveniently written as a determinant.
Let a a1i a2 j a3 k b b1i b2 j b3 k , c c1i c2 j ) c3 k
i j k c1 c2 c3 a1 a2 a3
Then c.(axb) (c1i c2 j c3 k ). a1 a2 a3 a1 a2 a3 b1 b2 b3
b1 b2 b3 b1 b2 b3 c1 c2 c3
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Thus
The volume 𝑽 of a parallelogram with edges 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒄
a1 a2 a3
V=absolute value of b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
Example 4 Find the volume of the parallelepiped having adjacent edges defined by the points
𝐴(1,1,3), 𝐵(3,7,1), 𝐶(−2,3,3), 𝐷(1,2,8).
Solution: The points A, B, C, and D define the following three adjacent edge vectors.
𝐴𝐵 =< 3,7,1 > −< 1,1,3 >=< 2,6, −2 >
𝐴𝐶 =< −, 2, 3, 3 > −< 1, 1, 3 >=< −3, 2, 0 >
𝐴𝐷 =< 1,2,8 > − < 1,2,8 > =< 0,1,5 >
The volume of the parallelepiped is thus
2 6 2
𝑉 =absolute value of ( 3 2 0 )
0 1 5
= 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 (116)
= 116
We have also other triple products for instance 𝒃𝑥𝒄 . 𝒂, 𝒂𝑥𝒃 𝑥𝒄, (𝒂𝑥𝒃) 𝑥𝒄 are the useful ones.
The first is called a triple scalar product and the last two are called triple vector products, since
the products are vector
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2.5 Lines and Planes in R
2.5.1 Equations of Lines in Space
Consider a line through the point P0 ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) in the direction defined by the vector < 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 >
See the fig below. Let 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be any other point on the line. We get
𝑃0 𝑃 = 𝑥 − 𝑥0 , 𝑦 − 𝑦0 , 𝑧 − 𝑧0
The vector 𝑃0 𝑃and < 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 > are parallel. Thus there exists a scalar t such that
𝑃0 𝑃 = 𝑡 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐
𝑥 − 𝑥0 , 𝑦 − 𝑦0 , 𝑧 − 𝑧0 = 𝑡 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐
This is called the vector equation of the line. Comparing the components of the vectors on the
left and right of this equation gives
x x0 ta , y y0 tb , z z0 tc ………………… (1)
3
Rearranging these equations as follows gives the parametric equations of a line in R .
x x0 ta , y y0 tb , z z0 tc t ……………………….. (2)
in this last equation we get the points on the line as t varies.
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Example 1 Find a vector equation for the line through (1, 2, 5) in the direction of <4, 3, 2>.
Give also the parametric equation of the line. Determine any two points on the line.
Solution: Let <𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 >=< 4, 3, 1 > and ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) (1,2,3) , then from equation (1) we can
write the vector equation of the line as
x 1, y 2, z 3 t 4,3,1
And from equation (2) we give the parametric equation of the line by
x 1 4t , y 2 3t , z 3 t , for t R
To find to points on the line we give t two arbitrary values, for instance t =1leads to the point
(5, 5, 6), and t =–1 leads to the point (–3, –1, 4).
Example 2 Find the parametric equation of the line through the points (−1, 2, 6) and (1, 5, 4).
Solution: Let ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) (1,2,6) .The direction of the line is given by the vector
a, b, c (1,5,4) (1,2,6) 2,3,2 .
Consequently the parametric equations of the line are given by
x 1 2t , y 2 3t , z 6 2t , t
Symmetric Equations of a Line: From equation (2) we can clear the parameter t by writing it as
x x0 y y 0 z z 0
t
a b c
Provided that the three numbers a, b, and c are nonzero. The resulting equations
x x0 y y 0 z z 0
a b c
are said to be symmetric equations for the line through P0 and P.
Examples 3: Find the symmetric equations for the line through (4, 10, −6) and (7, 9, 2).
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Solution: First let us find the reference vector as below
a, b, c 4,10,6 7,9,2 3,1,8
Then if we let ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) (7,9,2) .
x 7 y 9 z 2
3 1 8
Note: If one of the numbers 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒐𝒓 𝒄 is zero in (2), we use the remaining two equations to
eliminate the parameter 𝑡. For example if 𝑎 0, 𝑏 ≠ 0, 𝑐 ≠ 0, then (2) yields the symmetric
equations for the line to be
y y0 z z 0
x x0 ,
b c
2.5.2 Equations of Planes in R3
Let P0 ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) be a point in a plane. 𝐿𝑒𝑡 < 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 > be a vector perpendicular to the plane,
called a normal to the plane. These two quantities, namely a point in a plane and a normal vector
to the plane characterize the plane. There is only one plane through a given point and having a
given normal. We will now drive the equation of a plane passing through the point P0 ( x0 , y0 , z0 )
and having normal < 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 >. Let 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be any arbitrary point in the plane.
We get ,
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P0 P x, y, z x0 , y0 , z 0
x x0 , y y0 , z z 0
The vector lies in the plane. Thus the vector<a, b, c> and are orthogonal. Their dot
product is zero. This observation leads to a vector equation of the plane
𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∙ 𝑃0 𝑃 = 0.
Or . a, b, c . x x0 , y y0 , z z0 0
Specifically the last equation yields the point-normal form of the equation of the plane
a( x x0 ) b( y y0 ) c( z z0 ) 0 ………………………………… (3)
and expanding the last equation and putting d ax0 by0 cz 0 we obtain the general form of
the equation of the plane
ax by cz d ………………………………. (4)
Example 1: Find the point-normal and general forms of the equation of the plane passing
through the point (1, 2, 3) and having normal < −1, 4, 6 >.
Solution: Let ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) (1,2,3) and a, b, c 1,4,6 . Then the point normal form
equation of the plane is given by
– (𝑥 – 1) + 4(𝑦 – 2) + 6(𝑧 – 3) = 0
multiplying and simplifying the last equation we get the general form
𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 6𝑧 = 25.
Example 2: Determine the equation of the plane through the three points
𝑃 (2, −1, 1), 𝑄 (−1, 1, 3) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 (2, 0, −3).
Solution: The vectors 𝑃𝑄 and 𝑃𝑅 lie in the plane .Thus 𝑃𝑄 x 𝑃𝑅 will be normal to the plane.
So since
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𝑃𝑄 =< −1, 1, 3 > − < 2, −1, 1 > = < −3,2,2 >
𝑃𝑅 =< 2,0,3 > −< 2, −1,1 > =< 0,1, −4 >
i j k
𝑃𝑄 x 𝑃𝑅 = 3 2 2 10i 12 j 3k
0 1 4
Finally putting ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) (2,1,1) and a, b, c 10,12,3 which give the point normal
equation by
10( x 2) 12( y 1) 3( z 1) 0
or the general equation by
10 x 12 y 3z 11
Example 3: The normal vector to the plane 3x 47 10 z 8 , can be given by taking the
coefficients of 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 and forming a vector, i.e., 3𝑖 – 4𝑗 + 10𝑘 is the normal vector to our
plane.
Example 4: (Graph of a plane)
Graph the equation 2 x 3 y 6 z 12 .
y = 0, z = 0 gives x = 6
x = 0, z = 0 gives y = 4
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x = 0, y = 0 gives z = 2
The 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧-intercepts are, 6, 4, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2 respectively. As shown in the figure to the above.
We use the points (6, 0, 0), (0, 6, 0) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (0, 0, 3) to draw the graph of the plane in the first
octant.
Review Exercise
1. Let 𝑎 = 4𝑖 + 2𝑗 and 𝑏 = −2𝑖 + 5𝑗. Graph 𝒂 + 𝒃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒂 − 𝒃
2. See the given figures to prove the given results
𝑖) 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 0 𝑖𝑖) 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑑 = 0
3. Sketch position vectors for 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝟐𝒂, −𝟑𝒃, 𝒂 + 𝒃, 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂 − 𝒃.
𝑖) 𝑎 = < 2,3,4 > 𝑏 = < 1, −2,2 >
𝑖𝑖) 𝑎 = – 𝑖 + 2𝑗 + 3𝑘 𝑏 = −2𝑗 + 𝑘
4. Determine the scalar c so that the vectors 𝑎 = 2𝑖 − 𝑐𝑗 + 3𝑘 and 𝑏 = 3𝑖 + 2𝑗 + 4𝑘 are
orthogonal.
a.b
5. Verify the vector 𝒄 = b 2
a is orthogonal to the vector 𝒂.
a
6. Determine a scalar c so that the angle between 𝑎 = 𝑖 + 𝑐𝑗 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 𝑖 + 𝑗 𝑖𝑠 45
7. Find the angle θ between 𝑎 = 𝟑𝒊 − 𝒌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒃 = 𝟐𝒊 + 𝟐𝒌.
8. Find the direction cosines of the vector 𝒃 = 𝒊 + 𝟐𝒋 + 𝟑𝒌 .
9. Find v x1 , y1 , z1 that orthogonal to both a 3,1,1 and b 3,2,2
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12. Find the area of the triangle with vertices 𝐴(1,2,1), 𝐵(−3,4,6), 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶(1,8,3).
13. Find the volume and surface area of the parallelepiped having adjacent edges defined
by 𝐴(1,2,5), 𝐵(4,8,1), 𝐶(−3,2,3), 𝐷(0,3,9).
3
14. Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 be vectors in R .Prove that 𝒂. (𝒃𝒙𝒄) = (𝒂𝒙𝒃). 𝒄
3
15. Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 be vectors in R . Prove that 𝒂𝒙(𝒃𝒙𝒄) = (𝒂. 𝒄)𝒃 – (𝒂. 𝒃)𝒄
16. Find parametric equations and symmetric equations for the line through the points
(5, 3, 1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (2, 1, 1).
17. Find the equation of the line through the point (1, 2, −4), parallel to the line 𝑥 = 4 + 2𝑡,
𝑦 = −1 + 3𝑡, 𝑧 = 2 + 𝑡, 𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒 − ∞ < 𝑡 < ∞
18. Find the equation of the line through the point (2, −3,1) in a direction orthogonal to the line
x 1 y 1 z 2
3 2 5
19. Show that there are many planes that contain the three points (3, −5, 5), (−1, 1, 3) and
(5, −8, 6). Interpret your conclusion geometrically.
20. Find an equation for the line through the point (4, −1, 5), in the direction perpendicular
to the line 𝑥 = 1 – 𝑡, 𝑦 = 3 + 2𝑡, 𝑧 = 5 – 4𝑡, 𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒 – ∞ < 𝑡 < ∞.
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21. Show that the line 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑡, 𝑦 = 14 – 𝑡, 𝑧 = 2 – 𝑡, 𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒 – ∞ < 𝑡 < ∞, lies in the
plane 2𝑥 – 𝑦 + 3𝑧 + 6 = 0.
22. Prove that the line 𝑥 = 4 + 2𝑡, 𝑦 = 5 + 𝑡, 𝑧 = 7 + 2𝑡, 𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒 – ∞ < 𝑡 < ∞, never
intersects the plane 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 – 4𝑧 + 7 = 0.
23. Find an equation of the line through the point (5, -1, 2) in a direction perpendicular to
the line 𝑥 = 5 – 2𝑡, 𝑦 = 2 + 3𝑡, 𝑧 = 2𝑡, 𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒 – ∞ < 𝑡 < ∞.
24. Find the line of intersection of the two planes
𝑥 – 4𝑦 + 2𝑧 + 7 = 0 and 3𝑥 + 3𝑦 – 𝑧 – 2 = 0.
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CHAPTER THREE
Limit and Continuity
Introduction:
The concept of a limit is a central idea that distinguishes calculus from algebra and trigonometry.
It is fundamental to finding the tangent to a curve or the velocity of an object.
In this chapter we develop the limit first intuitively and then formally. We use limits to describe
the way a function f varies. Some functions vary continuously; small changes in x produces
only small changes in f (x) . Other functions can have values that jump or vary erratically. The
notion of limit gives a precise way to distinguish between these behaviors. The geometric
application of using limits to define the tangent to a curve leads at once to the important concept
of the derivative of a function. The derivative, which we investigate thoroughly in chapter 4,
quantifies the way a functions value’s change.
Objectives
At the end of this chapter the readers should be able to:
Understand the concept of limit.
Study and use a formal definition of limit.
Evaluate a limit using properties of limits.
Understand one-sided limit.
Evaluate one-sided limit.
Determine limit at infinity and infinite limits.
Determine the horizontal and the vertical asymptote of the graph of a function.
Determine continuity at a point and continuity on an interval.
Understand and use the Intermediate Value Theorem.
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3.1 Definitions of Limit
Until now we have been evaluating the limit of a function by using its intuitive definition. That is
we have said that limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches to 𝑎 is 𝐿 and write
lim f ( x) L
xa
if we can make 𝑓(𝑥) close enough to 𝐿 by choosing 𝑥 close enough to 𝑎 but distinct from 𝑎.
Although this intuitive definition is sufficient for solving limit problems it is not prices enough.
In this section we see the formal definition of limit, which we call 𝑡𝑒 definition of
limit.
Definition 3.1(Formal definition of limit)
The limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 is 𝐿, written
lim f ( x) L
xa
if every 0 , there exists 𝑎 0 such that f ( x) L whenever 0 x a .
In definition 3.1 above we should not that:
i. The absolute value symbol is read as “the distance between” for instance x a is the
distance between 𝑥 and 𝑎.
ii. Notice that 𝑥 − 𝑎 > 0. In other words 𝑥 is not equal to 𝑎.
So with this in mind we can read the definition as:
“The distance between 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝐿 can be made smaller than any positive number , whenever
the distance between 𝑥 and 𝑎 is less than some number and 𝑥 does not equal 𝑎.” Fig 3.1 below
represents this idea pictorially as:
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Fig 3.1
If we wish to use a form of Definition 3.1 that does not contain absolute value symbols we can
have the following alternative definition of limit.
Definition 3.2: lim f ( x) L if and only if for every 0 , there is a 0 such that if 𝑥 is in the
xa
open interval 𝑎 − 𝛿, 𝑎 + 𝛿 and 𝑥 ≠ 𝑎 then 𝑓 𝑥 is in the open interval L , L .
Using either of the definitions of limit given above we can prove the following theorem.
Theorem 3.3: If lim f ( x) L and lim f ( x) M , then L M .
xa xa
The above theorem tells us that if a limit of a function 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑎 exists then it must be unique.
3.2 Examples on Limit
Even if it is very difficult to us the formal definition of limit to handle all limit problems, let us
see how we can use it for evaluating some important limits that may help us in developing rules
by the way of which we can evaluate limits without using the formal definition.
Example 1: Assume that lim 5 x 7 3 . By using properties of inequalities, determine a 𝛿 > 0
x 2
such that
if 0 < 𝑥 − 2 < 𝛿 then 5𝑥 − 7 − 3 < 0.01
Solution: By considering 5𝑥 − 7 − 3 < 0.01, we can see that
5𝑥 − 7 − 3 < 0.01 ⟺ 5𝑥 − 10 < 0.01
⟺ 5 𝑥 − 2 < 0.01
⟺ 𝑥 − 2 < 0.002
So now it is clear that if we choose 𝛿 = 0.002 the statement holds, but to check our result holds
we proceed as follows:
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If 0 < 𝑥 − 2 < 𝛿 then 𝑥 − 2 < 0.002
0.01
⟹ 𝑥−2 <
5
⟹ 5 𝑥 − 2 < 0.01
⟹ 5𝑥 − 10 < 0.01
⟹ 5𝑥 − 7 − 3 < 0.01
Thus we have shown that the choice of 𝛿 = 0.002 satisfies the statement
if 0 < 𝑥 − 2 < 𝛿 then 5𝑥 − 7 − 3 < 0.01
This example is for the specific 0.01. The general case can be seen as follows.
Example 2: Show that lim 5 x 7 3.
x 2
Solution:
We need to show that given 0 then there exists 𝛿 > 0 such that
if 0 < 𝑥 − 2 < 𝛿 then 5𝑥 − 7 − 3 <
To choose an appropriate 𝛿 we start with 5𝑥 − 7 − 3 < then we have
5𝑥 − 10 < ⟹ 5 x − 2 <
⟹ 5 x−2 <
5
Hence, we let 𝛿 =
5
This proves that lim 5 x 7 3.
x 2
Example 3: Prove that lim 7 7.
x 5
Solution:
Begin by letting 0 be given. Find 𝛿 > 0 so that
if 0 < 𝑥 − 5 < 𝛿 then 𝑓 𝑥 − 7 <
i.e. 7 − 7 < i.e. 0 < . But this trivial inequality is always true, no matter what value is
1
chosen for 𝛿. For example 𝛿 = 2 will work.
Thus, if 0 < 𝑥 − 5 < 𝛿 then it follows that 𝑓 𝑥 − 7 < .
This completes the proof.
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A similar proof as example 2 shows us that for any number 𝑎 and 𝑘
lim k k . ………………………….. 1
x k
Example 4: Prove that lim kx ka for any real number 𝑘.
x a
Solution: from 1 it is clear that if 𝑘 = 0
lim kx lim 0 0 0.a k .a
x a x a
If 𝑘 ≠ 0, letting 0 we must find a 𝛿 > 0 so that
0 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 ⟹ 𝑘𝑥 − 𝑘𝑎 <
Since,
𝑘𝑥 − 𝑘𝑎 < ⟹ 𝑘 𝑥 − 𝑎 <
⟹ 𝑥−𝑎 <
k
Now, choose 𝛿 =
k
Thus, lim kx ka for any real number𝑘.
x a
Example 5: Prove that lim
x 1
x 3 4
2
Solution:
Begin by letting 0 be given. Find 𝛿 > 0 (which depends on ) so that
If 0 < 𝑥 − 1 < 𝛿, then 𝑓 𝑥 − 4 < . Begin with 𝑓 𝑥 − 4 < and “solve for” 𝑥 − 1 .
Then
𝑓 𝑥 −4 < ⟺ 𝑥2 + 3 − 4 <
⟺ 𝑥2 − 1 <
⟺ 𝑥−1 𝑥+1 <
⟺ 𝑥−1 𝑥+1 <
We will now replace the term 𝑥 + 1 with an appropriate constant and keep the term 𝑥 − 1 ,
since this is the term we wish to “solve for.” To do this, we will arbitrary assume that 𝛿 ≤ 1
[This is a valid assumption to make since, in general, once we find a 𝛿 that works, all smaller
values of a 𝛿 also work].
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Then
𝑥 − 1 < 𝛿 ≤ 1 ⟹ −1 < 𝑥 − 1 < 1
⟹0<𝑥<2
⟹1< 𝑥+1 <3
It follows that
𝑥−1 𝑥+1 < 𝑥−1 3 <
⟺3 𝑥−1 <
⟺ 𝑥−1 <
3
Now choose 𝛿 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 1,
3
Thus, if 0 < 𝑥 − 1 < 𝛿, it follows that 𝑓 𝑥 − 4 < .
Hence, lim
x 1
x 3 4
2
2 1
Example 6: Prove that lim
x 3 x3 3
Solution: Begin by letting 0 be given. Find 𝛿 > 0 (which depends on ) so that
1 1
If 0 < 𝑥 − 3 < 𝛿, then 𝑓 𝑥 − 3 < . Begin with 𝑓 𝑥 − 3 <
and “solve for” 𝑥 − 3 . Then
1 2 1
𝑓 𝑥 − < ⟺ − <
3 𝑥+3 3
3 2 1𝑥 +3
⟺ − <
3𝑥 + 3 3𝑥 +3
6− 𝑥+3
⟺ <
3 𝑥+3
3−𝑥
⟺ <
3 𝑥+3
𝑥−3
⟺ <
3 𝑥+3
1 𝑥−3
⟺ <
3 𝑥+3
1 1
⟺ 𝑥−3 <
3 𝑥+3
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We will now replace the term 𝑥 + 3 with an appropriate constant and keep the term 𝑥 − 3 ,
since this is the term we wish to “solve for.” To do this, we will arbitrary assume that 𝛿 ≤ 1
[This is a valid assumption to make since, in general, once we find a 𝛿 that works, all smaller
values of a 𝛿 also work].
Then
𝑥 − 3 < 𝛿 ≤ 1 ⟹ −1 < 𝑥 − 3 < 1
⟹2<𝑥<4
⟹5< 𝑥+3 <7
1 1 1
⟹ < <
7 𝑥+3 5
It follows that
1 1 1 1
𝑥−3 < 𝑥−3 <
3 𝑥+3 3 5
1
⟺ 𝑥−3 <
15
⟺ 𝑥 − 3 < 15
Now choose 𝛿 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 1,15
1
Thus, if 0 < 𝑥 − 3 < 𝛿, it follows that 𝑓 𝑥 − 3 < .
2 1
Hence, lim
x 3 x3 3
Example 7: Prove that
lim 2 x 5
x9
Solution:
Begin by letting 0 be given. Find 𝛿 > 0 (which depends on ) so that
If 0 < 𝑥 − 9 < 𝛿, then 𝑓 𝑥 − 5 < . Begin with 𝑓 𝑥 − 5 <
and “solve for” 𝑥 − 9 . Then
𝑓 𝑥 −5 < ⟺ 2+ 𝑥 −5 <
⟺ 𝑥−3 <
𝑥+3
⟺ 𝑥−3 <
𝑥+3
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𝑥−9
⟺ <
𝑥+3
1
⟺ 𝑥−9 <
𝑥+3
We will now replace the term 𝑥 + 3 with an appropriate constant and keep the term 𝑥 − 9 ,
since this is the term we wish to “solve for.” To do this, we will arbitrary assume that 𝛿 ≤ 1
[This is a valid assumption to make since, in general, once we find a 𝛿 that works, all smaller
values of a 𝛿 also work].
Then
𝑥 − 9 < 𝛿 ≤ 1 ⟹ −1 < 𝑥 − 9 < 1
⟹ 8 < 𝑥 < 10
⟹ 8 < 𝑥 < 10
⟹ 8+3< 𝑥 + 3 < 10 + 3
1 1 1
⟹ < <
10 + 3 𝑥+3 8+3
It follows that
1 1
𝑥−9 < 𝑥−9 <
𝑥+3 8+3
⟺ 𝑥−9 < 8+3
Now choose 𝛿 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 1, 8+3 𝜀
Thus, if 0 < 𝑥 − 9 < 𝛿, it follows that 𝑓 𝑥 − 5 < .
Hence,
lim 2 x 5
x9
1
Example 8: Prove that lim 3x sin 0
x0 x
Solution:
We need to show that given 0 , then there exists 𝛿 > 0 such that
1
0 < 𝑥 − 0 < 𝛿 implies 3𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 0 < . For” 𝑥 − 9 .
Looking for 𝛿
1
3𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛 <
𝑥
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1
⟺ 3𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 <
𝑥
1 1
⟺ 3 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ≤ 3 𝑥 . 1 < ; since 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ≤ 1
𝑥 𝑥
⟺ 𝑥 <
3
Hence we let 𝛿 =
3
1
Thus, lim 3x sin 0
x0 x
Negation of the Existence of a Limit
Next we present an example of a function that does not have a limit at a certain point. For a
function 𝑓 not to have real number 𝐿, the statement “𝐿 is the limit at 𝑎” is false. What does it
mean for that statement to be false? By definition 3.1, “ is the limit of 𝑓 at 𝑎” means that:
For every 0 there is a number 𝛿 > 0 such that
if 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < 𝛿, then 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝐿 <
For this statement to be false, there must be some 0 such that for every 𝛿 > 0 it is false that
if 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < 𝛿, then 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝐿 < …………………………………….… 2
But, to say that 2 is false is the same as to say that there must be a number 𝑥 such that
0 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < 𝛿 and |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿| ≥
Thus to say that the statement lim f ( x) L is false is the same as to say that there
x a
is some >0such that for every 𝛿 > 0 there is a number 𝑥 satisfying
0 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < 𝛿 and 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝐿 ≥
Example 9: Let 𝑓 be defined by
𝑥2 ; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 0
𝑓 𝑥 =
−1; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≤ 0
Show that lim f ( x) does not exist
x0
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Solution:
Let 𝐿 be any number. We will prove that the statement “𝐿 is the limit of 𝑓 at 0” is false by letting
1
and showing that for any 𝛿 > 0 there is an 𝑥 satisfying
2
1
0 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < 𝛿 and 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝐿 ≥ 2 =
Let 𝛿 be any positive number.
1 𝛿
If 𝐿 ≤ − 2, then we let 𝑥 = and note that 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 , so that
2
𝛿2 𝛿2 1 1
𝑓 𝑥 −𝐿 = −𝐿 ≥ + > =
4 4 2 2
1 𝛿
If 𝐿 ≥ − 2, then we let 𝑥 = − 2 and note that 𝑓 𝑥 = −1, so that
1 1
𝑓 𝑥 − 𝐿 = −1 − 𝐿 = 1 + 𝐿 ≥ 1 − = =
2 2
In either case we have shown that for any 𝛿 > 0 there is an 𝑥 satisfying
1
0 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < 𝛿 and 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝐿 ≥ 2 =
Therefore, 𝑓 has no limit at 0. 𝑖. 𝑒. lim f ( x) 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡
x0
Activity 3.1
1. Using the definition of limit, prove that
lim 2 x 1 1 4
2
a.
x 1
c. lim
x 2 x
b. lim x 1 1 d. lim 2 x 1 3
x 2 x 1
3.3 One-Sided Limit
The notion of limit discussed in the preceding sections can be extended to one-sided limit as we
can see from the definition below.
Definition 3.4
a. A number 𝐿 is the right-hand limit of 𝒇 at 𝒂 denoted by lim f ( x) L
x a
if for every 0 there is a number 0 such that
if 0 x a , then f ( x) L
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b. A number 𝐿 is the left-hand limit of 𝒇 at 𝒂 denoted by lim f ( x) L
x a
if for every 0 there is a number 0 such that
if x a 0 , then f ( x) L
Example 9: Show that lim x 1 0
x 1
Solution: Let 0 be given. We need to show that there is a 0 such that
if 0 x 1 , then x 1 0
x 1 squaring both sides we get 0 x 1
2
from
Hence choose
2
Then
if 0 x 1 , then x 1 0 x 1
Below we give a theorem that relates one-sided limit with the general limit the student
can see Robert Ellis and Danny Gulick for the proof of the theorem.
Activity 3.2
1. Show that
a. lim x 0 b. lim 4 x 0
x0 x4
Theorem 3.5: lim f ( x) exists and is equal to 𝐿 if and only if lim f ( x) L and lim f ( x) L
x a x a x a
both exists and both are equal to 𝐿.
Example 10: Observe that in Example 1 even if the right hand side of 𝑓 at 1 exists since the left
side limit of 𝑓 at 1 does not exist, as the function is not defined for 𝑥 < 1 then
lim x 1 does not exist.
x 1
3.4 Infinite Limits and Infinite Limits at Infinity
According to Definition 3.1 if a function 𝑓 has a limit 𝐿 at 𝑎 then 𝐿 is a real number, so if the
value of a function 𝑓 becomes larger and larger in absolute value as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 from the
right or from the left of 𝑎 the 𝑓 has no limit at 𝑎. Now we introduce a definition that addresses
such a case.
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Infinite Limits
Definition 3.6 Let 𝑓 be defined on some open interval 𝑎, 𝑐 .
a. If ∀𝑁, ∃𝛿 > 0 such that
if 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < 𝛿 then 𝑓 𝑥 > 𝑁
Then lim f ( x)
x a
b. If ∀𝑁, ∃𝛿 > 0 such that
if 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < 𝛿 then 𝑓 𝑥 < 𝑁
Then lim f ( x)
x a
c. In either case 𝑎 or 𝑏 the vertical line 𝑥 = 𝑎 is called a vertical asymptote of the
graph of 𝑓, and we say that 𝑓 has an infinite right- hand limit at 𝒂.
There are analogous definitions for the limits
lim f ( x) and lim f ( x)
x a x a
Note if lim f ( x) lim then we write simply lim for the common expression and say
x a x a x a
that the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 is ∞ and that 𝑓 has an infinite limit at 𝑎.
Example 10: Show that lim 1 . Show also that the line 𝑥 = 0 is a vertical asymptote of the
2 x 0
x
graph of 1 .
2
x
Solution: Observe that for any 𝑁 > 0,
if 0 x 1 , then 1
N
2
N x
Thus lim 1 , and that the line 𝑥 = 0 is a vertical asymptote of the graph of 1 .
2 2
x 0 x x
Once more for any 𝑁 > 0, if
1
x 0, then 1
N
2
N x
Thus lim 1 , and that the line 𝑥 = 0 is a vertical asymptote of the graph of 1 .
2 2
x 0 x x
1 1 1
Finally since lim 2
lim 2
, we have lim 2
.
x 0 x 0 x 0
x x x
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Limits at Infinity
Until now the limits we have seen have been limits of a function 𝑓 at a number 𝑎. Now we
consider the limit of 𝑓 as 𝑥 becomes larger and larger in absolute value.
Definition 3.7
a. lim f ( x) L if for every 0 there is a number 𝑀 such that
x
if 𝑥 > 𝑀, then f ( x) L
b. lim f ( x) L if for every 0 there is a number 𝑀 such that
x
if 𝑥 < 𝑀, then f ( x) L
c. If either lim f ( x) L or lim f ( x) L , then we call the horizontal line 𝑦 = 𝐿 a
x x
horizontal asymptote of the graph of 𝑓.
1 1
Example 11: Show that lim 2
0 and lim 2
0
x x
x x
1
Solution: Let 0 . To show that lim 2
0 we must find an 𝑀 such that
x
x
1 1 1
if 𝑥 > 𝑀, then 2
0 2
2
x x x
But then
1 1
If x , then
x
2
1 1
Therefore we let M and conclude that lim 0.
x
x
2
1 1
To show that lim 0 , we simply choose M
x
x
2
Then 𝑀 < 0, and thus
1 1 1
if 𝑥 < 𝑀, then 2
0 2
2
x x M
1
This proves that lim 2
0.
x
x
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1
Note here that the line 𝑦 = 0 is the horizontal asymptote of the graph of 2
.
x
Activity 3.3
1. Find the vertical asymptote (if any) of the graph of the following functions.
a. f ( x) x
2
d. f ( x)
ln x 1
2
2
4 x2
x
x 1 t
b. f ( x) e. f ( x)
2
1 sin t
x
2 x
f ( x) e
c. f. 4
f ( x) 1
x 1 2
x
2. Find the horizontal asymptote (if any) of the graph of the following functions.
x
a. f ( x) c. f ( x) 3x
x 1 2
2
x
9x 2
2
3x 2
b. f ( x) d. f ( x)
2x 1 x2
Infinite Limits at Infinity
We now see the last possible formal definition of limit that is not considered yet.
Definition 3.8 lim f ( x) if for any real number 𝑁 there is some number 𝑀 such that
x
If 𝑥 > 𝑀, then 𝑓 𝑥 > 𝑁
Note: the definition of
lim f ( x) , lim f ( x) , and lim f ( x) are completely analogous.
x x x
Example 12: Show that lim x
3
x
x for x 1.
3
Solution: We use the fact that x
For any 𝑁, choose 𝑀 so that 𝑀 > 1 and 𝑀 > 𝑁. Then it follows that
If 𝑥 > 𝑀, then 𝑥 3 > 𝑥 > 𝑀 > 𝑁
Therefore by definition 3.8 , we have lim x
3
x
Similarly, we conclude that for any positive integer 𝑛, lim x .
n
x
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3.5 Basic Limit Theorems
Even if we have developed important techniques of solving limit problems by using the formal
definition, I hope by now we have realized that it is not that easy to use this definition to solve
each and every problem. Nevertheless the student had encountered in his or her earlier studies of
calculus rather easy ways of evaluating limits by the help of different rules. Here we state and
prove some of them by using Definition 3.1 and use them to evaluate more complex limit cases.
Theorem 3.9 Assume that lim f ( x) L and lim g ( x) M , and 𝑐 is a constant. Then
xa xa
1. lim f ( x) g ( x) lim f ( x) lim g ( x) L M
xa xa xa
2. lim cf ( x) cL
xa
3. lim f ( x) g ( x) lim f ( x).lim g ( x) L.M
xa xa xa
f ( x) lim f ( x) L
4. lim x a
; provided that 𝑀 ≠ 0.
x a g ( x )
lim
x a
g ( x) M
Proof: Here we proof (1). Statement (2), (3), 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (4) are left as exercise.
Let lim f ( x) L and lim g ( x) M .
xa xa
We need to show for every 𝜀 > 0 there is some 𝛿 > 0 such that
if 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < 𝛿, then 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔 𝑥 − 𝐿 + 𝑀 <𝜀
𝜀
Observe that lim f ( x) L if and only if for every 2 > 0 there is some 𝛿1 > 0 such that
xa
𝜀
if 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < 𝛿1 , then 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝐿 < 2
𝜀
Similarly lim g ( x) M if and only if for every 2 > 0 there is some 𝛿2 > 0 such that
xa
𝜀
if 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < 𝛿2 , then 𝑔 𝑥 − 𝑀 < 2
Let 𝛿 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝛿1 , 𝛿2 . Then we can see that
𝜀 𝜀
if 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < 𝛿, then 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔 𝑥 − 𝐿 + 𝑀 ≤ 𝑓 𝑥 −𝐿 + 𝑔 𝑥 −𝐿 < + =𝜀
2 2
Thus, lim f ( x) g ( x) lim f ( x) lim g ( x) L M
xa xa xa
In addition to these rules you have also seen that for instance if 𝑓 is a polynomial or a rational
function and 𝑎 is in the domain of 𝑓, then
lim f ( x) f (a)
xa
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Now let as quickly go through some important limit finding techniques that would require a little
bit of caution before applying the rules in Theorem 3.9.
4
2
Example 13: Find lim x
x 2 x2
4
2
Solution: Direct substitution of 2 in x implies that we have 0 0 which is indeterminate.
x2
Thus we cannot use Theorem 3.9(4) but for 𝑥 ≠ 0 simplification of the rational expression
would lead us to
4 x 2x 2
2
x x2
x2 x2
4
2
Thus, lim x limx 2 4
x 2 x 2 x 2
2
Example 14: Find lim x
x 0
1 1
2
x
Solution: Again here we cannot use Theorem3.9(4), as we get from direct substitution the
indeterminate0 0. But for 𝑥 ≠ 0 rationalizing the denominator we have:
1 1
2 2 2
lim x lim x x
x 0 x 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2
x x x
x x 1 1
2 2
lim
x 0
x 11 2
x x 1 1
2 2
lim 2
x 0
x
lim x 1 1 2
2 2
x0 x
Example 15: Find lim x x
x0
Solution: Observe that
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2 , if x 0
xx x 2
x , if x 0
Since x x x for x 0 , we have
2
lim x x lim x 0
2
x0 x0
And also x x x for x 0 , we have
2
lim x x lim x 0
2
x0 x0
Therefore, we conclude that
lim x x 0 .
x0
x 1
Example 16: Prove that lim does not exist.
x 1 x 1
Solution:
x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1
lim lim lim 1 1 and lim lim lim 1 1
x1 x 1 x1 x 1 x1 x1 x 1 x1 x 1 x1
Consequently
x 1 x 1
lim lim
x1 x 1 x 1 x 1
x 1
Thus, lim does not exist.
x 1 x 1
lim x 2 x x 2x
2 2
Example 17: Find and lim
x 1 x 1
x 2 x 2
x 2x
2
2
Solution: Dividing the numerator and the denominator of by x in the limit we have
x 1
2
1
2
lim x 2 x
2
lim x 2
x 1
2
x x 1
1
x
Similarly
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1
2
x 2x
2
lim lim x 2
x 1
2
x x 1
1
x
x 2x
2
Observe that y 2 is the horizontal asymptote of the graph of f ( x) .
x 1
2
x 2x
2
Example 18: Let f ( x) . Find all vertical asymptotes of the graph of f .
x 1
2
Solution: Since f is not defined at x 1 and x 1 they are the possible vertical asymptotes
but to confirm our claim we use limit:
x 2x
2
x 1 2x
lim lim and
x 1 x 1 x 1
x 1
2
x1
x 2x
2
x 1 2x
lim lim
x 1 x 1 x 1
x 1
2
x 1
It follows that x 1 and x 1 are the vertical asymptotes of the graph of f .
The next theorems give two additional properties of limits. For their proofs the student may
refer any major calculus books.
Theorem 3.10 If f ( x) g ( x) for all 𝑥 in an open interval that contains 𝑎 (except possibly at
𝑎) and the limits of 𝑓 and 𝑔 both exist as 𝑥 approaches𝑎, then
lim f ( x) g ( x)
xa
Theorem 3.11 (The squeezing Theorem)
If f ( x) g ( x) h( x) for all 𝑥 in an open interval that contains 𝑎 (except possibly at 𝑎)
and lim f ( x) lim h( x) L . Then
xa xa
lim g ( x) L .
xa
I don’t think the student is new for these theorems and for the special limit that is the
Consequence of especially the Squeezing Theorem. i.e.
sin x
lim 1
x0 x
sin x sin x
sin ce, cos x x 1 for 2 , 2 . Taking both sides lim it as x 0, we get lim 1
x0 x
(you can see the detail proof on the book Robert Ellis)
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2 1
Example 19: Find lim x sin .
x 0 x
1
Solution: Since 1 sin 1, x 0 , we have
x
1
x x sin x , x 0
2 2 2
Moreover lim x 0 and lim x 0
2 2
x0 x0
Thus, by squeezing theorem we have
1
0.
2
lim x sin
x0 x
4 2
Example 20: Find lim x x .
x x 1
x x
4 2
Solution: Simplifying we can evaluate the limit as below
x 1
lim x x
4 2
lim x x
2
1
2
lim x
x 1x 1
2
lim x x 1
2
x x 1 x x 1 x x 1 x
Activity 3.4
1. Evaluate each of the following limits, if it exists.
x2
2
1 x 1 x
a. lim x d. lim
x 1 x 1 x 1 x
sin 2 x 3
x , if x 1
e. lim f ( x) where f ( x)
b. lim
x 2 , if x 1
2
x 0 3x
x1
1 cos x 1 tan x
c. lim f. lim
x 0
x
2
x sin x cos x
4
3.6 Continuity of a Function and the Intermediate Value Theorem
Definition 3.11 A function 𝑓 is continuous at a number 𝑎 in its domain if
lim f ( x) f (a)
xa
𝑓 is said to be discontinuous at 𝑎 if 𝑓 is not continuous at 𝑎.
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Notice that Definition 3.11 implicitly requires three things if 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑎:
i. f (a) is defined (that is, 𝑎 is in the domain 𝑓 ).
ii. lim f ( x) exists (so 𝑓 must be defined on an open interval that contains 𝑎).
xa
iii. lim f ( x) f (a) .
xa
x2
2
Example 21: Let f ( x) lim x . Determine the number at which 𝑓 is discontinuous.
x1 x 1
Solution: Notice that 𝑓 is a rational function. Since the denominator of 𝑓 is 0 for 𝑥 = −1, 𝑓 is
defined for all 𝑥 except at −1. Thus 𝑓 is discontinuous only at 𝑥 = −1 else where it is
continuous in its domain.
Example 22: If we redefine the function 𝑓 in Example 21 as:
2x2
x
f ( x) x 1 , if x 1
3 , if x 1
Then since
x2 x 2x 1 3
2
lim f ( x) lim x lim
x1 x1 x 1 x1 x 1
and hence lim f ( x) 3 f (1)
x1
Thus, 𝑓 is continuous.
Notice that we are able to make 𝑓 in Example 21 to be continuous by redefining it at – 1 as
in Example 22. Such discontinuity points like – 1 in our example are called removable
discontinuities because we can remove the discontinuity of the function by redefining the
function just at the discontinuity point. Otherwise it is called non-removable discontinuity.
1 1 , if x 0
Example 23: Let f ( x) and g ( x) . Then we can see that, 𝑓 is not
x
2
0 , if x 0
defined at 0 and lim f ( x) , g is defined at 0 but lim g ( x) does not exist as lim g ( x) 1 and
x0 x0 x0
lim g ( x) 0 .
x0
Thus, both functions are not continuous at 0.
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We say we have infinite discontinuity at 0 in case of 𝑓 while we say we have jump discontinuity
at 0 in case of g
Clearly combinations of continuous functions follow immediately from the corresponding results
for limits.
Theorem 3.12 If 𝑓 and 𝑔 are continuous at 𝑎 and 𝑐 is a constant, then the following
functions are also continuous at 𝑎.
i. 𝑓±𝑔 iii. 𝑓𝑔
𝑓
ii. 𝑐𝑓 iv. , if 𝑔(𝑎) ≠ 0
𝑔
So using Theorem 3.12 we can show that every polynomial function is continuous over ℝ.
Every rational function is continuous every where except at numbers where the denominator is 0.
Another way of combining continuous functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 to get a new continuous function is to
form the composite function f g . This fact is a consequence of the following theorem.
Theorem 3.13 If 𝑓 continuous at 𝑏 and lim g ( x) b , then
xa
lim f g ( x) f (b) f lim g ( x)
xa xa
The following theorem tells us that the composition of two continuous functions at a given
number is continuous.
Theorem 3.14 If g is continuous at 𝑎 and f is continuous at g (a) , then
f g ( x) f g ( x) is continuous at 𝑎.
Activity 3.5
1. Where are the following functions continuous?
1
a. f ( x) x b. g ( x)
3 2
2
x
3.6.1 One-Sided Continuity
Definition 3.15:
-a function f is continuous is continuous from the right at a point 𝑎 in its
domain if
lim f ( x) f (a)
xa
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-a function f is continuous is continuous from the left at a point 𝑎 in its
domain if
lim f ( x) f (a)
xa
1 , if x 0
Example 24: The step function g ( x) is continuous from he left at 0.
0 , if x 0
Since lim g ( x) 1 g (0) but it is not continuous from the right at 0 as lim g ( x) g (0) .
x0 x0
(verify!)
3.6.2 Continuity on an Interval
Definition 3.16:
a) a function f is continuous on an open interval a, b , if it is continuous at every point in a, b .
b) a function f is continuous on a closed interval a, b , if it is continuous at every point in
a, b and is also continuous from he right at 𝑎 and continuous from the left at 𝑏.
Example: Discuss the continuity of f ( x) 1 x .
2
Solution: The domain of f is the closed interval 1,1 .
At all points in the open interval 1,1 , f is continuous.
Moreover,
lim 1 x 0 f (1) …… continuous from the right
2
x1
and
lim 1 x 0 f (1) ………. Continuous from he left
2
x1
Thus, f is continuous on the closed interval 1,1 .
Activity 3.6
Let f ( x) 16 x . Show that f is continuous on 4,4 .
2
An important property of continuous functions is expressed by the following theorem.
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Theorem 3.17 [The Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT)]
Suppose that f is continuous on the closed interval a, b and let N be any number strictly
between f (a) and f (b) . Then there exists a number c in a, b such that f (c) N .
In other words, if f is continuous on the closed interval a, b and if f (a) and f (b) differ or
opposite in sign , then there exists atleast one real root c in a, b such that f (c) 0 .
Example 24: Show that there is a root of the equation
4x 6x 3x 2 0 on 1,2 .
3 2
f ( x) 4x 6x
3
3x 2 .
2
Solution: Let
We are looking for a solution of the given equation, that is, a number c between 1 and 2 such
that f (c) 0 .
Therefore we take a 1, b 2, and N 0 in Theorem 3.17. We have
f (1) 4 6 3 2 1 0 and f (2) 32 24 6 2 12 0
Thus, f (1) 0 f (2) , that is, N 0 is a number between f (1) and f (2) .
Also f is continuous, since it is a polynomial.
Hence, by the IVT, there is a number c between 1 and 2 such that f (c) 0 .
4x 6x 3x 2 0 has a root c in the interval 1,2 .
3 2
In other words, the equation
Activity 3.7
1. Find the constant 𝑎, or the constant𝑏, or the constant 𝑐 such that the function is
continuous on the entire real line.
2, if x 1
2 2 , if x 1
a. f ( x) x c. f ( x) ax b , if 1 x 3
Ax 4 , if x 1 2 , if x 3
4 sin x
bx c , if x 2 1
2
, if x 0
b. g ( x) x d. f ( x) x
a 2 x , if x 0
x 1 , if 1 x 3
2. Demonstrate that the equation cos x x 0 has atleast one solution.
3. Verify that the Intermediate Value Theorem applies to the give interval and find the value
of c guaranteed by the theorem.
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a. f ( x) x x 1,
2
0,5 , f (c) 11
x
2
5
b. f ( x) x , 2 ,4 , f (c) 6
x 1
Review Exercises
1. Find the limit L . Then use the definition to prove that the limit is L .
a. lim x 1
x1
c. lim 1 x
x 2
2
b. lim x d. lim 3 2 x
x 9 x2
2. Evaluate the following limits (if it exists)
1 cos x x 3 1
a) lim f. lim
x0 sin x x 4 x4
9 4
2 2
b) lim x g. lim x
x 3 3 x x 8
x 2 3
4 x 2 sin[ x] 1
c) lim h. lim 6 2
x 0 x x0 x
1 1
d) lim
1 x
i. lim
ln x 1 2
x 0 x x 2 ln | (| x 1)
1 3 x 2x 1 3
e) lim j. lim
x 1 x 1 x1 x 1
3. Evaluate the following limits (if it exists)
c) lim 3x x
sin 2 x 2
a) lim
x x x 9x
5 2 1
b) lim ln x 2
d) lim 2 x 1
2
x 4x
x
x 2
4. Find the one-sided limit (if it exists)
x 1
2
x 1 2x
a. lim 4 d. lim
x 1
x 1 x 2 x2
sin 4 x 2
b. lim e. lim12e x
x 0 5x x0
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2x 1
2
x x 1
c. lim f. lim 3
x 1 x 1 x 1
x 1
5. Find the values of the constants a and b such that
a bx 3
lim 3
x0 x
6. Determine the value of c such that the function is continuous on the entire real number
line
x 3 , if x 2
f ( x)
cx 6 , if x 2
7. Determine the values of a and b such that the function is continuous on the entire real
number line
x 1 , if 1 x 3
f ( x) 2
x ax b , if x 2 1
8. Determine all values of the constant a such that the following function is continuous for
all real numbers
ax
, if x 0
f ( x) tan x
a 2 , if x 0
2
9. Determine the intervals on which the following functions are continuous
f ( x) 3x 7
2
c) f ( x) 49 x
2
a)
3x x 2 , if x 1
2
b) d) f ( x) x 1
f ( x) x 1 x
0 , if x 1
10. Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of the graph of the following functions (if it
exists)
2
f ( x) 1 c) f ( x) ln( 25 x )
2
a)
x
3
b) f ( x)
4x d) f ( x) 7e x
4 x
2
11. Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to show that
f ( x) 2 x 3 has a zero in the interval 1,2 .
3
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CHAPTER FOUR
Derivatives
Introduction
The problem of finding the tangent line to a curve and the problem of finding the velocity of an
object both involve finding the same type of limit, as in the previous chapter. This special type of
limit is called a derivative and we will see that it can be interpreted as a rate of change of any of
the sciences or engineering.
Objectives
At the end of this chapter the readers should be able to:
Find the slope of the tangent line to a curve at a point.
Use the limit definition to find the derivative of a function.
Understand the relationship between differentiability and continuity.
Explain different properties of differentiation rules.
Find the derivative of a function using the differentiation rules.
Find the derivative of a composite function using the chain rule.
Distinguish between functions written in implicit form and explicit form.
Use implicit differentiation to find the derivative of a function.
4.1 The Tangent Lines
What does it mean to say that a line is tangent to a curve at a point? For a circle, the tangent line
at point P is the line that is perpendicular to the radial line at point P , as shown in figure 4.1 .
For a general curve, however, the problem is more difficult. For example, how would you define
the tangent lines shown in figure 4.2 ?
You might say that line is tangent to a curve at point P if it touches, but does not cross, the
curve at point P . This definition would work for the first curve shown in figure 4.2 , but not for
the second. Or you might say that a line is tangent to a curve if the line touches or intersects at
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exactly one point-----this definition would work for a circle but not for more general curves, as
the third curve in figure 4.2 shows.
Figure 4.1 Figure 4.2
Tangent line to a circle Tangent line to a curve at a point
Essentially, the problem of finding the tangent line at a point P boils down to the problem of
finding the slope of the tangent line at P . You can approximate this slope using a secant line
through the point of tangency and a second point on the curve, as shown in figure 4.3 . If
c, f (c) is the point of tangency and c x, f (c x) is a second point on the graph of f ,
then the slope of the secant line through the two points is given by
f (c x) f (c) f (c x) f (c) change in y
m Slope of secant line
sec
(c x) c x change in x
Figure 4.3
The secant line through c, f (c) and c x, f (c x)
You can obtain more and more accurate approximations to the slope of the tangent line by
choosing points closer and closer to the point of tangency, as shown in figure 4.4 .
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As x 0 from the left, the secant As x 0 from the right, the secant
line approaches the tangent line. line approaches the tangent line.
Figure 4.4
4.2 Definition of Derivatives
Definition: If f is defined on an open interval containing c , and if the limit
y f (c x) f (c)
lim lim m
x0 x x 0 x
exists, then the line passing through c, f (c) with slope m is the tangent line to the graph of f
at the point c, f (c) .
Example 1: Find the slope of the graph of f ( x) 2 x 5 at the point 3,1 .
Solution: To find the slope, m , of the graph of f when c 3 , we can apply the definition of the
slope of the tangent lines, as follows
m lim
f (3 x) f (3)
lim
2(3 x) 5 2(3) 5
x0 x x0 x
6 2x 5 6 5 2x
lim lim
x0 x x0 x
2
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Thus, the slope of f at 3,1 is m 2 .
Example 2:Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f ( x) x 7 at the point 2,3 .
2
Solution: First we have to find the slope, m , of the graph of f when c 2 , we can apply the
definition of the slope of the tangent lines, as follows
f (2 x) f (2)
2 x (3) (2) (3)
2 2
m lim lim
x0 x x 0 x
4 4x (x) 3 4 3 4x (x)
2 2
lim lim
x0 x x 0 x
lim 4 x 4
x0
Hence, the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f at the point 2,3 is
y f (c) m( x c) y (3) 4( x 2)
This becomes, y 4 x 11 .
'
Definition: The derivative of a function f at a number a , denoted by f (a) , is defined as
' f ( x) f (a)
f (a) lim ……………...……….….. (1)
x a xa
provided that this limit exists.
If we write x a h , then x a h and x approaches a if and only if h approaches to 0 .
Thus, equivalent way of stating the definition of the derivative is
' f ( a h) f ( a )
f (a) lim …………………………… (2)
h0 h
This last definition is more convenient for finding the derivative of a function.
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'
Note: In addition to f ( x) , other notations are used to denote the derivative of y f (x) . The
most common are:
dy d
f ( x), D y
' '
f ( x) ,
dx
, y, dx x
dy
The notation is read as “the derivative of y with respect to x .” Using limit notation, we can
dx
write
dy y f ( x x) f ( x) '
lim lim f ( x)
dx x 0 x x 0 x
Example 1: Find the derivative of the function f ( x) x 3x 2 at 1 .
2
Solution: By definition, we have
' f (1 h) f (1)
f (1) lim
h0 h
Thus,
'
(1) lim
f (1 h) f (1)
lim
1 h 3(1 h) 2 1 31 2
2 2
f h0 h ho h
1 2h h 3 3h 2
2
lim
ho h
hh
2
lim lim 1 h 1
ho h h0
I hope the student remembers that the slope of the tangent line to the graph of the function
f at a point a, f (a) is given by the derivative of 𝑓 at 𝑎 i.e
'
f (a) . Consequently, using the
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Point-slope form of the equation of a line, we have the equation of the tangent line to the curve
y f (x) at a point a, f (a) is given by
(a)x a .
'
y f (a) f
For instance, the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f ( x) x 3x 2 at 1,0 in our
2
Example 1 is given by
(1)x (1) y 0 1x 1 y x 1
'
y f (1) f
'
Given a function f , we associate with it a new function f , is called the derivative of f ,
defined by:
' f ( x h) f ( x )
f ( x) lim
h0 h
' '
We know that the value of f at x , f ( x) , can be interpreted geometrically as the slope of the
tangent line to the graph of f at the point x, f ( x) .
Example 2: Find the derivative of the function f ( x) x x 1 .
Solution: By definition of derivative, we have
' f ( x h) f ( x )
f ( x) lim
h0 h
Thus,
f
'
( x) lim
x h)
x h 1 x x 1
h0 h
h x h 1 x 1
lim
h0 h
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h x h 1 x 1 . xx hh 11 x 1
x 1
lim , rationalize the radicals.
h0 h
1
lim 1
h0
x h 1 x 1
1
1
2 x 1
'
Definition 4.2: A function f is differentiable at a if f (a) exists. It is differentiable on an
open interval a, b or a, or , a or , if it is differentiable at every number in the
interval.
Example 3: Show that f ( x) x is not differentiable at 0.
Solution: Observe that
x , if x 0
x
x , if x 0
Then, for x 0 using (1) we have
x0 x
lim lim lim1 1
x0 x 0 x0 x x0
and for x 0 , we have
x0 x
lim lim lim 1 1
x0 x 0 x 0 x x0
x0
Hence, lim does not exist.
x 0 x0
Thus, f ( x) x is not differentiable at 0.
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Theorem 4.3 If f is differentiable at a , then f is continuous at a .
Proof: To prove that f is continuous at a , we have to show that lim f ( x) f (a) .
xa
We do this by showing that the difference f ( x) f (a) approaches 0.
For x a we can divide and multiply by x a .
We did this in order to involve the difference quotient.
Thus, we can use the product law of limits to write
f ( x) f ( a )
lim f ( x) f (a) lim x a
x a x a xa
f ( x) f ( a )
lim . lim x a
x a
xa x a
'
f (a).0 0
Therefore,
lim f ( x) lim f (a) f ( x) f (a)
xa xa
lim f (a) lim f ( x) f (a)
xa xa
f ( a ) 0 f ( a)
Hence, f is continuous at a .
Note: The converse of Theorem 4.3 is false; that is, there are functions that are continuous but
not differentiable at a point.
For instance, consider the function f ( x) x .
Clearly, f ( x) x is continuous at 0 because
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lim f ( x) lim x 0 f (0) .
x0 x0
But, as we have seen in Example 3 that f is not differentiable at 0 .
Let us remind you some of the differentiation rules that you have developed in your high school
calculus course. We advice the student to check on these results using the definition of
derivative.
( x) nx .
' n 1
The power rule: If f ( x) x for any real number 𝑛 is given by
n
f
Derivatives of sine and cosine: sin x cos x and cos x sin x .
' '
Derivatives of exponential and logarithmic functions: e x e and ln x 1x .
' x '
etc.
4.3 Basic Differentiation Rules
Theorem: If f and g are differentiable , then
a. cf ( x) c f ( x) , where c is an arbitrary constant.
' '
b. f g ( x) f ( x) g ( x)
' ' '
c. fg (x) f (x)g (x) f (x) g (x)
' ' '
'
f
' '
f ( x) g ( x) f ( x) g ( x)
( x) ; provided that g ( x 0) .
g ( x)
d. 2
g
Activity 4.1
1. Find the derivative of each of the following functions.
f ( x) x 5x 25 f. f ( x) tan x
25 5
a.
1 sec x
f ( x) g. f ( x)
2
b. x 2
1 tan x
x
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f ( x) 4 x h. f ( x) csc x
4
c. x
1
d. f ( x) x x 2
i. f ( x) sin x cos x
x x
2
f ( x) x
tan x
e. f ( x) x sin x j.
sec x
4.4 The Chain Rule
The rules that we have introduced till now are not enough to find composition of functions. Thus,
we need to develop an appropriate technique to handle these cases.
g ( x) and f g ( x) both
' '
Theorem 4.5 [The Chain Rule]: If the derivatives,
exists, then
f g ( x) f ( g ( x)). g ( x)
' ' '
h ( x) if h( x) cos 2x .
'
Example 1: Find
Solution: Let f ( x) cos x and g ( x) 2 x .
' '
Then, h f g . Since also g ( x) 2 and f ( x) sin x
We conclude that
h ( x) f g ( x) f ( g ( x)). g ( x) sin 2 x 2 2 sin 2 x
' ' ' '
h ( x) if h( x) 1 x .
' 2
Example 2: Find
Solution: Let g ( x) 1 x and f ( x) x .consequently h f g .
2
' ' 1
Then g ( x) 2 x and f ( x)
2 x
for 𝑥 > 0.
Therefore,
h ( x) f g ( x).g ( x)
' ' 1 x
.2 x
'
.
2 1 x 1 x
2 2
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Activity 4.2
1. Find the first derivative of the following functions
a. f ( x) x5 2x2 3 50
c. y
6
1
2x 1
3
x
b. f ( x) cossintan x d. y cos sin x 2
2. Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve at the given point.
a. y x3 x2 x 1 , 10
at 1,0
b. f ( x) x
1
x
, at 1, 2
4.5 Higher Order Derivatives
' '
If f is a function, then f is the function that assigns the number f ( x) to each x a which f
'
is differentiable. Since f is a function, we can carry the process a step further and define
''
f (a) by the formula
' '
'' f ( x) f (a)
f (a) lim
x a xa
Whenever this limit exists.
''
We call f (a) the second derivative of f at a
''
Example 1: Let f ( x) cos 2 x . Then find a formula for f ( x) .
'
Solution: Since f ( x) 2 sin 2 x , it follows that
''
f ( x) 4 cos 2 x .
''
Example 2: Let f ( x) x . Then find a formula for f ( x) .
' 1
Solution: Since f ( x) , it follows that
2 x
'' 1 32
f ( x)
4x
.
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th
In general, for any positive integer n 3 we can define the n derivative of f at a , denoted
(n)
by f (a) as
( n 1) ( n 1)
(n) f ( x) f (a)
f (a) lim
x a xa
Whenever this limit exists.
Note: The second derivative, the third derivative, and so on are called higher order derivatives,
to distinguish them from the first derivative.
x 1 (n)
Example 3: Let f ( x) . Then find a formula for f ( x) .
x 1
(1) 2(1!) , it follows that
1
' 2
f ( x)
x 1 x 1
Solution: Using quotient rule, 2 11
(1) 2(2!) ,
2
'' 4
f
x 1 x 1
( x ) 3 21
(1) 2(3!) ,
3
''' 12
f ( x)
x 1 x 1 4 31
(1) 2(4!)
4
( 4) 48
f ( x)
x 1 x 1 5 41
.
.
.
Continuing this process we get
(1) 2(n!) ; for n 1
n
(n)
f ( x)
x 1 n 1
(1) 2(10!) 2(10!) .
10
(10)
f (2)
21
For instance, 101
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Activity 4.3
[Link] f ( x) 3x 2x x 4 x 2 . Then find all higher derivatives of f .
4 3 2
'' ''
f ( x) f (2)
[Link] f ( x) x 2 x 3 . Then find lim
8
.
x 2 x2
3. Let p(x) be a polynomial function of degree n with leading coefficient k , then find
( n1) (n) ( n1)
a) p ( x) b) p ( x) c) p ( x)
th
4. Find a formula for the n derivative of f , if
a. f ( x) ln x b. f ( x) sin x
( 4) ( 35) ( 31)
5. If f ( x) f ( x) for all x , then what is the relationship between f ( x) and f ( x)
4.6 Implicit Differentiation
The following problems require the use of implicit differentiation. Implicit differentiation is
nothing more than a special case of the well-known chain rule for derivatives. The majority of
differentiation problems in pre-calculus involve functions y written explicitly as functions of x .
For example, if
y 3x sin(7 x 5)
2
Then the derivative of y is
' dy
y dx 6 x 7 cos(7 x 5) .
However, some functions y are written IMPLICITLY as functions of x . A familiar example of
this is the equation
2
x y 25 ,
2
Which represents a circle of radius five centered at the origin. Suppose that we wish to find the
slope of the line tangent to the gragh of this equation at the point 3,4 .
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How could we find the derivative of y in this instance? One way is to first write y explicitly as
a funcion of x . Thus,
25 x
2
x y 25 y
2 2
.
Where the positive square root represents the top semi-circle and the negative square root
represents the bottom semi-circle. Since the point 3,4 lies on the bottom semi-circle given by
y 25 x
2
The derivative of y is
' dy x
y dx
25 x
2
Thus, the slope , m , of the line tangent to the gragh at the point 3,4 is
m y dx
' dy 3 3.
253 4
2
Unfortunately, not every equation involving x and y can be solved explicitly for y . For the
sake of illustration we will find the derivative of y WITHOUT writing y explicitly as a
2
function of x . Recall that the derivative of a function of x squared, ( f ( x)) , can be found
using the chain rule:
( x)) 2 f ( x) dx f ( x) 2 f ( x) f
d 2 d '
dx
(f ( x)
2
Since y symbolically represents a function of x , the derivative of y can be found in the same
fashion:
2 y y 2 y y .
d 2 d '
y
dx dx
2
x y 25 . Differentiate both sides of the equation, getting
2
Now begin with
d 2
dx x y
2
d 25 d
dx dx
x dxd y dxd 25
2 2
And so
'
2x 2 y y 0
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'
Hence, 2 y y 2 x
dy ' x
Thus, y y.
dx
Therefore, the slope of the line tangent to the gragh at the point 3,4 is
' dy (3) 3
m y dx (4) 4 .
This second mehod illustrates the process of implicit differentiation. It is important to note that
the derivative expression for explicit differentiation involves x only, while the derivative
expression for implicit differentiation may involve BOTH x AND y .
The following problems range in difficulty from average to challenging.
dy 3
x y 4.
3
Example 1: Using implici differentiation find for
dx
Solution: Differentiating both sides of the equation, getting
d 3
dx x y
3
d 4 d
dx dx
x dxd y dxd 4
3 3
3x 3 y y 0 3 y y 3x
2 2 ' 2 ' 2
So that,
2
Thus, y
'
dy
x 2
.
dx y
Example 2: Using implici differentiation find
dy
dx
for x y x y 1 .
2
Solution: Differentiating both sides of the equation, getting
d
x y dxd x y 1 dxd x y dxd x dxd y dxd 1 .
dx
2 2
Applying the chain rule on
d
x y , we get
dx
2
d
dx
x y 2x y dxd x y dxd x y 2x y 1 dydx
2 2
So that
dy
2x y 1 1 0 2( x y) 2( x y) 1
dy dy dy
dx dx dx dx
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2( x y) 1 2( x y) 1 2( x y) 1
dy dy dy
Hence, 2( x y)
dx dx dx
dy
Thus, solving for , we get
dx
dy 2( x y ) 1
.
dx 2( x y ) 1
dy
Example 3: Using implici differentiation find for y sin3x 4 y .
dx
Solution: Differentiating both sides of the equation, getting
d
y d sin3x 4 y dy cos(3x 4 y). d 3x 4 y
dx dx dx dx
dy d d dy dy
So that cos(3x 4 y) (3x) (3 y) 3 cos(3x 4 y) 4 cos(3x 4 y) .
dx dx dx dx dx
dy
Solving for , we get
dx
dy 3 cos(3x 4 y )
.
dx 1 4 cos(3x 4 y )
dy 3 2
for y x y x y .
2 3
Example 4: Using implici differentiation find
dx
Solution: Differentiating both sides of the equation, getting
d
y d x2 y x3 y dy d x2 y d x3 y
3 2 3 2
dx dx dx dx dx
Using product rule, we have
dy d
dx dx
x y x dxd y dxd x y x dxd y
2 3 2 3 3 2 3 2
3 2 dy 2 3 dy
2 xy 3x 3x y 2 x y
2 2
y dx dx
dy
Factoring out , we get
dx
dy
2 x y 2 xy 3x y
2 2 3 3 2 2
dx 1 3x y
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3 2
2 xy 3x y
2
dy
Thus, .
13x y 2x
2 2 3
dx y
x y x 9
3
at x 1. .
2
Example 5: Find an equation of the tangent line to the gragh of
x y x 9 . If
2 3
Solution: Begin with x 1, then
1 y 1 9 y 3
2 3
Hence the tangent line passes through the point 1,3 .
Now by using implicit differentiation, we have
d 2
dx x
y x dxd 9 2x 3 y x dydx 1 0
3 2
dy
3 y x 3 y x
2 2
2x
dy 3 y x 2 x 2
So that .
dx dx 3 yx
2
Thus, the slope , m , of the tangent line to the gragh at 1,3 is
m
dy 3 31 2(1) 10 5
.
2
dx 3 31
2
12 6
And the equation of the tangent line is
y 3
5
x 1 y 5 x 13 .
6 6 6
2
Example 6: Using implici differentiation find d y 2
or y
''
for x y
4 4
25 .
dx
Solution: Differentiating both sides of the equation implicitly with respect to x , we get
3
x3 .
3 dy dy
4x 4 y 0
3
dx dx y
2
To find d y 2
or y
''
we differentiate this expression for
dy
using the quotient rule and
dx dx
remembering that y is a function of x :
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2
d y2 y'' d
3
x3 y
3 d
x x dxd y
3 3 3
y
dx
dx dx
y 3
2
y 3x x 3 y . dx
3 2 3 2 dy
6
y
dy
If we now substitute the value of into this expression, we get
dx
y 3x x x
3
3 2 3
3
2 y
d y
dx
2
y 3
2
3x x y
2 4 4
7
y
25 , since
x y
2 4
3x 25
4
7
y
2
75x 7
.
y
Activity 4.4
dy
1. Using implicit differentiation find for
dx
y x 4
x cos x cos y cos(2 x 2 y)
2 2 2
a. 3 3 y d.
x y
3
xy x2 e e e
xy 4x 5y
b. e.
y x
2
2
x y
2
f. sin x cos( y x) x
2
c. x
2. Find an equation of the tangent line o he gragh of x y
2
3
2 2 2
8x y at the point
1,1 .
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y y 4 2 x at the point 1,1 .
2 4
3. Find the slope of the gragh x
2
4. Find all poins x, y on the gragh of
2
x 3
y 3 8 (see a diagram.) where lines tangen to
the gragh at x, y have slope 1 .
5. Using implicit differentiation find d y 2
for
dx
2 3
xy 1 1
2 3
a. x y c. x y
2
6 xy y 8
2
b. x y 1 d. x
Review Exercises
1. Find the derivative of the following functions by using the definition of derivative
c) f ( x) x 4 x 5
2
a) f ( x) x 1
6
b) f ( x) d) f ( x) c0sx sin x
x
2. Find the derivative of the following functions by using the definition of derivative at the
given point c
1
a) f ( x) , at c 3 b) f ( x) x 2 x , at c 8
x4
3. Find the derivative of the following functions
x 1
a) f ( x) x sin x c) f ( x) ln x
x2
1 sin x cos( x 1)
b) f ( x) d) f ( x)
1 sin x x 1
4. Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of f at the given point
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x 1 1
a) f ( x) , at ,3 b) f ( x) x tan x , at 0,0
x 1 2
2
5. Find
dy
and d y 2
by implicit differentiation
dx dx
a) xy x 4 y c) x sin y y cos x
3
b) 𝑦𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑦 3xy 10
2
d) x y
6. Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of the following functions at the given
point
0 , at e,1 20 , at 6,4
2 2
a) y ln x x y
2
y b)
th
7. Find a formula for the n derivative of the following functions
x 1
f ( x) 2 b) f ( x)
x
a)
x 1
CHAPTER FIVE
Applicaions of Derivatives
Introduction:
This chapter studies some of the important applications of derivatives. We learn how derivatives
are used to find extreme values of functions, to determine and analyze the shapes of graghs, to
calculate limits of fractions whose numerators and denominators both approach zero or infinity,
and to find numerically where a function equals zero. We also consider the process of recovering
a function from its derivative. The key to many of these accomplishments is the Mean Value
Theorem, a theorem whose corollaries provide the gateway to integral calculus in chapter 7.
Objectives
At the end of this chapter the readers should be able to:
Define extrema of a function on an interval.
Understand and use Rolle’s theorem.
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Understand and use the Mean Value Theorem.
Determine intervals on which a function is increasing or decreasing.
State and apply the first and second derivative test to find relative extrema of a function.
Evaluate the the relative extrema of a function.
Determine intervals on which a function is concave upward or concave down ward.
Find any points of inflection of the gragh of a function.
Analyze and sketch the graph of a function.
5.1 Extrema of a Function
Definition 1: A function f has an absolue maximum at c if f (c) f ( x) for all x in D ,
where D is in the domain of f . The number f (c) is called the maximum value of f on D .
Similarly, f has an absolue minimum at c if f (c) f ( x) for all x in D and the number
f (c) is called the minimum value of f on D . The maximum and minimum values of f are
called the extreme vales of f .
Definition 2: A function f has a local maximum (or relative maximum) value at c if there is
an open interval I containing c such that f (c) f ( x) for all x in I . Similarly, f has a local
minimum (or relative minimum) value at c if there is an open interval I containing c such that
f (c) f ( x) for all x in I .
Example 1: Consider the function f ( x) x . Then f ( x) f (0) because 0 for all x .
2 2
x
Therefore, f (0) 0 is the absolute (and local) minimum value of f . This corresponds to the
y x . However, there is no highest
2
fact that the origin is the lowest point on the parabola
point on the parabola and so this function has no maximum value.
Example 2: Consider the function f ( x) x . We see that this funcion has neither an absolute
3
maximum value nor an absolute minimum value. In fact, it has no local extereme values either.
Theorem 1:If f has a relative (local) extremum (that is, maximum or minimum) value at c ,
and that f '(c) exists, then f '(c) 0.
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Definition 3: A number c in the domain of a function f is a critical number of f if eiher
f '(c) 0 or f '(c) does not exist.
3 8
Example 3: Find the critical numbers of the function f ( x) 4 x 5 x 5 .
Solution: The derivative of f is given by
12 2 8 x 3 5 12 8 x .
f '( x) x 5 5 2
5 5x 5
3
Therefore, f '(c) 0 if 12 8x 0 , that is x
2
and '
f ( x) does not exist when x 0 .
3
Thus the critical numbers are x 0 and x .
2
To find the absolue extreme value of a function on a closed interval a similar theorem to theorem
1 is given below.
Theorem 2: (Maximum-Minimum Theorem)
Let f be continuous on a closed interval a, b . Then f has a maximum and a minimum value
on a, b .
Note that according to Maximum-Minimum Theorem an exreme value can be taken on more
than once.
The following theorem will simplify our effort of searching for an extreme value on a closed
interval.
Theorem 3: Let f be defined on a, b . If an absolute extreme value of f on a, b occurs at a
number c in a, b at which f has a derivative, then f '(c) 0 .
In using theorem 2 to find the extreme value we follow the three-step procedure below:
i. Find the values of f at the critical numbers of f in a, b .
ii. Find the values of f (a) and f (b) .
iii. The largest of the values from steps 1 and 2 is the absolute maximum value; and the
smallest of these values is the absolute minimum value.
Example 3: Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of the function
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1
f ( x) x 3x 2 , on x 3 .
3 2
2
1
Solution: Since f is continuous on ,3 , we can use the procedure oulined above:
2
Now, f '( x) 3x2 6x 3xx 2
f ( x) 0 , that
' '
Since, f ( x) exists for all x , the only critical numbers of f occur when
is, when x 0 or x 2 .
1
Notice that each of these critical numbers lies in the interval ,3 .
2
The values of f at these critical numbers are
f (0) 2 and f (2) 2 .
The values of f at the end points of the interval are are
1 1
f ( ) and f (3) 2 .
2 8
Comparing these four numbers, we see that
The absolute maximum value is f (0) f (3) 2 , and
The absolute minimum value is f (2) 2 .
Activity 5.1
1. Find the critical numbers each of the following functions.
f ( x) x 6 x 1
3
a. c. f ( x) cos x
1
b. f ( x) x d. f ( x)
1 x
2
2. Find the extreme values (if any) of the given function on the given inerval. Determine at
which numbers in the interval these values occur.
2 x 2 , 0,3 f ( x) x 3 , 8,8
2
f ( x)
2
a) x c)
2 1
f ( x) x ,
2
b) 2 ,2
x
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3. Show that 0 is a critical number of the function f ( x) x , but f doesnot have a local
5
exremum value at 0 .
4. Prove that the function f ( x) x x x 1 has neither a local maximum nor a local
51 21
minimum.
5.2 The Rolle’s Theorem and the Mean Value Theorem (MVT)
Theorem : (Rolle’s Theorem)
Let f be continuous on the closed interval a, b and differentiable on the open interval a, b . If
f (a) f (b) then there is atleast one number c in a, b such that
'
f (c ) 0
Example: Let f ( x) x 2x . Find all value(s) of c in the interval
4 2
2,2 such that
'
f (c ) 0 .
Solution: Note that the function f ( x) x 2x satisfies the conditions of Rolle’s Theorem.
4 2
That is, f is continuous on the interval 2,2 and differentiable on the open interval 2,2 .
Moreover f (2) 8 f (2) .
Thus there exists atleast one number c in 2,2 such that
'
f (c ) 0 .
'
Now, f ( x) x 2x ( x) 4 x 4 x
4 2 3
f
4x x 1
2
4 xx 1x 1
To find c , we have
'
f (c) 0 4c(c 1)(c 1) 0
Hence, c 0, 1, 1 also 0, 1, 1 2,2
Thus all values of c that satisfies he Rolle’s Theorem are c 0, 1, 1 .
Theorem 4: Let f be continuous on a, b and differentiable on a, b . Then there is a number
c in a, b such that
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f (b) f (a)
f (c)
'
ba
Example 5: Let f ( x) x 8x 5 . Find a number c in 0,3 that satisfies the Mean Value
3
Theorem.
Solution: Since f is coninuous on 0,3 and '
f (c) should satisfy the condition
f (3) f (0) 85
f ' (c) 1
3 0 3
We seek a number c in 0,3 such that f (c) 1 . But
'
f ( x) 3x
' 8
So that c must saisfy
8 1 c 3
2 2
3c
Hence, c 3
Since 3 0,3 , the value of c that satisfies the Mean Value Theorem in the interval 0,3 is
c 3.
5.3 Applications of The Mean Value Theorem
Theorem 5:
'
a. Let f be continuous on an interval I . If f ( x) 0 for each interior point x of I ,
then f is constant on I .
' '
b. Let f and g be continuous on an interval I . If f ( x) g ( x) for each interior
point x of I , then f g is constant on I . In other words, there is a constant c such
that f ( x) g ( x) c for all x in I .
'
Example: Let f be such that f ( x) 2 and f (0) 2 . Determine the function f .
Solution: Since f and 2 x are both antiderivatives of g ( x) 2 x , by Theorem 5(b) there is
a constant c such that f ( x) g ( x) c
So that f ( x) 2 x c , for the appropriate constant c .
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To determine c , we have the assumption f (0) 2 , which yields
f (0) 0 2(0) c 2 c 2 .
Thus, f ( x) 2 x 2 .
Activity 5.2
1. Verify that the function bellow satisfies the hypothesis of the Mean-Value Theorem on
the given interval. Then find all numbers c that satisfy the conclusion of the Mean Value
Theorem.
f ( x) 1 x ; 0,3 c. f ( x) x ; 1,4
2
a.
1 1
b. f ( x) 3 x ; ,3 d. f ( x) ( x 1)( x 2)( x 3); 1,3
x 3
2. Let f ( x) x 1 . Show that there is no value of c such that f (3) f (0) (c)3 0 .
'
f
Why does this not contradict the Mean Value Theorem?
3. Determine all functions satisfying the given conditions.
'' '
a. f ( x) sin x; f ( ) 2, f (0) 4
'' '
b. f ( x) 0; f (2) 3, f (1) 1
(n)
c. f ( x) n ; for any positive integer n .
x 10 x 3 0 has exactly one real root.
5
4. Show that the equation
4 x c 0 has at most two real roots.
4
5. Show that the equation x
5.4 First and Second Derivative Tests
We hope you remember that a function that is increasing or decreasing on an interval I is called
monotonic on I and we used the test in the theorem bellow to identify whether a function is
monotonic or not on a given interval.
Theorem 5: Suppose f is continuous on a, b and differentiable on a, b .
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a) If f ( x) 0
' for all x in a, b , then f is increasing on a, b .
b) If f ( x) 0
' for all x in a, b , then f is decreasing on a, b .
Theorem 5 lays the bases for the proof of the first derivative test stated as follows.
Theorem 6: (The First Derivative Test)
Suppose that c is a critical number of a continuous function f .
'
a) If f ( x) changes from positive to negative at c , then f has a local maximum at c .
'
b) If f ( x) changes from negative to positive at c , then f has a local minimum at c .
' '
c) If f ( x) does not change sign at c (that is, f ( x) is positive on both sides of c or
negative on both sides of c ), then f has no local extremum at c .
8 x and find its interval of monotonocity.
1
Example 6: Find the local extrema of f ( x) x 3
Solution: By the product rule we have
1 23
f ( x) 8 x x 3
1
'
3 x
8 x 3x 42 x
2
2
3x 3
3x 3
f ( x) 0
' when x 2 more over ' does not exist when x 0 .
The derivative f ( x)
Hence, the critical numbers are 0 and 2 .
'
Below we will give the sign chart for f ( x)
0 2
42 x
2
3x 3
'
f ( x)
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Thus, by first derivative test, f has
Does not have an extreme value at x 0 .
A local maximum value at x 2 and the local maximum value is f (2) 63 2 .
Also, f is
Increasing on ,0 0,2 and
Decreasing on 2,
Theorem 7: (The Second Derivative Test)
Suppose '' is coninuous on an open inerval of a function.
f
f ( x) 0 f (c) 0 , then
a) If ' and '' f has a local minimum value at c .
f ( x) 0 f (c) 0 , then
b) If ' and '' f has a local maximum value at c .
Example 6: Use he Second Derivaive Test to find the relaive extrema of
f ( x) 3x 8x 4
4 3
Solution:
f '( x) 12x3 24x2 12x2 x 2
f ( x) 12x2x 20
To find the critical point, '
Hence, the critical numbers are x 0 and x 2 .
Also, f ''( x) 36x2 48x
f (2) 480 f ''(0) 0
Now, '' and
Thus, by the second derivative test f has a relative minimum value at x 2 and he relaive
minimum value is f (2) 12.
Since f ''(0) 0 , the second derivaive test fails.
In the last case, x 0 could still be a relative maximum, relative minimum or neither; but the
Second Derivative Test fails to produce any useful information.
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If you used the First Derivative Test, you would find out that x 0 is not relative extremum.
Definition : Let f be differentiable on an open inerval I . The gragh of f is concave upward
' '
on I if f is increasing on the interval and concave downward on I if f is deccreasing on
the interval.
The following graghical interpretation of concavity is useful.
1. Let f be differentiable at c . If the gragh of f is concave upward at c, f (c) , then the
gragh of f lies above the tangent line at c, f (c) on some open interval containing c .
[see figure 4.5a]
2. Let f be differentiable at c . If the gragh of f is concave downward at c, f (c) , then
the gragh of f lies below the tangent line at c, f (c) on some open interval containing c
. [see figure 4.5b]
Figure 4.5a figure 4.5b
The gragh of f lies above its The gragh of f lies below its
tangent lines. tangent lines
Theorem 7: (The Test for Concavity)
Suppose f is twice differentiable on an interval I .
f ( x) 0
a) If '' for all x in I , then the graph of f is concave upward on I .
f ( x) 0
b) If '' for all x in I , then the graph of f is concave downward on I .
Definition 4: A point c, f (c) on a curve is called a point of inflection if the curve changes
from concave upward to concave downward or from concave downward to concave upward at
c, f (c) .
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Theorem: If c, f (c) is a point of inflection of the gragh of f , then either
'' ''
f (c) 0 or f is
undefined at x c .
Example 7: Determine the interval of concavity and the inflection point of the funcion
f ( x) x 3 x 1
3
Solution: f ( x) x 3x 1 , then f '( x) 3x2 33x 1x 1
3
f ( x) 0 when x
Since ' 2
1 , the criical numbers are x 1. Also
f ( x) 6x
''
Hence, f ''( x) 0 when x 0 and f ''( x)0 when x 0 .
Thus, f is concave upward on 0, and concave downward on ,0 .
Since concavity changes at he point x 0 , the inflection point of f is 0, f (0) 0,1 .
Example 7: Determine the interval of concavity and the inflection point(s) (if any) of the
funcion f ( x) x 4x
4 3
Soluion: differentiating f twice we ge
'
( x) 4 x 12 x
3 2
f
''
( x) 12 x 24 x
2
f
12 x( x 2)
0 2
12 x
x2
''
( x) 12 x( x 2)
f
Thus, - f is concave upward on ,0 2, and
- f is concave downward on 0,2
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Since concavity changes at both points x 0 and x 2 , the inflection points are 0, f (0) and
2, f (2) which equals 0,0 and 2,16 .
Activity 5.3
1. Find the critical numbers (if any) and the intervals on which the function is increasing or
decreasing
a. f ( x) x 3 x 1 2
c. f ( x) x 1 3
b. f ( x) x x 3 d. f ( x) sin x cos x; for 0 x 2
2. Use the First or the Second Derivative Test to find any relative extrema (if any) of the
following functions
3 x
sin 1 ; on 0,4
1 4
f ( x) 8x c. f ( x)
4x
a.
2 2
4
f ( x) x 9x 27 x d. f ( x) x
3 2
b.
x
3. Find the intervals of concavity and the inflection points(if any) of the function
a) f ( x) x x 4 3
c) f ( x)
1 2
2x
ln x
f ( x) x 3 12 x
4
b) d) f ( x) x x 3
4. Find a, b, c, and d such that the cubic polynomial function f ( x) ax bx cx d
3 2
satisfies the indicated conditions:
Relative maximum: 3,3
Re;ative minimum: 5,1
Inflection poin: (3,3)
5.5 Graph Sketching
Now we apply the knowledge that we have developed in this chapter for sketching the graphs of
different functions. The table below lists the items that are most important in graphing a
function f .
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Example: If g ( x) x , discuss and sketch the graph of g .
1 x
2
Solution:
1. Analize the 𝒙 − 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒚 − 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒙 − 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒔 𝒔
𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 = (0,0) and 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 = (0,0)
2. Analize the first derivative.
' 2x ; This has a root at x 0 . Possible local maximum or minimum here.
g ( x)
1 x 2
2
Notice that neither g (x) nor its derivative are defined at x 1 and x 1 .
The derivative is negative for x 0 , except at x 1 , where it is not defined. It is positive for
x 0 , except at x 1, where it is not defined.
That is g is decreasing on ,1 1,0 and increasing on 0,1 1, .
3. Analize the second derivative.
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2 6x ; There are no values of x where the second derivative equals zero, so the
2
''
( x)
1 x 2
g 3
graph of g has no inflection points.
''
g (0) 2 ; At x 0 , a critical number, the second derivative is positive, so the graph is
concave up at this point, and has a local minimum.
4. Find horizontal asymptotes.
2
lim x
2
1
and lim x 1
1 x 1 x
2 x 2
x
Hence, h( x) 1 is a horizontal asymptote.
5. Find vertical asymptotes.
Since g is undefined at x 1 and x 1 , examine the limits of g as x approaches these values.
2 2 2 2
lim x 2 lim x 2 and lim x 2 lim x 2
x 1
1 x x 1
1 x x 1
1 x x 1
1 x
Hence, g has a vertical asymptotes at x 1 and x 1 .
6. Put it all together.
r : 5, 4.99.. 5
Range of graghing
Notice that all the aspects of the gragh you found in your analysis are present: a local minimum
at x 0 , vertical asymptotes at x 1 and x 1 , a horizontal asymptote at y 1 , downward
sloping when x 0 , upward sloping when x 0 .
Activity 5.4
1. Discuss and sketch the gragh of f if
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a. f ( x) x c. f ( x)
2x
x2
2
1
2
x x
1
2
f ( x)
x
d. f ( x) 2x
x 1
b. 2
3x 5
Note: Your sketches should look like one of the graphs below:
Review Exercises
1. Find the absolute extrema of the following functions on the given interval
f ( x) 2 x 5 cos x , 0,2 b) f ( x) , 0,2 c) f ( x) x 5x , 4,0
x 2
a)
1
2
x
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2. Find the value of the number c guaranteed by the Mean Value Theorem of the following
functions on the given interval
a) f ( x) x 2 x 3 , 3,2
2
c) f ( x) cos x , ,
2 2
f ( x) 2x 3x 1, 0,4 d) f ( x) x 3 , 1,8
2 2
b)
3. Derermine the values a, b, c, and d such that the function f satisfies the hypothesis of the
Mean Value Theorem on the interval 1,2 .
a, x 1
2 , 1 x 0
f ( x) 2
bx c , 0 x 1
dx 4 , 1 x 2
4. Find the interval of monotonocity of the following functions
4
f ( x) x 2 x 8 c) f ( x) x
2
b) f ( x) x 16 x
2
a)
x
5. Use first or second derivative test to find all the relative extrema of the following functions
a) f ( x) x 4 x 1 d) f ( x) x 2 cos x , on 0,4
b) f ( x) 2 x
2
x 1
2
e) f ( x) x 20x 128x 280
3 2
4
f ( x ) x 4 x 8x f) f ( x) x
4 3 2
c)
x
6. Find the interval of concavity and the inflection point (if it exists) of the following functions
1
2
f ( x) x x 2 f ( x) x
2
a) c)
2x 1
f ( x) x 5x 40x d) f ( x) x 6x 12 x
5 4 2 3 2
b)
7. Sketch the graph of the following functions
6 x 12
2
f ( x) x
1
f ( x) 3 c) f ( x) x 4x 16 x
4 3
a) b)
x2 x4
8. Sketch the graph of a function f satisfying the following conditions:
' '
f (2) f (4) 0 , f ( x) 0 if x 3 , f (3) does not exist ,
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' ''
f ( x) 0 if x 3 , f ( x) 0 if x 3
CHAPTER SIX
Inverse Functions
Introduction
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In pre-calculus mathematics course we defined a function f as a relation in which no two
elements of the relation have the same first coordinate. Also we have seen that for some of the
functions the relation that is found by interchanging the entries of the ordered pairs can be again
a function and we called such a function the inverse of the original function.
In this chapter we discuss general properties of inverses and their derivatives. Also recall that the
0
forms and are called indeterminate forms because they do not guarantee that a limit
0
exists, nor do the indicate what the limit is, if one does exist. In this chapter we develop a
mechanism for evaluating such limit problems.
Objectives
At the end of this chapter the readers should be able to:
Define an inverse of a function.
Determine whether a function has an inverse or not.
Find the inverse of some elementary functions.
Check the continuity and differentiability of inverse functions.
Differentiate inverse trigonometric and hyperbolic functions.
State L ’Hôpital’s rule.
Recognize limits that produce indeterminate forms.
Apply L ’Hôpital’s rule to evaluate a limit.
6.1 Inverse Functions and Their Derivatives
Definition 6.1 A function f with domain 𝐷 and range 𝑅 is one-to-one function if
whenever 𝑎 ≠ 𝑏 in 𝐷, then 𝑓(𝑎) ≠ 𝑓(𝑏) in 𝑅.
Note: From Definition 6.1 we see that every strictly increasing function is one-to-one, because if
𝑎 < 𝑏, then 𝑓 𝑎 < 𝑓(𝑏), and if 𝑏 < 𝑎, then 𝑓 𝑏 < 𝑓(𝑎) in short if 𝑎 ≠ 𝑏, then 𝑓(𝑎) ≠ 𝑓(𝑏).
Similarly, every strictly decreasing function is one-to-one. We now give the definition of inverse
functions in terms of one-to-one function.
Definition 6.2 Let f be a one-to-one function with domain 𝐷 and range 𝑅. A function g with
domain 𝑅 and range 𝐷 is the inverse of f , provided the following condition is true for every 𝑥
in 𝐷 and every 𝑦 in 𝑅:
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y f (x) if and only if x g ( y) .
1
If a function f has an inverse function g , we often denote g by f . Of course we must note
1 1
here that almost always f .
f
If f is a one-o-one function with domain 𝐷 and range 𝑅, then for each number 𝑦 in 𝑅, there is
exactly one number 𝑥 in 𝐷 such that 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥). Since 𝑥 is unique, we may define a function g
from 𝑅 to 𝐷 by means of the rule x g ( y) . g reverses the correspondence given by f . We call
g the inverse function of f .
Note: - a function f has an inverse if and only if it is one-to-one.
Theorem: Every strictly increasing and every strictly decreasing function has an inverse.
Note that: a function f is strictly increasing on 𝐼 if
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 ≥ 0 for all 𝑥 in 𝐼 and 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 0 for atmost finitely many values of 𝑥.
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 ≤ 0 for all 𝑥 in 𝐼 and 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 0 for atmost finitely many values of 𝑥.
Example 1: Let f ( x) 2x 3x 6 x 4 . Show that f has an inverse.
7 5
Solution: Since 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 14𝑥 6 + 15𝑥 2 + 6 > 0 for all 𝑥 in its domain, we have
f is strictly increasing.
Thus, f has an inverse.
6.2 Properties of Inverses
1
Let f have an inverse. Then f and f have the following properties.
1 1
a. Domain of f =Range of f and Range of f =Domain of f .
b. f 1
1
f.
f f ( x) x for all x in the domain of
1
c. f.
f ( y ) y for all y in the range of f .
1
d.
f
In some cases we can find the inverse of a one-to-one function by solving the equation y f (x)
1
for x in terms of y , obtaining an equation of the form x f ( y) .
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1
Guide lines for finding f :
i. Write y f (x) .
ii. Solve for x in terms of y .
f y for x in step 2 .
1
iii. Write
Example 2: Let f ( x) 2 x 3 . Find the inverse of f .
Solution: Since 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 2 > 0, f is strictly increasing.
Thus f has an inverse.
Now let y 2 x 3 , from step 1.
y 3
x , from step 2.
2
1 y 3
f ( y) , from step 3.
2
Since we customarily use 𝑥 as the independent variable, we replace 𝑦 by 𝑥 to obtain
1 x 3
f ( x)
2
Example 3: Let f ( x) x 3 for x 0 . Find the inverse of f .
2
Solution: Since 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 2𝑥 ≥ 0 for all 𝑥 in is domain, f is strictly increasing.
Thus f has an inverse.
Now let y x 3 , from step 1.
2
x y 3 , since x 0 and from step 2.
1
f ( y) y 3 , from step 3.
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Since we customarily use 𝑥 as the independent variable, we replace 𝑦 by 𝑥 to obtain
1
f ( x) x3
6.3 Graphs of Inverse Functions
1
There is an ineresting relationship between the graphs of f and f . We first note that
(b) . These equations imply that the point a, b is on the gragh
1
b f (a) is equivalent to a f
of f if and only if the point b, a is on the gragh of . But a, b and b, a are symmetric
1
f
with respect to the line y x .
1
Thus, the gragh of f is obtained by simply reflecting the gragh of f through the line y x .
Example 1: Sketch the graph of f ( x) 1 x and its inverse function on the same coordinate
system
Solution: First we sketch the curve y 1 x (the top half of the parabola 𝑦 2 = −1 − 𝑥) and
then we reflect about the line y x to get the graph of 𝑓 −1 (see figure below). Notice that the
expression for 𝑓 −1 is 𝑓 −1 𝑥 = −𝑥 2 − 1, 𝑥 ≥ 0.
So the gragh of 𝑓 −1 is the right half of the parabola 𝑦 = −𝑥 2 − 1.
Activity 6.1
1
1. For each function f , sketch the gragh of f and f on the same coordinate system.
f ( x) 2 x 3 b. f ( x) x 3 f ( x) sin x
2
a. c.
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2. Determine whether the given function has an inverse. If an inverse exists, give the
domain and range of the inverse and the formula for the inverse if possible.
f ( x) 4 x 3 d. f ( x) 9 x ; 0 x 3
2
a.
b. f ( x) x sin x e. f ( x) ln 3 x
2x
c. f ( x) f. f ( x) 3 x 1
x2
3. Show that f has an inverse if
t dt , for all x
x x
f ( x) 1 t dt , for all x b. f ( x) sin
4 4 2
a.
0
0
6.4 Continuity and Differentiability of Inverse Functions
If f is continuous, then the gragh of f has no breaks or holes, and hencethe same is true for the
(reflected) gragh of f 1 .
Thus, we see intuitively if f is continuous on a, b , then f 1 is continuous on f (a), f (b). We
can also show that if f is increasing, then so is f 1 . These facts are stated in the next theorem
that is given without a proof.
Theorem 6.3: If f is continuous and decreasing on a, b , then f has an inverse function f 1
that is continuous and increasing on f (a), f (b).
We can also prove the analogous result obtained by replacing the word increasing in Theorem
6.3 by decreasing.
The next theorem provides us a method of finding of the derivatives of an inverse function.
Theorem 6.4: Suppose that f has an inverse and is continuous on an open interval I containing
a . Assume also that '
f (a) exists, f (a)0 , and
' f (a) c . Then f (c)
1 ' exists, and
f (c)
1 '
1
'
f (a)
………………………….. 1
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1
Proof: Using the fact f (c) a and definition of the derivative, we find that
f (c)
1 1 1
f ( y) f (c ) f ( y) a …………….. 2
1 ' lim lim
y c yc y c
f f
1
( y ) f (a)
Provided that the later limit exists. We will simultaneously show that it does exist and find its
value. First notice that f 1 is continuous at c by theorem 3.3.
Therefore,
1 1
lim f ( y) f (c ) a
y c
1
So that if x f ( y ) , then x approaches a as y approaches c .
1 1
Moreover, the fact that f has an inverse and f (c) a implies that f ( y ) a for y c .
1
Consequently 2 and the substitution theorem for limits ( with x substituting for f ( y) )
imply that
f (c)
1
f ( y) a xa
1 ' lim lim
y c
f f
1
( y ) f (a)
x a f ( x) f ( a )
1
1 .
f ( x) f ( a ) '
lim
x a xa f (a)
It is convenient to restate Theorem 6.4 as follows.
1
Corollary 6.5 If f is the inverse function of a differentiable function f and if
'
f f 1
( x) 0 , then
f (x)
1 '
f f
'
1
1
( x)
……………………………… 3
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Example 1: Let f ( x) x 8x 4 x 2 . Find
7 3
f (2) .
1 '
Solution: In order to use 1 , we must first find the value of a for which f (a) 2 . But,
f (0) 2 , so a 0 . Since
f x 7 x6 24 x2 4 f 0 4
' , it follows that ' .
Thus, we conclude from 1 that
f (2) f 1(0)
1 '
'
1.
4
1
Example 2: Let f ( x) x 2 x 1 , prove that f has an inverse function
3
f , and find the
at the point P2,1 .
1
slope of the tangent line to the gragh of f
f x3 x 2 2 0
Solution: Since ' for every x , f is increasing and hence it is one-to-one.
1 1
Thus, f has an inverse function f . Since f (1) 2 , it follows that f (2) 1 , and
consequently the point P2,1 is on the gragh of
1 1
f . It would be difficult to find f , because
we would have to solve the equation y 2 x 1 , for x in terms of y .
3
x
1 1
However, even if we cannot find f explicitly, we can find the slope f (2) of the tangent
at P2,1 . Thus, by theorem 3.4
1
line to the gragh of f
f (2)
1 '
f f
'
1
1
(2)
'
f (1)
1
1.
5
1
An easy way to remember corollary 3.5 is to let y f (x) . If f is the inverse function of f ,
f f ( x) x . Then
1 1
then f ( y)
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f ( y )
1 '
f f
'
1
1
( y)
'
1
f ( x)
Or, in differentiation,
dx 1
.
dy dy
dx
Example 3: Let f ( x) x 2 x 1 , find
3
f (x) .
1 '
Solution:
1
Let y 2 x 1 and x
3
x f ( y ) . Then
f ( y )
dx 1 1
1 ' 1 1
f
; that is,
2
dy dy 2
2 1
2
dx 3x
2 3x 2
3 ( y)
Thus,
f (x)
1 '
3x
1
2
2
3 f 1
1
( x) 2
2
.
f
1
Consequently, to find 1 ' it is necessary to know f ( x) , just as in corollary 3.5.
( x)
Activity 6.2
1. Find
f (c) if
1 '
f ( x) x 7 ; c 6 c. f ( x) x sin x ; c 0
3
a.
d. f ( x) x ln x ; c 2e
2
b. f ( x) x x ; c 2
2. Use ' to prove that f has an inverse function and find the slope of the angent line at
f
1
the point P on the gragh of f .
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f ( x) x 3x 2 x 1 ; P5,1 ; x 0 ; P3,1
1
b. f ( x) 4 x
5 2 5
a. 3
x
dx
3. Find if
dy
a. f ( x) x cos x b. f ( x) ln x 1
3
6.5 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Since the trigonomeric functions are not one-to-one, they do not have inverse functions. By
restricting heir domains, however, we may obtain one-to-one functions that have the same values
as trigonomeric funcions and that do have inverse over these restricted domains.
6.5.1The Arcsine Function
If we restrict the domain of the sine function to , , then the resulting function is strictly
2 2
increasing (because its derivative is positive except at and ). Hence the restricted
2 2
function which is called arcsine function has domain 1,1 , and range , . Its value at x
2 2
1
is usually written arcsin x or sin x . As a consequence,
arcsin x y if and only if sin y x
for 1 x 1 and y
2 2
We also see from the propery of inverse funcions that
i. arcsin sin x x for x
2 2
ii. sinarcsin x x for 1 x 1
Example 1: Evaluate
1 5
a. sin arcsin b. arcsin sin c. arcsin sin
2 4 6
Solution:
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1 1 1
a. sin arcsin , since 1 1 .
2 2 2
b. arcsin sin , since .
4 4 2 4 2
5 1
c. arcsin sin arcsin .
6 2 6
5
In example 1c) is not between and , and hence we can not use ii . Instead we use
6 2 2
5 1
properties of special angles to first evaluate sin and then find arcsin .
6 2
Example 2: Simplify the expression sec arcsin x .
Solution: We will evaluate sec arcsin x by evaluating sec y for the value of y in ,
2 2
such that arcsin x y , that is, sin y x . Since sin y x 0 , it follows that 0 y .
2
Applying the Pythagorean Theorem to the triangle given below
1
We find sec y .
1 x
x 1
Thus, sec arcsin x sec y
1
1 x
.
1 x
6.5.2 The Arccosine Function
If we restrict the domain of the cosine function to 0, , then the resulting function is strictly
decreasing (because its derivative is negative except at 0 and ). Hence the restricted function
which is called arccosine function has domain 1,1 , and range 0, .
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1
Its value at x is usually written arccos x or cos x . As a consequence,
arccos x y if and only if cos y x
for 1 x 1 and 0 y
Since cos and arcc cos are inverse functions of each other, we obtain the following properties.
i. arccos cos x x for 0 x
ii. cosarccos x x for 1 x 1 .
Example 2: Evaluate
1 2
a. cos arccos b. arccos cos c. arccos cos
2 3 4
Solution:
1 1 1
a. cos arccos , since 1 1 .
2 2 2
2 2 2
b. arccos cos , since 0 .
3 3 3
2
c. arccos cos arccos .
4 2 4
Note that in the c ) part of the preceding example 2, is not between 0 and , and hence we
4
1 2
can not use property ii above. Instead we firs evaluate cos and then find cos
4 2 .
Example 3: Simplify the expression cosarctan x .
Solution: Let y arcanx . Then tan y x and y . We want to find cos y . But,
2 2
since tan y is known, it is easier to find sec y . First:
sec y 1 tan
2 2
y
sec y 1 x sec y 1 x (as sec y 0 for y
2 2 2
Now, ).
2 2
Thus, cos arctan x cos y
1 1
.
sec y 1 x
2
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Note that instead of using trigonometric identities as in the solution above, it is easy to use a
triangular diagram. If we let y arcanx , then tan y x , and using he right triangle below we
can read from the figure that
1 x
2
y
1
Thus, cos tan x cos y
1 1 .
1 x
2
6.5.3The Arctangent Function
To find an inverse for the tangent function, we restrict he tangent function to , . The
2 2
resulting inverse function is called the arctangent funcion. Its domain is , , and its range
1
is , . We usually write is value at x as arctan x or tan x . As a consequence,
2 2
arctan x y if and only if tan y x
for any x and y
2 2
Thus for any x , arctan x is the number y between and whose tangent is x .
2 2
As with arcsin x and arccos x , we have the following properties of arctan:
i. arctantan x x for x .
2 2
ii. tanarctan x x for every x .
Example 4: a) arctan tan , since .
4 4 2 4 2
b) tanarctan 99 99 .
c) arctantan arctan0 0 .
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2
Example 5: Evaluate sec arctan .
3
2 2
Solution: If we let y arctan , then tan y . We wish o find sec y .
3 3
Since arctan x for every x and tan y 0 , it follows that 0 y and from the
2 2 2
triangle below we obtain that
13 13
Thus, sec y
2 3
3
.
The remaining trigonometric functions can be done analogously and are summarized here as
below:
1 3
y csc x for x 1 if and only if csc y x and y 0, , .
2 2
1 3
y sec x for x 1 if and only if sec y x and y 0, , .
2 2
y cot x for x if and only if cot y x and y 0, .
1
Activity 6.3
1. Find the exact value of the expression, whenever it is defined.
2 1
a. arcsin
e. arccos
2 2
b. arctan 3 2
f. sin arcsin
3
5 5
c. arcsin sin g. arccos cos
4 24
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3 4 3 8
d. cos arctan( ) arcsin( ) h. tan arctan( ) arccos( )
4 5 4 17
2. Rewrite as an algebraic expression in x for x 0 .
x x
a. sec arcsin( ) c. tan arc csc( )
3 2
b. cos2 arcsin x d. sin2 arcsin x
6.6 Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
We now see the derivatives of the inverse trigonomeric functions in the following theorems.
Theorem 1:
a)
d
arcsin x 1
d)
d
arc sec x 12
dx
1 x dx x x 1
2
b)
d
arccos x 1
e)
d
arc csc x 1
dx
1 x dx 1
2 2
x x
c)
d
arctan x 1 2 f)
d
arc cot x 1 2
dx 1 x dx 1 x
Proof: a) To proof
d
arcsin x 1
, put y arcsin x so that sin y x whenever
dx
1 x
2
1 x 1 and y . Then differentiating sin y x implicitly, we have
2 2
dy
cos y 1
dx
arcsin x
dy d 1
And hence,
dx dx cos y
Since y , cos y is positive and, therefore,
2 2
cos y 1sin y 1 x
2 2
Thus, d arcsin x 1 ; for x 1 .
dx
1 x
2
Observe that he inverse sine function is not differentiable at x 1.
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c) To proof
d
arctan x 1 2 , put y arctan x so that tan y x whenever x and
dx 1 x
y .
2 2
Differentiating tan y x and trigonomeric identities, we have
d
arctan x d 1 1 2 1
1
.
2 2
dx tan y sec y 1 tan y 1 x
dy
Thus,
d
arctan x 1 2 ; for every x .
dx 1 x
The of the formulas can be obtained in similar fashion.
Example 1: Find
a.
d
dx
arcsin 3x
2
c.
d
dx
arctan e
2x
b.
d
dx
arccos(ln x) d.
d
dx
arc sec 3x
2
Solution:
a. d
arcsin 3x
2
1 d
3x
2 6x .
1 3x 2 19 x
dx 2 dx 4
b. d
arccos(ln x) 1 d
ln x 1 .
dx
1 ln x dx
1 ln x
2 2
x
e 2e2 x .
2x
c. d 1 d
arctan e
1 e2 x 1 e
2x 2x
2 2
dx dx
d. d
arc sec 3x
2
1 d
3x 2 2 .
dx
3x
2
3x2 1 2 dx x 9x
4
1
Each of the formulas in Theorem 3.1 gives rise to an integration formula. These have the
following relations:
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a)
d
arcsin x 1
if and only if
1
dx arcsin x c
dx
1 x 1 x
2 2
b)
d
arccos x 1
if and only if
1
dx arccos x c
dx
1 x 1 x
2 2
c)
d
arctan x 1 2 if and only if
1
dx arctan x c
1 x 1 x
2
dx
d)
d
arc sec x 12 if and only if
1
dx arc csc x c
dx x x 1
2
1
x x
e)
d
arc csc x 1
if and only if
1
dx arc sec x c
dx 2
1
2
1
x x x x
f)
d
arc cot x 1 2 if and only if
1
dx arc cot x c
1 x 1 x
2
dx
Note: These six properties will be considered in the next chapter when we discuss about
techniques of integration.
Activity 6.4
1. Find the derivative of the following functions and simplify where possible
a. f ( x) arcsin( 2 x 1) d. f ( x) 1 x arctan x 2
f ( x) arctan x f ( x) cos x cos x
1 1 1
1 x cos x
2
b. e.
c. tan x arctan x
f. f ( x) arctan 4 x e
arctan 4 x
6.7 Hyperbolic expressions
The exponential expressions
x x
e e
x x
and e e
2 2
occur in advanced applications of calculus. Their properties are similar in many ways to those of
sin x and cos x , and they have the same relationship to the hyperbola that the trigonomeric
functions have to the circle. For this reason they are collectively called hyperbolic functions and
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individually called hyperbolic sine and hyperbolic cosine. We also define the rest of the
hyperbolic functions in terms of these functions.
Definition 3.3
sinh x e e and cosh x e e
x x x x
.
2 2
We read sinh x as “sine hyperbolic x ” and cosh x as “cosine hyperbolic x .”
Continuing the analogy of the hyperbolic functions with trigonometric functions, we define the
other four hyperbolic functions in terms of sinh x and cosh x as:
sinh x 1
tanh x sec hx
cosh x cosh x
cosh x 1 1
coth x csc hx
sinh x tanh x sinh x
The hyperbolic functions satisfy a number of identities that are analogous to the well-known
trigonometric identities. We list some of them as below
6.7.1 Hyperbolic Identities
sinh x sinh x cosh x cosh x
x sinh x 1 x sinh x cosh 2 x
2 2 2 2
cosh cosh
sinh 2 x 2 sinh x cosh x 1 tanh x sec h x
2 2
sinhx y sinh x cosh y cosh x sinh y
coshx y cosh x cosh y sinh x sinh y
The proof of the above identities are left as an exercise.
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The derivative of the hyperbolic functions are easily computed.
For instance,
d e e e e
x x x x
d
sinh x cosh x ; and
dx dx 2 2
d e e e e
x x x x
d
cosh x sinh hx
dx dx 2 2
We list the differentiation formulas for the hyperbolic functions as below. The remaining proofs
are left as an exercise.
Theorem 3.4
d
sinh x cosh x d
sec hx sec hx tanh x
dx dx
d
cosh x sinh x d
csc hx csc hx coth x
dx dx
d
tanh x sec h2 x d
coth x csc h2 x
dx dx
Example 1: If f ( x) cosh e x . Then find
2x '
f ( x) .
Solution: Applying heorem 3.4, with the chain rule, we obtain
f '( x) sinh e2 x x. 2e2 x 1 2e2 x 1sinh e2 x x .
The integration formula that correspond to the derivative formula in Theorem 3.4 are as follows:
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Theorem 3.5
sinh xdx cosh x c sec hx tanh xdx sec hx c
cosh xdx sinh x c csc h xdx coth x c
2
sec h xdx tanh x c csc hx coth xdx csc hx c
2
Activity 6.5
1. Find the derivative of the following functions and simplify where possible
a. f ( x) e sinh x
x
c. f ( x) cosh x
4
b. cossinh x d. f ( x) e coshcosh x
tanh x
2. Verify the identity.
a. sinhx y sinh x cosh y cosh x sinh y
x cosh 2 x 1
2
b. sinh 2 2
6.8 Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
The hyperbolic sine function is continuous and increasing for every x (because
d
sinh x cosh x 0 for all x ) and hence, has a continuous, increasing inverse function,
dx
1 x 1
denoted by sinh x . Since sinh x is defined interms of e , we might expect that sinh x can
be expressed in terms of the inverse, ln , of the natural exponential function. The first formula of
the next theorem shows that this is the case.
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Theorm 3.6
1 1 1 x
tanh x ln , for x 1
x ln x 1 for all x
1
2 1 x
2
sinh x
1
1 x
2
cosh x ln x x 1 , for x 1
1 2 1
sec h x ln , for 0 x 1
x
1 1 x 1
coth x 2 ln x 1 , for x 1
1 x
2
1 1
csc h x ln , for x 0
x x
1
Proof: To prove (1), let y sinh x . Then
y
y
x sinh y e e
2
e
y
2x e 0
y
y
Multiplying the last equation by e , we get
2xe 1 0 , which is a quadratic equation in
2y y y
e e .
Solving by quadratic formula, we get
2x 4
2
y
4x x
2
1
e 2 x
Since, x 1 0 and 0 , we must have
2 y
x e
x 1
y 2
e x
The equivalent logarithmic form is
y ln x 1
2
x
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x ln x 1 , for every 𝑥.
1 2
Thus, sinh x
1
Proof: To prove (2), let y tanh x . Then
y
sinh y e e 1
y 2y
x tanh y y y
e2 y
cosh y e e e 1
1 x 1 x
2 y ln
2y
Thus, e
1 x 1 x
1 1 x
Hence, y ln
2 1 x
1 1 1 x
Therefore, tanh x ln , for 1 x 1.
2 1 x
The proofs of the remaining inverse hyperbolic functions are left as an exercise.
The inverse hyperbolic functions are all differentiable because the hyperbolic functions are
differentiable. The formulas in Theorem 3.7 below can be proved by the method for inverse
functions or by differentiating the formulas in theorem 3.6.
Theorem 3.7
1.
d
sinh x 1 1
, for every x 4.
d
csc h x
1 1
,
dx
1 x dx
1 x
2 2
x
2.
d
cosh x 1 1
, for x 1 5.
d
sec h x
1 1
, for 0 x 1
dx 1 dx
1 x
2 2
x x
3.
d
tanh x 1 1
, for x 1 6.
d
coth x
1 1
1 x 1 x
2 2
dx dx
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1 dx
Proof: To proof (1), let y sinh x . Then sinh y x and cosh y .
dy
Since cosh y 0 and y sinh y 1 , we have cosh y 1sinh
2 2 2
cosh y.
Then applying the method for inverse functions, we have
dx
d
sinh y dx1
1
1
1
1 .
dy dx cosh y
1 sinh 1 x
2 2
dy y
Observe that we could have done the proof (1) by using formula (1) of theorem 3.6 as below
d
sinh x dxd ln x
1
x
2
1
x
1
1
x
dx
x 1 x
2 2
1
x
x 1
2
1 1 .
x x 1 x 1 1 x
2 2 2
The proofs of the formulas 2-6 in the above theorem are left as an exercise.
Example 1:
d
dx
sinh 1
tan x .
Solution: d
dx
sinh 1
tan x 1 d
dx
tan x 1
sec
2
x
x 1
2 2
tan sec x
1
x sec x .
2
sec x sec
Activity 6.6
1. Find the derivative of the following functions and simplify where possible
1 1
a. f ( x) sinh 5x d. f ( x) cosh x
1 1
1 x
1
f ( x) x tanh x ln e. f ( x) csc (ln x)
2
b.
x
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c. f ( x) coth sin 2 x
1
f. f ( x) 2 x sinh
1
2 x 1 4x2
6.9 L’Hôpital’s Rule
While we study limits in the previous section, we considered limits of quotients such as
4
2
lim x
sin x
and lim
x2 x2 x 0 x
and calculated the limits by using algebraic, geometric, and trigonometric methods even if the
limits have the undefined form 0 . In this section we develop another technique that employs
0
the derivatives of the numerator and denominator of the quotient. His new technique is called
L’H𝑜pitals rule. For the proof of this rule we need the following generalization of the Mean
Value Theorem.
Theorem 1: (Cauchy’s Formula)
If f and g are continuous on a, b and differentiable on a, b and if
'
g ( x) 0 for every x in
a, b , then there is a number c in a, b such that
'
f (b) f (a)
f (c )
g (b) g (a) '
g (c )
Proof: We first note that g (b) g (a) 0 , because otherwise g (a) g (b) and by Rolle’s
Theorem, there is a number c in a, b such that
' '
g (c) 0 , contrary to our assumption about g
.
Let us introduce a new function h as foolows:
h( x) f (b) f (a)g ( x) g (b) g (a) f ( x)
For every x in a, b . It follows that h is continuous on a, b and differentiable on a, b and
that h(a) h(b) . By Rolle’s Theorem there is a number c in a, b such that h (c) 0 ; that is,
'
f (b) f (a) g (c) g (b) g (a) f
' '
(c) 0 .
'
Thus,
f (b) f (a)
f (c ) .
g (b) g (a) '
g (c )
This is equivalent to Cauchy’s formula.
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Indeterminate Forms
If f ( x) and g ( x) are two functions, then we know that
f ( x) lim f ( x)
lim x a
x a g ( x) lim g ( x)
x a
f ( x)
If lim f ( x) 0 and lim g ( x) 0 , then the expression is said to have the indeterminate
xa xa g ( x)
0
form , at x a .
0
f ( x)
If lim f ( x) and lim g ( x) , then the expression is said to have the indeterminate
xa xa g ( x)
form , at x a .
0,1 , .
The other indeterminate forms are , 0 ,
0 0
0
The Indeterminate Form .
0
Theorem 1: (L’H𝒐pital’s rule)
Let f (x) and g (x) be two functions such that
' ' '
lim f ( x) 0 and lim g ( x) 0 ,
xa xa
f (a) and g (a) exists and g (a) 0 . Then
'
f ( x) lim f ( x)
lim x a ' .
x a g ( x )
lim g ( x)
x a
Proof: Suppose f (x) and g (x) satisfy the conditions of Cauchy’s mean value theorem in the
interval a, x . Then we have
'
f ( x) f (a )
f (c) , where c a, x .
g ( x) g (a ) '
g (c )
Since, f (a) 0 , g (a) 0 and as x a, c a , we get
'
f ( x)
f (c )
'
g ( x) g (c )
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' '
f ( x) lim f (c ) f ( x)
Hence, lim c a ' lim '
; (replacing c by x )
x a g ( x )
lim g (c) xa g ( x)
c a
' '
If f (a) g (a) 0 , then this theorem can be extended as follows:
''
lim f ( x))
c a
lim
f ( x)
x a ''
lim g ( x) g ( x)
c a
'''
lim
f ( x) '' ''
(a) g (a) 0
xa '''
, if f
g ( x)
and so on.
Example 1: Evaluate lim 1 3
x
.
x 0 x
Solution: Both the numerator and denominator have the limit 0 as x 0 . Hence the quotient
has the indeterminate form 0 . By L’H𝑜pital’s rule
0
lim 13 lim 3
x x
ln 3
ln 3
x 0 x x0 1
x sin x
Example 2: Evaluate lim 3
.
x 0
x
Solution: Both the numerator and denominator have the limit 0 as x 0 . Hence the quotient
has the indeterminate form 0 . By L’H𝑜pital’s rule
0
x sin x 1 cos x 0
lim 3
lim 2 0 form
x 0 x0
x 3x
sin x 0
lim 0 form
x 0 6 x
cos x
lim
x0 6
1
.
6
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Example 3: Evaluate lim
ln 1 x
2
.
x 0 ln cos 2 x
x0
Solution: Observe that lim ln 1 x 0 lim ln cos 2 x
2
x0
Hence the quotient has the indeterminate form 0 .
0
Thus by L’H𝑜pital’s rule we get
2x
lim
ln 1 x 2
lim
1 x
2
1
lim .
2 x
x0 ln cos 2 x x0
1 x 2 tan 2 x
x0 2 tan 2 x 2
x 1
lim , since lim 1
1 x
x0 tan 2 x x 0 2
x
lim .(cos 2 x)
x0 sin 2 x
x
lim . lim (cos 2 x)
x0 sin 2 x x0
1
1 .
1
2 2
arctan x
Example 4: Evaluate lim 2 .
x 1
x
1
Solution: Observe that lim arctan x 0 lim , since lim arctan x .
x 2
x0 x x 2
Hence the quotient has the indeterminate form 0 .
0
Thus by L’H𝑜pital’s rule we get
1
arctan x
lim 1 x
2 2
lim 2 lim x 1.
1
1 x
2
x 1 x x
2
x x
x
2x
x
Example 5: Evaluate lim e e .
x 0 2 x sin 2 x
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Solution: Both the numerator and denominator have the limit 0 as x 0 . Hence the quotient
has the indeterminate form 0 . By L’H𝑜pital’s rule
0
x x
2x 2
x x
0
lim e e lim e e , 0 form
x0 2 x sin 2 x x 0 2 2 cos 2 x
x
x
0
lim e e , 0 form
x 0 4 sin 2 x
x
x
0
lim e e , 0 form
x 0 8 cos 2 x
2 1
.
8 4
x 2 tan x
2
Example 6: Evaluate lim sec .
x
1 cos 4 x
4
x
Solution: Observe that lim sec x 2 tan x 0 lim 1 cos 4 x .
2
x
4 4
Hence the quotient has the indeterminate form 0 .
0
Thus by L’H𝑜pital’s rule we get
x 2 tan x x tan x 2 sec x
2 2 2
lim sec lim 2 sec
x
1 cos 4 x x
4 sin 4 x
4 4
xtan x 1
lim sec
2
0
, 0 form
x 2 sin 4 x
4
x tan x 12 sec x tan x
2 2 2
lim sec sec
x.
x
4
8 cos 4 x
sec 0
4
lim 4
x 8 cos
4
4 1
.
8 2
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The Indeterminate Form .
Theorem 2: (L’H𝒐pital’s rule)
Let f (x) and g (x) be two functions such that
' ' '
lim f ( x) or and lim g ( x) or ,
xa xa
f (a) and g (a) exists and g (a) 0 . Then
'
f ( x) lim f ( x)
lim x a ' .
x a g ( x )
lim g ( x)
x a
4 tan x
Example 1: Evaluate lim .
1 sec x
x
2
Solution: Observe that the limit has the inditerminate form . Then by L’H𝑜pital’s rule we
have
2
lim 4 sec lim
4 tan x x 4 sec x
lim
x
1 sec x x
2
sec x tan x x
2
tan x
2
By using the trigonometric identity, we have
4
4 sec x cos x 4
tan x sin x sin x
cos x
Consequently
2
lim 4 sec lim
4 tan x x 4 sec x 4
lim lim 4.
x
1 sec x
x
2
sec x tan x x
2
tan x
x
2
sin x
2
2x
Example 2: Evaluate lim e 2
.
x
x
Solution: Observe that the limit has the inditerminate form . Then by L’H𝑜pital’s rule we
have
2x 2x
lim e 2 lim 2e , form
x
x x 2 x
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2x 2x
lim 2e lim 4e lim 2e .
2x
x 2 x x 2 x
Particularly in a similar fashion we can show that
x
lim e n
, for every real number n .
x
x
Other Indeterminate Forms
, can usually be converted
Various inditerminate forms, such as , 0 ,
0 0
0,1 and
into the indeterminate form 0 or and then evaluaed by one of the versions of
0
L’H𝑜pital’s rule given in the above theorem.
2
Example 1: Evaluate lim x ln x .
x 0
Solution: Since lim x 0 and lim ln x the given limit is of the form 0 (more
2
x 0 x0
precisely, 0 () ). However, we can transform it into the inditerminate form by writing
it as
ln x
lim x ln x lim
2
x 0 x 0 1 2
x
Now, applying the L’H𝑜pital’s rule we get
1 2
lim x 0 .
ln x x
lim x ln x lim lim
2
x 0 x 0 1 2 x0 2 3
x 0 2
x x
x
Example 2: Evaluate lim x .
x 0
x e
0 x x ln x
Solution: The limit evidently has the indeterminate form 0 . But then since and
consequently
lim x lim e
x x ln x
x0 x0
Since the exponential function is continuous, it follows that
ex0
x ln x lim ( x ln x )
lim e
x0
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But since
1
ln x x lim ( x) 0
lim x ln x lim lim
x 0 1
x 0 x 0 1 x 0
2
x
x
By L’H𝑜pital’s rule we get
lim x lim e e 1.
x x ln x 0
x0 x0
Example 3: Show that
1
lim 1 e.
x
x
Solution: Observe that the limit has the indetrminate form 1
x
1
x
1
Since, 1 e 1 x , we have
ln
x
x
x
1
1
x
1
ln 1
lim ln1
lim 1 lim e x ex x
x x x
But lim ln
1
x
1 ln 1 1 0
1 lim x ln 1 lim
x x
x ,
0 form
x
x x 1
x
Thus by L’H𝑜pital’s rule we get
1
1
lim
1 1 2
x x lim 1
1
x 1 2 x
1 1
x
x
x
1
Thus, lim 1 e e .
1
x
x
1 1
Example 4: Find lim x .
x 0
e 1 x
Solution: Observe that the limit has the indetrminate form .
However, if the difference is written as a single fraction, then
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1 1 x e 1 ,
x
0
lim x lim 0 form
x 0 x0
e 1 x xe x
x
Thus by L’H𝑜pital’s rule we get
x e 1 lim 1 e
x x
lim
xe x 0 xe e 1
x x x
x0 x
e
x
1.
lim
xe 2e
x x
x 0 2
1 1 1
Hence, lim x .
x0
e 1 x 2
Activity 6.7
1. Evaluate the following limits
1
tan x
6
lim x
tan 2 x
a. i. lim
1
x 1 4
x x
4
sin ax sin x x
b. lim j. lim 3
x 0 sin bx x 0
x
6 1
lim xn
arctan(2 x)
c. k. lim
x
x 1
x 0 3x
3 5
d. lim 1 2 l. lim x 1
2
x x x
x x
1 1 2 1
e. lim m. lim x 1 x sin
x1 ln x x 1 x
3
f. lim
tan 1 x
n. lim 12 1
x 1 x 0 2
x
x x sin
x 2
x
e
x 1 x
g. lim
x xe o.
lim 3
2
x 0
x
2x
1 x
x
1
2
h. lim 1 p. lim e
x 0
x ln(1 | x)
x
x
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x(1 a cos x) b sin x 1
2. If lim 3
. Then find the values of a and b .
x 0 3
x
3. Why is the following application of L’H𝑜pital’s rule invalid?
1 sin x cos x
lim lim 0.
x
2 x x
2 1
2
Review Exercises
1. Determine whether the following function has an inverse or not.
f ( x) 2 x x c) f ( x) x 4 x 4
3
a)
b) f ( x) 3 x 1 2
d) f ( x) sin 3x
2. Check the existence of the inverse of the following functions. If it has, find its inverse
a) f ( x) ax b, b 0 c) f ( x) 3
b) f ( x) x 2 d) f ( x) x 2 , x 2
3. Simplify the expression
a) csc arc cot( 3 ) c) sech(ln 2 )
4
b) sin2 arcsin x
1
d) sinh
3
1
4. Let F ( x) f (2 g ( x)) where f ( x) x x 1 for 0 x 2 , and g ( x)
4 3
f ( x) . Find F (3)
5. Find f 1 (c) if
'
b) f ( x) x ln x , c 2e
2
a) f ( x) x x , c 2
6. Differentiate the following functions
a) f ( x) sec h ln x c) f ( x) sinh
1
3x 2
x 1
b) f ( x) arctan d) f ( x) arc sec(ln x)
x 1
. Show that 1 x xy 1 .
1
y sinh
x dy 2
7. Let
1 x
2 dx
8. Evaluate the following limits
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3x 1 x 2 1 cos x
2
a) lim 2 x f) lim
x 1 x 0 2
1 sec x
x 1
x sin x
b) lim x x
2
x g) lim
x x0 x tan x
1 sin x sec x 1
c) lim h) lim
x 1 cos 2 x x0
x sin x
2
1 sin x 1
d) lim cot x i) lim
x0
x x
2
ln sin x
2 x 1
e)
4
lim 1
j) lim x4sin
2
(x)
x 4
0 x e 3 x
x
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CHAPTER SEVEN
Techniques of Integration
Introduction
Integration is not as straight forward as differentiation; there are no rules that absolutely
guarantee obtaining indefinite integrals of a function. In this chapter we develop techniques for
using the basic integration formulas to obtain indefinite integrals of more complicated functions.
Therefore we discuss a strategy for integration in this section. Also we consider integrals having
an unbounded limit of integration and integrals of discontinuous functions on an interval.
Finally, integration has a wide variety of applications. In this section look at some applications of
integrals in finding the area of a region bounded by a curve and the volume a solid region.
Objectives
At the end of this chapter the readers should be able to:
Know basic integration formulas of an indefinite integral.
Find the definite and indefinite integral of different functions using different techniques
of integrations.
Define the improper integral of a function.
Evaluate an improper integral that has an infinite limit of integration.
Evaluate an improper integral that has an infinite discontinuity.
Evaluate improper integrals of different functions.
Find the area of a region between two curves using integration.
Find the volume of a solid with known cross-sections.
Find the volume of a solid of revolution.
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7.1 Basic Integration Formulas
Before we see techniques of integration let us revise the integrals of important functions in
the following table.
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Table 1.0
I hope the student does not forget how to evaluate the definite integral by using the following
fundamental theorem of calculus:
Theorem 7.1 (Fundamental theorem of calculus)
Suppose 𝑓 is continuous on a closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏].
Part I: If the function 𝐺 is defined by
x
G( x) f (t )dt
a
for every 𝑥 in [𝑎, 𝑏], then 𝐺 is an antiderivative of 𝑓 on [𝑎, 𝑏].
Part II: If 𝐹 is any antiderivative of f on [𝑎, 𝑏], then
f ( x)dx F (b) F (a)
a
3
Example 1 Evaluate (6 x 2 5)dx .
2
Solution: An antiderivative of 6 x 2 5 is F ( x) 2 x 3 5x .Then
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(6 x 5)dx = 2x3 5x
2 3
2
2
= [(3) 3 5(3)] [2(2) 3 5(2)] 45
7.2 Integration by Substitution
The formulas for indefinite integrals in Table (1.0) are limited in scope, because we cannot use
them directly to evaluate such as
3x 5dx or cos(5x)dx
In this section we shall develop a simple but powerful method for changing the variable of
integration so that these integrals (and many others) can be evaluated by using the formulas in
Table (1.0).
Method of Substitution
If the integral to be evaluated is of the form
f ( g ( x) g ' ( x)dx
'
We substitute u g ( x) and du g ' ( x)dx, then the integral becomes f (u)du
Example 1 Evaluate 2 x 5dx .
Solution: We let u=2x-5 and du=2dx
Since du contains the factor 2, the integral is not in the proper form f (u)du required in
the method of substitution given above. However, we can introduce the factor 2 into the
1
integrand, provided we also multiply by . Doing this and property of integral we have
2
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1
2 x 5dx 2 x 5 2dx
2
1
2
2 x 5 2dx
1
u du
2
3
1 u2
c
2 3
2
3
1 2
u c
3
3
1
( 2x 5) 2 c
3
Example 2 Evaluate sin(2 x)dx
Solution: We make the substitution
u=2x,du=2dx
Since du contains the factor 2, we adjust the integrand by multiplying by 2 and compensate by
1
multiplying the integral by before substituting:
2
1
sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 2𝑥 2𝑑𝑥
2
1
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑑𝑢
2
1
= −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑢 + 𝑐
2
1
= − cos 2𝑥 + 𝑐
2
It is not always easy to decide what substitution u = g(x) is needed to transform an indefinite
integral into a form that can be readily evaluated. It may be necessary to try several different
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possibilities before finding a suitable substitution. In most cases no substitution will simplify the
integrand properly. The following guidelines may be helpful.
Guidelines for changing variables in indefinite integrals:
1. Decide on a reasonable substitution u = g(x).
2. Calculate du g ' ( x)dx .
3. Using 1 and 2, try to transform the integral into a form that involves only the variable u.
If necessary, introduce a constant factor k into the integrand and compensate by 1/k.
If any part of the resulting integrand contains the variable x, use a different substitution
in 1.
4. Evaluate the integral obtained in 3, obtaining an antiderivative involving u.
5. Replace u in the antiderivative obtained in guideline 4 by g(x). The final result should
Contain only the variable x.
The following examples illustrate the use of the guidelines.
x (3x 3 2)10 dx .
2
Example 3 Evaluate
Solution: If an integrand involves an expression raised to a power, such as (3x 3 2)10 ,
we often substitute u for the expression. Thus, we let
1
u 3x 2 2, du 9 x 2 dx du x 2 dx
9
Comparing du 9 xdx with x 2 dx in the integral suggests that we introduce the factor 9 into the
integrand. Doing this and compensating by multiplying the integral by 1/9, we obtain the
following:
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1
x (3x 3 2)10 dx u 10 du
2
9
1
u 10du
9
1 u 11
( )C
9 11
=
1
99
11
3x 3 2 C
Example 4 Evaluate x 3x 1dx .
Solution: To simplify the expression 3x 1 ,we let
u=3x-1, so that du=3dx
1
du
u
3
Then x 3x 1dx x 3x 1dx
Thus we still need to find x in terms of u. From the equation u=3x –1 we deduce that
1
x (u 1)
3
Therefore
1
du
u 3
(u 1) du
x 3x 1dx x 3x 1dx 3 u 3
1
3 1
u 2 u 2 du
9
12 2
5 3
u 2 u 2 C
95 3
12
5 3
2
(3 x 1) 2 (3x 1) 2 C
95 3
Example 5 Evaluate xe x dx .
2
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Solution: We let
du
u x 2 , du 2 xdx xdx .Then
2
du
xe dx e x xdx e u
x2 2
2
1
eu C
2
1
ex C
2
Example 6 Evaluate sec xdx .
Solution: We first put the integral in the form
(sec x tan x) sec 2 x sec x tan x
sec xdx sec x sec x tan x
dx
sec x tan x
dx
If we now let u sex tan x, du (sec x tan x sec 2 x)dx .Then
sec 2 x sec x tan x
sec xdx sec x tan x dx
1
du
u
ln u C
ln sec x tan x C
Activity 7.1
Evaluate the following integrals.
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1. sin 2 xdx 2. csc xdx
x 1
3. dx 4. dx
( x 5) 5
2 3
1 2x 2
2
t
5. x 5
x 1dx
2
6. dt
1 t2
2 3
e x 1
7. 2 dx 8. dx
1 x x(ln x) 2
2 2
3 sin x x
9. dx 10. dx
1 2 cos x 0 1 x 4
7.3 Integration by Parts
If we try to evaluate integrals of the type
xe dx and ln xdx
x
by using the method of substitution we obviously fail. But don’t worry the next formula
will enable us to evaluate not only these, but also many other types of integrals.
Integration by Parts Formula
If u f ( x) and v g ( x) and if f ' and g ' are continuous ,then
f ( x) g ( x)dx f ( x) g ( x) g ( x) f
' '
( x)dx
udv uv udv
Proof: By the product rule
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[ f ( x) g ( x)]' f ' ( x) g ( x) f ( x) g ' ( x)
Or equivalently, f ( x) g ' ( x) [ f ( x) g ( x)] g ( x) f ' ( x)
Integrating both sides of the last equation gives us
f ( x) g ( x)dx [ f ( x) g ( x)] dx f ( x) g (x)dx
' ' '
The first integral on the right side equals f(x)g(x)+c. Since another constant of integration
is obtained from the second integral, we may omit c in the formula; that is
f ( x) g ( x)dx f ( x) g ( x) g ( x) f
' '
( x)dx
………………….. (1)
Since dv g ' ( x)dx and du f ' ( x)dx we may write the preceding formula as
udv uv udv
Since applying (1) involves splitting the integrand into two parts, the use of (1) is referred to as
integrating by parts. A proper choice for dv is crucial. We usually let dv equal the most
complicated part of the integrand that can be readily integrated. The following examples
illustrate this method of integration by parts
Example 1 Evaluate xe x dx .
Solution: The integrand xe x can be split into two parts x and e x . We let
u x and dv e x dx
Then du x and v e x dx e x
Consequently integration by parts yields
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u dv
u v
v du
xe e C
x x x x x
x e dx x e e dx
2
x
2
Example 2 Evaluate sin(2 x)dx.
0
Solution: Let u x 2 and dv sin 2 xdx
1
Then, du 2 xdx and v cos 2 x
2
Thus using integration by parts we have;
1 2 2 1
2 2
0 cos 2 x dx
2
x sin( 2 x ) d 2 x cos 2 x 2 x
0 0 2
1 2
2
x 2 cos 2 x x cos 2 xdx
2 0 0
But, since
1 2 2 1 2
2
2 x cos 2 x 2 2 cos 2( 2 ) 0 8
0
And
2
sin 2 x 2 2 sin 2 x
0 x cos 2 xdx x 2 2 dx
0 0
1 1 cos 2 x 2
sin 2( ) 0
22 2 2 2 0
1 1 1
cos 2( ) cos 0 [1 1]
4 2 4 2
Hence,
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2
2 1
x sin(2 x)dx
2
0
8 2
Example 3 Evaluate e x cos xdx.
Solution: We could either let dv cos xdx or let dv e x dx ,since each of these expression is
readily integrable. Let us choose
u e x and dv cos xdx
So that du e x dx and v sin x
Then by integrating by parts we have;
e cos xdx e x sin x e x sin xdx.
x
(1)
We next apply integration by parts to the integral of the right side of equation (1). Since
we chose a trigonometric form for dv in the first integration by parts, we shall also choose
a trigonometric form for the second. Letting
u e x and dv sin xdx so that
du e x dx and v cos x
Integrating by parts, we have
e sin xdx e x ( cos x) ( cos x)e x dx
x
e x cos x cos xe x dx (2)
If we now use equation (2) to substitute on the right side of equation (1), we obtain
e cos xdx e x sin x [e x cos x e x cos xdx ]
x
e cos xdx e x sin x e x cos x e x cos xdx
x
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Adding e x cos xdx to both sides of the last equation gives us
2 e x cos xdx e x sin x e x cos x
Finally, dividing both sides by 2 and adding the constant of integration yields
1
e cos xdx [e x sin x e x cos x] C
x
We could have evaluated the given integral by using dv e x dx for both the first and second
applications of the integration by parts formula.
In conclusion we remark that integration by parts is effective with integrals involving a
polynomial and either an exponential, a logarithmic, or a trigonometric function. More
Specifically, integration by parts is especially well adapted to integrals of the form
( polynomial ) sin axdx, ( polynomial ) cos axdf
( polynomial s)e dx ( polynomial s) ln xdx
ax
In all except ( polynomial ) ln xdx ,the most effective choice of u is the polynomial, since the
derivatives of a polynomial are simpler than other function, while the choice u=lnx is effective
for ( polynomial ) ln xdx .
Example 4 Evaluate sin 1 x dx .
Solution: Let
1
u sin 1 x and dv dx sothat du dx and v x
1 x2
Then
x
sin x dx x sin 1 x
1
dx
1 x2
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Now we use substitution to solve the integral to the right. That is let
w 1 x 2 or w2 1 x 2 so that 2wdw 2 xdx
We then have
x wdw
1 x2
dx
w
dw w C 1 x 2 C
Consequently
sin
1
x dx x sin 1 x 1 x 2 C
Integration by parts may sometimes be employed to obtain reduction formulas for integrals. We
now find reduction formulas of sin n x dx cos n x dx with the help of integration by parts.
Example 5 Find a reduction formula for sin n xdx .
Solution: First write sin n xdx sin n1 x sin xdx
and let u sin n1 x and dv sin xdx so that
du (n 1) sin n2 x cos xdx and v cos x
Then using integration by parts we have:
sin xdx cos x sin n1 x (n 1) sin n2 x cos 2 xdx
n
Since cos 2 x 1 sin 2 x , we may write
sin xdx cos x sin n1 x (n 1) sin n2 xdx (n 1) sin n xdx
n
Consequently,
sin xdx (n 1) sin n xdx cos x sin n1 x (n 1) sin n2 xdx
n
The left side of the last equation reduces to n sin n xdx . Dividing both sides by n, we obtain
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coxs sin n1 x n 1
sin xdx
n
sin n2 xdx
n
In a similar fashion we can show the reduction formula for cos n xdx is given by:
1 n 1
cos xdx sin x cos n1 cos n2 xdx.
n
n n
Example 8 Evaluate sin 5 xdx.
Solution: Using the reduction formula for sine with n = 5 gives us
1 4
sin xdx cos x sin 4 x cos 3 xdx
5
5 5
A second application of the reduction formula, to sin 3 xdx , yields
1 2
sin xdx cos x sin 2 x sin xdx
3
3 3
1 2
cos x sin 2 x cos x C
3 3
Consequently
1 4 8
sin xdx cos x sin 4 x cos x sin 2 x cos x C
5
5 15 15
Activity 7.2
Evaluate the following integerals.
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1. xe x dx 2. x ln xdx
3. sec 3 xdx 4. x 2 x dx
2
5. x tan x sec xdx 6. 2t sin 2tdt
0
7. ( x 1) ( x 2)dx
10
8. sin(ln x)dx; ( H int : Let u sin(ln x))
9. tan 1 xdx 10. cos( x )dx
Evalute the integral with the help of the reduction formulas.
x
11. cos 3 ( )dx 12. cos 7 xdx
2
7.4 Integration by Partial Fractions
An expression for rational function is called a proper fraction if the degree of the numerator is
strictly less than the degree of the denominator; otherwise it is called an improper fraction. In
case of improper fraction we actually divide the numerator by the denominator and the improper
fraction is expressed in terms of a polynomial and a proper fraction. For example,
2x 1 7 4 x 3 3x 2 2 x 1 34 x 26
2 and 4x 3 2
x 3 x 3 x 9
2
x 9
P( x)
Let us consider a proper fraction where P and Q are polynomials in x, then it can
Q( x)
be proved that
P( x)
F1 F2 ... Fn
Q( x )
Such that each term Fn of the sum has one of the forms
A Ax B
or
(ax b) n
(ax bx c) n
for real numbers A and B and a nonnegative integer n, where ax 2 bx c is irreducible
in the sense that this quadratic polynomial has no real zeros (that is, b 2 4ac 0) .In this case,
ax 2 bx c cannot be expressed as a product of two first-degree polynomials with real
coefficients.
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P( x)
The sum F1 F2 ... Fk is the partial fraction decomposition of ,and each Fk is a partial
Q( x)
fraction. We state guidelines for obtaining this decomposition.
7.4.1Guide lines for Partial Fraction Decompositions of P(X)/Q(X)
1. If the degree of P(x) is not lower than the degree of Q(x), use long division to obtain
the proper form
2. Express Q(x) as a product of linear factors ax + b or irreducible quadratic factors
ax 2 bx c , and collect repeated factors so that Q(x) is a product of different factors
of the form (ax) n or (ax 2 bx c) n for nonnegative integer n.
3. Apply the following rules.
Rule a : For each factor (ax) n with n ≥ 1, the partial fraction decomposition contains a sum of
n partial fractions of the form
A1 A2 An
...
ax b (ax b) 2
(ax b) n
where each numerator An is a real number.
Rule b: For each factor (ax 2 bx c) n with n n 1 ,and with ax 2 bx c irreducible, the partial
fraction decomposition contains a sum of n partial fractions of the form
A1 x B1 A2 x B2 An x Bn
...
ax bx c (ax bx c)
2 2 2
(ax 2 bx c) n
where each An and Bn is a real number.
4 x 2 13x 9
Example: Evaluate x 3 2 x 2 3xdx
Solution: We may factor the denominator of the integrand as follows:
x 3 2 x 2 3x x( x 2 2 x 3) x( x 3)( x 1)
Each factor has the form stated in Rule (a) of the guideline, with n = 1. Therefore the partial
fraction decomposition has the form
4 x 2 13x 9 4 x 2 13x 9 A B C
x 2 x 3x x( x 3)( x 1) x x 3 x 1
3 2
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Multiplying by the LCM of the denominators gives us
4 x 2 13x 9 A( x 3)( x 1) Bx( x 1) Cx( x 3). 1
In a case such as this, in which the factors are linear and non-repeated, the values of A, B and C
can be found by substituting values for x that make the various factors zero. If we let x = 0 in (1),
then
9 3 A, or A 3
Letting x=1in (1) gives us
8=4C, or C=2
Finally, if x=-3 in (1), we have
-12=12B, or B=-1
The partial fraction decomposition is, therefore,
4 x 2 13x 9 3 1 2
x 2 x 3x x x 3 x 1
3 2
Integrating and letting C denote the sum of the constants of integration we have
4 x 2 13 x 9 3 1 2
x 3 2 x 2 3xdx x dx x 3 dx x 1dx
3 ln x ln x 3 2 ln x 1 C
3
ln x ln x 3 ln x 1 C
2
x 3 ( x 1) 2
ln C
x 1
Another technique for finding A, B, and C is to expand the right-hand side of (1) and collect like
powers of x as follows:
4 x 2 13x 9 ( A B C ) x 2 (2 A B 3C ) x 3 A
We now use the fact that if two polynomials are equal, then coefficients of like powers of x are
the same. It is convenient to arrange our work in the following way, which we call comparing
coefficients of x.
Coefficients of x2:A+B+C=4
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Coefficients of x: 2A-B+3C=13
Constant term: -3A=-9
We may show the solution of this system of equations is A = 3, B = -1, and C = 2.
13 7 x
Example 2: Evaluate ( x 2)( x 1) 3
dx
Solution: By Rule (a) of the Guidelines the partial fraction of the integrand has the form
13 7 x A B C D
( x 2)( x 1) 3
x 1 ( x 1) 2
( x 1) ( x 2)
3
Multiplying both sides by ( x 2)( x 1) 3 gives us
13 7 x A( x 2)( x 1) 2 B( x 1)( x 2) C ( x 2) D( x 1) 3 (2)
Two of the unknown constants may be determined easily as follows.
Let x = 1 in (2) the we obtain
13-7=3C or C=2
Similarly, letting x = -2 in (2) yields,
13+14=D(-2-1)3 or D=-1
The remaining constants may be found by comparing coefficients. So comparing the
coefficients of x3on both sides of (2), gives
0=A+D or A=-D ,A=1
And comparing the constant terms on both sides of (2), gives
1
13=2A-3B+2C-D or B= (2 4 1 13) 3
2
Therefore
13 7 x 1 3 2 1
( x 2)( x 1) 3
x 1 ( x 1) 2
( x 1) 3
x2
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Thus
13 7 x 1 3 2 1
( x 2)( x 1) 3
dx
x 1
dx
( x 1) 2
dx
( x 1) 3
dx
x2
dx
3 1
ln x 1 ln x 2 C
x 1 ( x 1) 2
x 1 3 1
ln C
x 2 x 1 ( x 1) 2
x 2 2x 7
Example 3 Evaluate x 3 x 2 2 dx
Solution: The denominator of the integrand may be factored as follows:
x 3 x 2 2 ( x 1)( x 2 2 x 2)
Applying Rule (b) of the Guidelines to the irreducible quadratic factor x 2 2 x 2 we
have
x 2 2x 7 A Bx C
2
x x 2 X 1 x 2x 2
3 2
This leads to
x 2 2 x 7 A( x 2 2 x 2) ( Bx C )( x 1) ………………….. (3)
As in previous examples, substituting x=1 in (3) gives us
10 = A(5) or A = 2
The remaining constants may be found by combining like powers of x:
x 3 2 x 7 (2 B) x 2 (4 C B) x (4 C ) ………….. (4)
And comparing cofficients in (4)
Coefficients of x2: 1=2+B or B=-1
Constants terms: 7=4-C orC=-3
Thus the partial fraction decomposition of the integrand is
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x 2 2x 7 2 x 3
2
x x 2 x 1 x 2x 2
3 2
Consequently
x 2 2x 7 2 x 3
x 3 x 2 2 dx x 1dx x 2 2 x 2dx
x3
2 ln x 1 2 dx
x 2x 2
To evaluate the right-hand integral, we first complete the square in the denominator to obtain
x 2 2 x 2 ( x 1) 2 1
and substitute u=x+1 so that du = dx and x +3 = u + 2
Therefore
x3 x3 u2
x 2
2x 2
dx
( x 1) 1
2
dx 2
u 1
du
u 2
2 du 2 du
u 1 u 1
1
ln(u 2 1) 2 arctan u C
2
1
ln( x 2 2 x 2) 2 arctan( x 1) C
2
Hence
x 2 2x 7 2 x 3
x 3 x 2 2 dx x 1dx x 2 2 x 2dx
1
2 ln x 1 [ ln( x 2 2 x 2)] 2 arctan( x 1) C
2
dx
Example 4 Evaluate sin x(2 cos 2
x)
.
Solution: Since
dx sin xdx
sin x(2 cos 2
x)
sin x(2 cos 2 x)
2
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Substuting
u=cosx and du=-sinsdx,we get
dx sin xdx du du
sin x(2 cos 2
x)
sin x(2 cos x)
2 2
(1 u )(2 u )
2 2
2
(u 1)(u 2 2)
But then the partial fraction representation for the integrand of the last integral has the
Form
1 A B Cu D
2
(u 1)(u 2) u 1 u 1 u 2
2 2
Then by similar procedure as the above examples we have
1 A(u 1)(u 2 2) B(u 1)(u 2 2) (Cu D)(u 1)(u 1) (4)
Then putting u=1 gives us 1=6A or A=1/6
Putting u=-1 gives us 1=-6B or B=-1/6
We now compare coefficients to find the remaining two constants
Coefficients of x3: 0=A+B+C or C=0
Constant terms: 1=2A- 2B-D or D=-1/3
Therefore
1 1 1
1
6 6 23
(u 1)(u 2) u 1 u 1 u 2
2 2
du 1 du 1 du 1 du
(u 2
1)(u 2) 6 u 1 6 u 1 3 u 2 2
2
1 u 1 1 u
ln arctan C
6 u 1 3 2 2
Consequently resubstituting cosx for u we have
dx 1 cos x 1 1 cos x
sin x(2 cos 2
ln
x) 6 cos x 1 3 2
arctan
2
C
Activity 7.3
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x2 2 x 2 12 x 4
1. dx 2. x 3 4 x 2 dx
x2 1
x2 x 1 x 3 x 2 x3
0
3. dx 4. dx
1 x2 1 ( x 1)( x 2 1) 2
x2 1 x 1
5. x 3 3x 4dx 6. x 1
dx
2 4
sin x cos x
7. dx 8. tan 3 xdx; ( H int : sustuteu tan x)
sin 2 x 1 0
x
e dx
9. dx 10.
1 e3x 1 3e x 2e 2 x
7.5 Trigonometric Integrals
Integrals such as
sin x cos 3 xdx, tan 2 x sec3 xdx, and sin 3x cos 4xdx
5
are called trigonometric integrals because their integrands are combinations of trigonometric
functions. This section is devoted to trigonometric integrals especially those in which the
integrands are composed of the basic trigonometric functions.
7.5.1 Guidelines for evaluating integrals of the form sin m x cos n dx
1. If m is an odd integer: Write the integrals as
sin x cos n dx sin m1 cos n x sin xdx and express sin m1 x in terms of cosx by using the
m
trigonometric identity sin 2 x 1 cos 2 x. Make the substitution
u=cosx, du=-sinxdx
and evaluate the resulting integeral.
2. If n is an odd integer: write the integral as
sin x cos n xdx sin m x cos n1 x cos xdx
m
And express cos n1 x in terms of sinx by using the trigonometric identity
cos 2 x 1 sin 2 x .Make the sustition
u=sinx, du=cosxdx
and evaluate the resulting integral.
3. If m and n are even: Use half-angle formulas for
1 cos 2 x 1 cos 2 x
sin 2 x and cos 2 x and the identity
2 2
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1
sin x cos x sin 2 x
2
to reduce the exponents by one-half.
Example 1: Evaluate sin 3 x cos 2 xdx
Solution: By guideline 1
sin x cos 2 xdx sin 2 x cos 2 x sin xdx
3
(1 cos 2 x) cos 2 x sin xdx
(cos 2 x cos 4 x) sin xdx
If we let u=cosx,then du=-sinxdx, and the integeral may be written
sin x cos 2 xdx (1 u 2 )u 2 (du ) (u 4 u 2 )du
3
1 1
u5 u3 C
5 3
1 1
cos 5 x cos 3 x C
5 3
Example 2: Evaluate sin 2 x cos 4 xdx .
Solution: By guideline 3 we have
sin x cos 4 xdx (sin 2 x cos 2 x) cos 2 xdx
2
(sin x cos x) 2 cos 2 xdx
1 1 cos 2 x
( sin 2 x) 2 ( )dx
2 2
1 1
sin 2 2 xdx sin 2 2 x cos 2 xdx
8 8
1 cos 4 x
Putting sin 2 2 x and u=sin2x so that du=2cos2xdx in the first and second integerals
2
of the right of the the last equation we get:
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1 1 cos 4 x 1 1
8 2
dx u 2 du
8 2
1 1 1
x sin 4 x u 3 C
16 64 48
1 1 1
x sin 4 x sin 3 2 x C
16 64 48
sin
m
An alternative way to evaluate x cos n dx when m and n are even is to use the identity,
sin 2 x cos 2 x 1but this time we transform the integral into integrals of the form sin
k
xdx or
of the form cox k xdx which can be evaluated by the reduction formulas.
7.5.2Guidelines for evaluating integrals of the form tan m x sec n xdx
1. If m is an odd integer: Write the integrals as
tan x sec n xdx tan m1 x sec n1 x sec x tan xdx and exp ressed tan m1 x in terms of x secx by
m
using the trigonometric identity tan 2 x sec 2 x 1. Make the substitution
u=secx, du=secxtanxdx
and evaluate the resulting integral.
2. If n is an even integer: write the integral as
tan x sec n xdx tan m x sec n2 x sec 2 xdx and express sec n2 x in terms of tanx by using the
m
trigonometric identity sec 2 x 1 tan 2 x .Make the substittion
u=tanx, du=sec2xdx
and evaluate the resulting integral.
3. If m is even and n is odd: Reduce to powers of x sec alone by using the identity
sec 2 x 1 tan 2 x
Example 3 Evaluate tan 3 x sec5 xdx .
Solution: By guideline 1 above
tan x sec5 xdx tan 2 x sec 4 x(sec x tan x)dx
3
(sec 2 x 1) sec 4 x(sec x tan x)dx
Substituting u=secx and du=secxtanxdx,we obtain
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tan x sec 5 xdx (u 2 1)u 4 du
3
(u 6 u 4 )du
u7 u5
C
7 5
sec x sec 5 x
7
C
7 5
Example 4 Evaluate tan 3 x sec 4 xdx .
Solution: By guideline 2 above
tan x sec 4 xdx tan 3 x sec 2 x sec 2 xdx
3
tan 3 x(1 tan 2 x) sec 2 xdx
If we let u=tanx,then du=sec2xdx,and
tan x sec 4 xdx u 3 (1 u 2 )du
3
(u 5 u 3 )du
1 1
u6 u4 C
6 4
1 1
tan 6 x tan 4 x C
6 4
Integerals of the form cot m x csc n xdx may be evaluated in similar fashion.
Finally, the evaluation of integrals of the form sin axcos bxdx epends on the trigonometric
identity
1 1
sin x cos y sin( x y) sin( x y)
2 2
With the appropriate replacements, this identity becomes
1 1
sin ax cos bx sin(a b) x sin(a b) x (*)
2 2
1 1
Notice that sin(a b) x and sin(a b) x are easy to integrate by substitution.
2 2
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Example 5 Evaluate sin 4 x cos 2 xdx .
Solution: Using (*) with a =4 and b = 2, we find that
1 1
sin 4 x cos 2 xdx 2 sin 2 x 2 sin 6 x dx
1 1
cos 2 x sin 6 x C
4 12
Note that integrals of the form
sin ax sin bxdx and cos ax cos bxdx
can be found by similar techniques
Activity 7.4
Evaluate the following integral
1. sin 3 x cos 4 xdx 2, (tan x cot x) 2 dx
2
3. sin x cos 3 xdx 4. sin 2 x cos 5 xdx
0
5. tan 3 x csc 4 xdx 6. cot 3 x csc 3 xdx
4
7. sin 5 x cos 2 xdx 8. cos x cos 5 xdx
0
7.6 Trigonometric Substitutions
Observe that the trigonometric substitution x sin simplifies the expression
a 2 x 2 , with a 0, into a trigonometric expression without radical i.e
a 2 x 2 a 2 a 2 sin 2 a 1 sin 2 a cos
We can use a similar procedure for a 2 x 2 , and x 2 a 2 .This technique is useful for
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eliminating radicals from these types of integrands. The substitutions are listed in the
table 1.1.
When making a trigonometric substitution we shall assume that θ is in the range of the
corresponding inverse trigonometric function. Thus, for the substitution x=asin , we have
, In this case, cos θ ≥ 0 .
2 2
Trigonometric Substitutions Table
Table1.1
1
Example 1 Evalute x 2
16 x 2
dx.
Solution: Since 16 x 2 4 2 x 2 , we substute
x 4 sin , so that dx 4 cos d , for .
2 2
Then
1 1
x 2
16 x 2
dx
16 sin 2 16 16 sin 2
(4 cos )d
1
(4 cos )d
16 sin 2 4 1 sin 2
1 1
2 d
16 sin
1
cot C
16
In order to write the answer in terms of the original variable x, we draw the triangle as
fig1.1, in which x=4 sinθ .
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x 4
16 x
2
Fig 1.1
16 x
2
Hence, cot
x
Thus
1 1 16 x 2
x 2
16 x 2
dx cot
16 16 x
C
1
Example 2 Evaluate dx .
x 2
x 2 16
Solution: The denominator of the integrand has an expression of the form a 2 x 2 with a=4.
Hence, using table 1.1, we make the substitution
x 4 tan , dx 4 sec 2 d
Consequently
16 x 2 16 16 tan 2 4 1 tan 2 4 sec 2 4 sec
And
1 1
x 2
x 2 16
dx
16 tan (4 sec )
2
4 sec 2 d
1 sec 1 cos
16 tan 2
d 2 d
16 sin
1
16 sin
To give the answer in terms of x, we use the triangle in Fig 1.2, with x=4tan .We then
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find that
16
2
x
x
4
Fig 1.2
x
Hence, sin
16 x
2
Therefore
1 1 16 x 2
x 2
x 2 16
dx
16 sin
16 x
C
3
x2 9
Example 3 Evaluate
6
x
dx.
Solution: The domain of the integrand consists of ( ,3] and [3, ) but since the
interval over which we must integrate is [-6,-3], we seek an antiderivative whose domain is
contained in (,3] .Since x 2 9 x 2 32
x 3sec , sothat dx sec tand
And notice that x 2 9 9 sec 2 9 3 tan .For the limits of integration we observe that
4
x 6, then sec 1 (2) and if x 3, then
3
Therefore
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3
x2 9 9 sec 2 9
6
x
dx
4
3 sec
9(3 sec tan )d
3
3 tan
4 3 sec (3 sec tan )d 34 tan d
2
3 3
s
3 (sec 2 1)d
4
3
3 tan
4
3
3 3
Integrals containing bx 2 cx d
By completing the square in bx 2 cx d we can express bx 2 cx d in terms of
a 2 x 2 , and x 2 a 2 or a 2 x 2 for suitable a > 0. Then a trigonometric substitution
eliminates the square root as before.
1
Example 5 Evaluate x 8 x 25
2
dx.
Solution: We complete the square for the quadratic expression as follows:
x 2 8 x 25 ( x 2 8 x 16) 25 16
x 4 9
2
Thus,
1 1
x 2 8 x 25
dx
( x 4) 2 9
dx
If we make the trigonometric substitution
x 4 3 tan , dx 3sec 2 d
Then
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( x 4) 2 9 9 tan 2 9 3 tan 2 1 3sec
And
1 3 sec 2
x 2 8 x 25
3 sec
d
secd
ln sec tan C
Using our formulas for tan and sec ,we conclude that
1 x 2 8 x 25 x 4
x 2 8 x 25
ln
3
3
C
7.7 Improper Integrals
b
The definite integral f ( x)dx has meaning only when f is continuous on a, b
a
consequently bounded on a, b .
Definition: We say f is bounded on an interval I if there is a constant M such that f ( x) M
for all x in I .
In this section, we shall extend the definition of the definite integral when either the integrand or
the inerval of integraion is unbounded. Such integrals are called improper integrals.
7.7.1 Integrals Over Unbounded Intervals
Definition: If f is continuous on a, , then the improper integral f ( x)dx converges if
a
t
lim f ( x)dx exists. In that case
t
a
t
f ( x)dx lim f ( x)dx ……………………….. 1
t
a a
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If the limit does not exist, the improper integral diverges.
Again if f is continuous on , a , then
a a
f ( x)dx lim f ( x)dx ……………………….. 2
t
t
Provided the limit exists.
Example 1: Determine whether the integral converges or diverges, and if it converges find its
value.
0
1 1
1 xdx
x 1
a. 2
dx b.
0
Solution: (a) Following the discussion above and equation 1 we have
t
t
1
x 1
1 1
x 1 x 1
dx lim 2
dx lim 2
t t
0 0
0
1 1
lim 0 1 1 .
t
t 1 0 1
Thus, the improper integral converges and has the value 1 .
(b) Following the discussion above and equation 2 we have
ln(1 x)
0 0
1 1
1 xdx tlim
0
dx lim
1 x t t
t
lim ln(1 t ) ln(1 0) 0 .
t
Thus, since the limit does not exist, the improper integral diverges.
1
e dx
x
Example 2: Determine whether the integral converges or diverges, and if it converges
find its value.
Solution: As in example 1,
ex
1 1
1
e dx lim e dx lim
x x
t t t
t
lim e e e 0 e .
t
1 t
Thus, the improper integral converges and has the value e .
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Finally, for integrals over the range , , we write
a
f ( x)dx f ( x)dx f ( x)dx …………………………… 3
a
Provided both of the improper integrals on the right converge.
If either of the integrals on the right in 3 diverges, then f ( x)dx is said to diverge. It can be
shown that 3 does not depend on the choice of the real number a .
1
Example 3: Determine whether the integral dx converges or diverges, and if it
1 x
2
converges find its value.
Solution: Using 3 , with a 0 , we have
0
1 1 1
dx dx dx .
1 x 1 x 1 x
2 2 2
0
Next, applying 2 we get
arctan x lim arctan x
0 t
1 1 1
dx lim dx lim
0 t
dx lim
1 x 1 x 1 x
2 t 2 t 2 t t t 0
t 0
lim arctan 0 arctan t limarctan t arctan o
t t
0 (_ ) 0 .
2 2 2 2
Thus, the given improper integral converges and has the value .
7.7.2 Integrals with Unbounded Integrands
We now consider a function f that is continuous at every point in a, b and unbounded near a .
By assumption f is continuous on the interval t, b for t in a, b , so that
b
f ( x)dx is defined for such t . If the one-sided limit
t
b
lim f ( x)dx
t a
t
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b
exists, then we define f ( x)dx to be the limit. This idea leads us the following definitions:
a
Definition:
i. If f is continuous on a, b and is discontinuous at b , then
b t
f ( x)dx limb f ( x)dx
………………………… 4
t
a a
Provided the limit exists.
ii. If f is continuous on a, b and is discontinuous at a , then
b a
f ( x)dx lim f ( x)dx ………………………… 5
t a
a t
Provided the limit exists.
As the preceding section, the integrals defined in 4 and 5 are reffered to as improper
integrals and they converge if the limit exists. The limits are called the values of the improper
integrals. If the limits does not exist, the improper integral diverge.
2
1
Example 4: Evaluate
1 2 x
dx .
Solution: Since the integrand has an infinite discontinuity at x 2 , we apply 4 and have
2
2 t
1 1 t
1 2 x
dx lim
t 2
1 2 x
dx lim
t 2
2 x 1
lim 2 2 t (2) 2 1 2
t 2
Thus, the given improper integral converges and has the value 2 .
1
1
Example 5: Determine whether the improper integral x dx
0
converges or diverges.
Solution: The integrand is unbounded near 0 . Applying 5 gives us
ln x lim0 ln1 ln t .
1 1
1 1
0 x dx tlim
1
dx lim
0
t
x t 0 t t
Consequently the given improper integral diverges, since the limit does not exist.
We give the definition of another improper integral as follows:
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Definition: If f has a discontinuity at a number c in the open interval a, b but continuous
elsewhere on a, b , then
b c b
f ( x)dx f ( x)dx f ( x)dx …………………………… 6
a a c
Provided both of the improper integrals on the right converge. If both converge, then the value of
b
the improper integral f ( x)dx is the sum of the two values.
a
4
1
x 3
Example 6: Determine whether the improper integral 2
dx converges or diverges.
0
Solution: The integrand is undefined at x 3 . Since this number is in the interval 0,4 , we use
6 , with c 3:
4 3 4
1 1 1
dx dx
x 3 x 3 x 3
2 2 2
dx .
0 0 3
For the integral on the left to converge, both integrals on the right must converge.
However, since
t
3
1
t
dx lim
1 1
dx lim
0x 3 2
3 x 3
t
0 3 x 3
2
t
1 1
lim .
t 3 t 3 3
Thus, the given improper integral diverges.
The other kind of improper integral is found if f is continuous in a, b and is unbounded near
b
both a and b . We say that f ( x)dx converges if for some point c in a, b both the integrals
a
c b
f ( x)dx and f ( x)dx converge. Otherwise we say that the integral is divergent.
a c
1 2x
1
Example 7: Determine whether dx converges or diverges.
x x
2
0
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Module on Applied Mathematics I 2006EC
Solution: The integrand is unbounded near both the end points 0 and 1 and is coninuous on
3
0,1 . Consequently the integral is of the type under consideretion. If we let c , then we need
4
to analyze the convergence of
3
1 2x 1 2x
4 1
dx and dx
x x x x
2 2
0 3
4
3
For 0 t , we have
4
2
3 3
1 2x 1 2x
4 4 3
dx lim
4
dx lim
x x 2
x x x x
2 t 0 2 t 0 t
0 t
3 3
lim 2 t t
2
.
t 0
16 2
A similar computation shows the second improper integral also converges and that
1 2x
1
3
dx .
x x 2
2
3
4
Therefore the original integral converges, and
3
1 2x 1 2x 1 2x 3 3
1 4 1
dx dx dx
2 2
0.
x x x x x x
2 2 2
0 0 3
4
Activity 7.5
1. Determine whether the following improper integral converges or diverges, and if it
converges find its value.
2
x
sec xdx
2
a. dx f.
1 x
2
0 0
0 0
1 1
x 3
b. 2
dx g. dx
4 x
2
2
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Module on Applied Mathematics I 2006EC
1
c. dx h. sec xdx
1
2
1
x 0
7
2
1
d. xe x dx i. dx
x 1
2
3
2
3x 1
9 1 2
1
e. x
dx j. x dx 3
0 0x
7.8 Application of the Integral
7.8.1 Area (Review)
Definition: Let f and g be continuous on a, b , with f ( x) g ( x) for a x b . The area A
of the region between the graghs of f and g on a, b is given by
b
A f ( x) g ( x)dx
a
2
Example 1: Find the area of the region bounded by the graghs of the equations y x and
y x .
Solution: First sketch the graghs on the same plane. And find the intersection of the two graghs.
y 2
Observe that x which implies x
2
x x x x x 0.
4 4
y x
xx 1 x x 1 0 .
2
So that x 0 and x 1 .
x 1 0 for every real number x , the two graghs intersect at 0,0 and 1,1 .
2
Since, x
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Module on Applied Mathematics I 2006EC
x on 0,1 .
2
Moreover x
Thus the area A of the region bounded by the graghs is given by
1
A x x dx
1
2 3 1 3
3 x 2 3 x
1
2
.
0
3
0
Example 2: Find the area of the region bounded by the graghs of the equations y sin x and
y cos x on 0,2 .
Solution: First sketch the graghs on the same plane. And find the intersection of the two graghs.
y sin x
Observe that which implies sin x cos x tan x 1 , on 0,2
y cos x
5
x and x .
4 4
2 5 2
Thus the two graghs intersect at , and ,
4
and the region bounded by the
4 2 2
two graghs on 0,2 is as below:
5 5
Observe that sin x cos x on 0, , sin x cos x on , and sin x cos x on ,2
4 4 4 4
and it follows that
5
4 4 2
A cos x sin x dx sin x cos x dx cos x sin x dx
0 5
4 4
sin x cos x cos x sin x sin x cos x
5 2
4
4
5
0
4 4
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Module on Applied Mathematics I 2006EC
2 1 2 2 1 2 4 2 .
Example 3: Find the area of the region bounded by the graghs of the equations y x 6 ,
y x 0 and 2 y x 0 .
3
Solution: First we gragh the region as follows. We divide the region into two regions R1
and
R 2
as in the plot shown below:
0
1 3
x 6 x
A1 x 6 2 x dx 12 and
2
4
4 4
2
1 2 1 4
A x 6 x dx x 6 x x
2
10
3
2 4
2
0
0
Thus the area A of the entire region R is
A A A 12 10 22.
1 2
Reversing the Roles of x And y
Instead of considering a region R that is bounded between the graghs of two functions of x , it
is sometimes convenient to consider R as the region between the graghs of two functions of y .
Then the area is computed by interchanging the y axis instead of along the x axis .
2
Example 4: Find the area of the region bounded by the graghs of the equations 2 y x 4 and
2
y x.
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Module on Applied Mathematics I 2006EC
Solution: First we sketch the region as follows:
2 2 x 4
y 2 2 2
Observe that 2 which implies 2 y y 4 y 4 y 2 .
y x
x 2 y 4 on 2,2 .
2 2
Also x y
Thus, the area A of the region between the two graghs is
2
2
A y 2 y 4 dx 4 y
2 2 1 3
32 .
y
3
2
2
3
Activity 7.6
1. Find the area A of the regions bounded between the graghs of the equations below:
y x 1 and y 2 x 9 d. y 3 x x 10 x and y x 2 x
2 3 2 2
a.
2 2 2
b. x y y and x y y e. x 3 y and y x 1
c. y 2 sin x and y tan x , on ,
3 3
7.8.2 Volume
[Link] The Cross-Section Method
If a solid region D has cross-sectional area A(x) for a x b , and if A is continuous on
a, b , then we define the volume V of D by the formula
b
V A( x)dx
a
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Module on Applied Mathematics I 2006EC
4
Example 1: Show that the volume of the sphere of radius r is V r .
3
3
Solution: If we place the sphere so that its center is the origin, then the plane P x
intersects the
sphere in a circle whose radius (from Pythagorean theorem) is
y r x
2 2
. So that the cross-section area is
A( x) y
2
r x
2 2
Using the formula with a r and b r , we have
r x
r r
V A( x)dx
2 2
r r
r
x
3
r2 x
3
r
4
r .
3
3
Example 1: Find the volume of the solid whose base is the region bounded by the lines
x x
f ( x) 1 , g ( x) 1 and x 0 . The cross-sections perpendicular to the x axis are
2 2
equilateral triangles.
Solution:
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Module on Applied Mathematics I 2006EC
The base and area of each triangular cross-section are:
x x
Base 1 1 2 x Lengh of base
2 2
Area
4
3
Base area of equilatera l triangle
2
A( x)
4
3
2 x area of cross sec tion
2
Since x ranges from 0 to 2 , the volume of the solid is
2 x dx
b 2
3
V A( x)dx
2
a 0
4
2 x 3
2
3 2 3 .
4
3
3 0
Class Activity (Pair Work)
1. The base of a solid is bounded by y x , y 0 and x 1 . Find the volume of the solid
3
for the following cross-sections (taken perpendicular to the y axis ):
a. Squares b. semi-circles c. equilateral triangle
2. Suppose a pyramid is 4 units tall and has a square base 3 units on a side. Find the
volume V of the pyramid.
[Link] The Disc Method
We now move on to yet another application of definite integrals: volumes of revolution.
Volumes of revolution are solids whose shapes can be generated by revolving some curve(s)
about some axis in three-space. If we can set things up so that a solid of revolution is generated
by revolving the region between the gragh of a continuous function f ( x), a x b and the
210
Module on Applied Mathematics I 2006EC
x axis , and the axis of rotation is the x axis (see diagram below), we can then calculate the
volume in the following way:
To find the volume of a solid of revolution with the disk method, use one of the following, (as
shown in the figure below)
Horizontal axis of revolution Verticall axis of revolution
R(x) dx R( y) dy
b d
volume V volume V
2 2
a c
The steps to follow are very familiar:
i. Sketch the region to be revolved
ii. Draw a small strip perpendicular to the axis of revolution, then revolve it about
the axis of rotation and calculate the volume that it generates, say dv .
iii. Integrate dv to find the entire volume
Example 1: Find the volume generated by revolving the region bounded by
y x , y 0, and x 4 about the x axis .
Solution: We first sketchthe region in question, and draw our small srip perpendicular to the
x axis (with width dx )
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Module on Applied Mathematics I 2006EC
Rotating the strip about the x axis we see that we get something of the form:
volume r h
2
This is clearly a cylinderical shape and so has volume given by the classical formula: V r h ,
2
where r is the radius of the cylinder, and h is the height. Looking at the specific solid generated
by the strip here, we see that h dx and r = the height of the strip = the y
Value of the curve= x . So the volume generated by the strip is given by:
4
r( x) dx
4 4 2 4 x2 .
V x dx xdx
2
8
0 0 0
2 0
Example 2: Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving the region bounded by
f ( x) 2 x and g ( x) 1 about the line y 1 .
2
Solution: We first sketch the gragh as
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Module on Applied Mathematics I 2006EC
The two graghs intersect when x 1 .
Hence, the radius R(x) is, R( x) f ( x) g ( x) 2 x 1 1 x
2 2
Thus the volume of the solid is
1
x x
V R( x) dx 1 x 2 dx 1 2 x x dx x 2
3 5
16
1 1 1
2 2 2 4
.
3 5 15
1 1 1
1
Class Activity (Pair Work)
1. Find he volume of the solid generated by revolving the region y x , y 0, x 4
bounded by the graghs of the equations about:
a) the x axis c) the y axis
b) the line x 4 d) the line x 6
[Link] The Washer Method
The can be extended to cover solids of revolution with a hole by replacing the representative
disc with a representative Washer. The Washer is formed by revolving a rectangle about an axis
as shown in the figure below. If r and R are inner and outer radii of the Washer and w is the
width of the washer, then the volume is given by
volume of washer R r w
2 2
If the region is revolved about its axis of revolution, then the volume of the resulting solid is
given by
R(x) r(x) dx Washer method
b
V
2 2
a
Note that the inegral involving the inner radius represents the volume of the hole and is
subtracted from the integral involving the outer radius.
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Module on Applied Mathematics I 2006EC
Example 1: Find the of the solid generated by revolving the region bounded by y x 2 ,
2
y 1, x 0 and x 2 about the x axis .
Solution: We first sketch the region in question, and draw our small strip perpendicular to the
x axis (with width dx ):
Rotating the strip about the x axis we see that we get something resembling the figure below
Here R( x) x 2 and r ( x) 1 , also x varies from o to 2 .
2
Thus, the volume of the resulting solid is
R(x) r(x) dx
b
V
2 2
a
x2 2 1 dx
2
2 2
0
x 4 x 3dx
2
4 2
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Module on Applied Mathematics I 2006EC
2
1 5 4 3
5 x x 3x
3 0
356
.
15
Example 2: Find the of the solid generated by revolving the region bounded by y x ,
3
y 8 and x 0 about the line x 1.
Solution: We first sketch the region in question, and draw our small strip (with width dy )
perpendicular to the axis of rotation
Rotating the strip about the axis of rotation we see that we get something resembling the figure
below
Here R( y) 1 3 y and r ( y) 1 , als y varies from 0 to 8 .
Thus the volume of the resulting solid is
R( y) r( y) dy
b
V
2 2
a
1 dy
8 2
1 3
2
y
0
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Module on Applied Mathematics I 2006EC
8
y 3 2 y 3 3dy
2 1
0
8
3 53 3 43
5 y 2 y
0
216
.
5
Class Activity (Pair Work)
1. let f ( x) 5x and g ( x) x and let R be the region beween the graghs of f and g on
2
0,3. Then find the volume of the solid obtained by revolving R about the x axis .
2. Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving the region bounded by the graghs of
y x 1, y 0, x 0, and x 1 about the y axis .
2
[Link] The Shell Method
In this section we will study an alternative method for finding the volume of the solid of
revolution. This method is called the Shell-method because it uses cylinderical shells.
To find the volume of this shell, consider two cylinders. The radius of the larger cylinder
corresponds to the outer radius of the shell, and the radius of the smaller cylinder corresponds to
the inner radius of the shell.
Let w width of the rec tan gle , h height of the rec tan gle and
p the dis tan ce between the axis of revolution and the center of the rec tan gle
Thus, the volume of the shell is
volume of shell volume of cylinder volume of hole
2 2
p
w
p
w
2phw .
2 2
216
Module on Applied Mathematics I 2006EC
To find the volume of a solid of revolution with the shell method, use one of the following
formulas
Horizontal axis of revolution Vertical axis of revolution
d b
V 2 p( y)h( y)dy V 2 p( x)h( x)dx
c a
Example 1: Find the volume of the solid of revolution formed by revolving the region bounded
by
y x x and the x axis (0 x 1) about the y axis .
3
Solution: first we sketch the gragh as
Here, p( x) x and h( x) x x , also x varies from 0 to 1 .
3
Thus the volume of the resulting solid is
1 1
V 2 p( x)h( x)dx 2 x( x x )dx
2
0 0
1
2 ( x x )dx
2 4
1
1 3 1 5 4
3 x 5 x
2 .
15
0
217
Module on Applied Mathematics I 2006EC
Class Activity (Group Work)
1. Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving the region bounded by the graghs of
y x 1, y 0, x 0, and x 1 about the y axis
2
a) Using the shell method b) using the disc method
c) Compare the result in a) and b).
2. Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving the region bounded by the gragh
2
y 1 x , on 4 x 4 about the x axis .
16
Review Exercises
1. Evaluate the following indefinite integrals
1
x e
3 2x
a) dx h) dx
9
2
x 4x
x 1
2
x
b) dx i) 1dx 3
1
2
x x
2
sec x
cos xsin xdx
5
c) j) dx
x 5 tan x 6
2
tan
x
x sin
2 2
a bx
d) xdx k) 2
dx
2x 4x 15x 5 dx
3 2
x
e) dx l)
x 2x 8
2
6 x 12
2
x
1
e
x 2x
f) 1 e dx m) dx
4x 1 1
2
x 1 x ln x dx
2
2 x 2dx
2
g) n)
2. Evaluate the following definite integrals.
1 ln x
e 2
a) 1 x dx d)
1
x ln xdx
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Module on Applied Mathematics I 2006EC
8 4
2x
b) dx e) xarc sec xdx
36
2
0
x 2
x 9 dx
3 6 2
1
c) 4 9x
2
dx f) 2
0 x3
3. Determine whether the following improper integral converges or diverges. Evaluate the
integral if it converges.
x
e 4
a) 1 x
dx d) 16 2
dx
0 e x
e 0
4 x
ln x dx xe
2
b) e) dx
0
5 4
1 1
c) dx f) dx
25 x
2
0 1 x
4. Find the area of the triangular region bounded by the curves x y 2 , y x and y 2 .
2
3
5. Find the area of the region between the curves y sin x and y cos x for 0 x .
2
6. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region bounded by the graghs of
the equations about the specified line.
a) y x , y 0, x 2 about the
3
i. x axis iii. The line x 4
ii. y axis iv. The line y 8
b) y x , y 2, x 0 about the
i. x axis iii. The line y 2
ii. y axis iv. The line x 1
7. Find the volume of the solid whose base is the region bounded between the curve y x
3
and the y axis from y 0 to y 1 and whose cross-sections taken perpendicular to the
y axis are squares.
219
Module on Applied Mathematics I 2006EC
1
8. Let V be the volume of the solid that results when the region enclosed by y , y 0,
x
x 2 , and x b (0 b 2) is revolved about the x axis . Find the value of b for which
V 3.
9. Find the volume of the solid generated when the region enclosed by y x 1 , y 2 x
, and y 0 is revolved about the x axis .
10. Using the shell method find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the graghs
y 2 x 1, y 2 x 3, and x 2 about the y axis .
220
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