Principles of Enhanced Oil Recovery
1. Factors Common to All Enhanced Oil Recovery Methods
Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) refers to a set of techniques designed to extract a greater
proportion of oil from reservoirs than is possible with primary and secondary recovery
methods. While the specific mechanisms vary between methods—such as thermal
recovery, gas injection, or chemical flooding, there are certain factors that universally
affect the success of EOR projects.
Reservoir Characteristics
The physical and geological properties of a reservoir have a profound impact on the
feasibility and efficiency of EOR methods. Reservoir depth affects both technical and
economic considerations. Shallow reservoirs limit injection pressures due to fracture
gradients, while deeper reservoirs increase drilling and operational costs. The structural
dip of the formation can influence gravity segregation, affecting sweep efficiency.
Homogeneity is critical; reservoirs with high heterogeneity tend to suffer from poor
sweep patterns as injected fluids preferentially move through high-permeability channels.
Petrophysical Properties
Porosity determines the storage capacity for fluids, while permeability governs fluid flow
rates. Relative permeability curves reveal how easily oil can be displaced by another
fluid, such as water or gas. Capillary pressure and wettability influence fluid distribution
and residual oil saturation. A water-wet reservoir often has more favorable displacement
characteristics for water-based EOR methods, whereas oil-wet systems may require
surfactants or other wettability modifiers.
Fluid Properties
The viscosity of both the displacing and displaced fluids is a key determinant of mobility
ratio, which directly influences sweep efficiency. High-viscosity oils present a challenge
as they require higher injection pressures or viscosity-reducing techniques such as steam
injection or solvent flooding. The density difference between fluids can lead to
gravitational segregation, impacting vertical sweep.
Well Configuration and Pattern Design
The arrangement of injection and production wells affects areal sweep efficiency.
Common patterns include five-spot, seven-spot, and line-drive configurations, each with
distinct flow characteristics and cost implications. Optimizing well placement ensures
more uniform fluid distribution and maximizes recovery.
Operational and Economic Factors
Even technically feasible projects can fail without economic viability. The cost of
injection fluids, energy, and facility upgrades must be balanced against the incremental
recovery. Additionally, infrastructure constraints, regulatory considerations, and market
conditions influence project execution.
In summary, the interplay between reservoir characteristics, fluid properties, and
operational design governs the performance of all EOR methods. Careful evaluation
during the planning phase, supported by reservoir simulation and pilot testing, is essential
to optimize outcomes.
Figure: The illustration of graph regarding time vs. recovery for a typical oil reservoir
2. Efficiency of a Displacement Process
The efficiency of an EOR displacement process quantifies the effectiveness of the
injected fluid in displacing oil from a reservoir. It is commonly expressed as:
E = Ed × Ev
where E is the overall displacement efficiency, Ed is the microscopic displacement
efficiency, and Ev is the volumetric (macroscopic) sweep efficiency.
Microscopic Displacement Efficiency
Microscopic displacement efficiency refers to the fraction of oil within the swept zone
that is displaced by the injected fluid at the pore scale. This is largely influenced by
capillary forces, wettability, and interfacial tension. For immiscible displacements,
residual oil saturation (Sor) is a limiting factor. Techniques such as miscible flooding,
surfactant injection, or alkaline flooding aim to lower interfacial tension and alter
wettability, thereby reducing Sor and improving microscopic efficiency.
Macroscopic Sweep Efficiency
Macroscopic sweep efficiency describes the fraction of the reservoir contacted by the
injected fluid. It is influenced by areal sweep (horizontal coverage) and vertical sweep
(coverage across the thickness of the reservoir). Heterogeneities in permeability,
variations in fluid mobility, and gravitational segregation can lead to bypassed zones.
Polymer flooding, for example, increases water viscosity, improving the mobility ratio
and areal sweep.
Evaluation and Improvement
The oil recovery equation incorporates both efficiencies, with estimates derived from
correlations, scaled physical models, or numerical simulations. Typical recovery
efficiencies vary: steam injection (30–50%), polymer injection (30–55%), CO₂ injection
(30–65%), and solvent injection (35–63%).
At the macroscopic scale, sweep efficiency can be improved by controlling mobility
ratio, optimizing well patterns, and employing conformance control techniques. At the
microscopic scale, chemical additives or thermal methods can enhance displacement by
altering fluid and rock interactions.
Overall, the success of any displacement process depends on optimizing both
microscopic and macroscopic efficiencies, as deficiencies in either will limit total
recovery.
Mobility control Equations
3. Major Factors Involved in Successful Water Flooding Project
Water flooding is one of the most widely implemented secondary recovery techniques,
involving the injection of water into a reservoir to maintain pressure and displace oil
toward production wells. Several critical factors determine the success of a water
flooding project.
Reservoir Geometry
The shape, size, and structural configuration of the reservoir influence fluid flow patterns.
Stratigraphic traps, where hydrocarbons are confined by variations in rock properties,
may benefit from water flooding if communication between layers is adequate.
Conversely, faulted reservoirs may present barriers that limit flood efficiency.
Lithology and Rock Properties
Lithology determines the mineral composition and texture of reservoir rocks, impacting
porosity, permeability, and water-rock interactions. High clay content can lead to
swelling when exposed to water, reducing permeability. Fractured reservoirs may provide
rapid water movement, bypassing significant oil volumes unless fractures are well-
connected to the matrix.
Reservoir Depth
Deeper reservoirs are more expensive to develop and operate, but must be deep enough to
allow injection pressures below the fracture gradient. Exceeding this pressure can cause
channeling and poor sweep efficiency.
Homogeneity
Uniform reservoirs enable more predictable fluid movement, leading to better sweep
efficiency. Highly heterogeneous reservoirs may require tailored injection patterns or
conformance control techniques to address preferential flow paths.
Fluid Properties
The viscosity of oil and water, along with relative permeability characteristics,
determines the mobility ratio. A favorable mobility ratio (<1) ensures that the displacing
fluid moves evenly through the reservoir rather than fingering through the oil.
Fluid Saturation
Adequate initial oil saturation is necessary to justify the cost of water flooding. Low oil
saturation or high water cut reduces the economic viability of the project.
Figure: Water flooding process from surface to subsurface
Operational Considerations
Successful water flooding also depends on water sources, treatment, and injection
infrastructure. Produced water must often be treated before reinjection to avoid formation
damage.
Water flooding remains a cost-effective method for improving oil recovery but requires
detailed reservoir characterization and careful operational planning to maximize its
benefits.
4. Miscible Drive and Carbon Dioxide Flooding
Miscible drive processes involve injecting fluids that mix completely with reservoir oil in
all proportions, eliminating the oil–water or oil–gas interface. This results in a single-
phase mixture with reduced viscosity and interfacial tension, improving microscopic
displacement efficiency.
Types of Miscible Drive
- First Contact Miscibility (FCM): The injected fluid mixes with the crude oil
immediately upon contact.
- Multiple Contact Miscibility (MCM): Miscibility develops progressively as
intermediate components transfer between the injected fluid and reservoir oil.
Miscible Agents
Common agents include propane, LPG mixtures, alcohols, and CO₂. CO₂ is especially
popular due to its availability, favorable phase behavior, and ability to dissolve in oil,
lowering viscosity.
Figure: A certain volume of solvent is placed in contact with the oil with which it is miscible,
and is then followed up with a fluid C which is immiscible with the oil O but miscible with the
solvent S
CO₂ Flooding
CO₂ flooding can be miscible or immiscible, depending on pressure, temperature, and oil
composition. Miscible CO₂ flooding is achieved when the reservoir pressure exceeds the
minimum miscibility pressure (MMP). Immiscible CO₂ flooding still offers benefits by
swelling oil and reducing viscosity.
Mechanisms of Recovery Improvement
- Reducing oil viscosity
- Lowering interfacial tension
- Extracting light hydrocarbons into the CO₂ phase
- Swelling oil volume
Operational Challenges
CO₂ supply, transportation, and corrosion control are major considerations. The injected
CO₂ often comes from natural reservoirs, industrial capture, or gas processing facilities.
Miscible drive processes, particularly CO₂ flooding, have proven highly effective in
extending the productive life of mature reservoirs and can be integrated into carbon
sequestration efforts, providing environmental benefits alongside increased oil recovery.
5. Water Alternating Gas Method
The Water Alternating Gas (WAG) method is a hybrid EOR technique combining gas
injection with water flooding. It alternates between injecting slugs of gas (such as CO₂ or
hydrocarbon gas) and water, aiming to improve sweep efficiency and reduce gas
channeling.
Principles
Gas injection alone often suffers from poor sweep efficiency due to its high mobility
relative to oil, leading to early gas breakthrough. Water injection improves sweep but
may have poor microscopic displacement efficiency in certain cases. WAG seeks to
merge the advantages of both.
Mechanisms
- Gas slugs reduce oil viscosity and interfacial tension, improving microscopic
displacement.
- Water slugs improve areal and vertical sweep by blocking high-permeability channels,
forcing gas into unswept zones.
Figure: Explanation of water alternating gas process
Design Considerations
Key parameters include slug size, injection rate, cycle timing, and total WAG ratio.
These are optimized based on reservoir heterogeneity, oil viscosity, and mobility ratio.
Operational Challenges
WAG projects must address gas handling capacity at surface facilities, corrosion control,
and the availability of injection gas. Reservoir monitoring using tracers or 4D seismic can
optimize WAG performance over time.
Applications
WAG has been applied in both miscible and immiscible modes, particularly in North Sea
and US reservoirs. It is also a potential CO₂ storage pathway while recovering additional
oil.
By integrating gas and water injection, WAG maximizes oil recovery while minimizing
some of the operational drawbacks associated with pure gas or water flooding.