COMMUNICATION NETWORKS – Last minute revision notes
• DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PAN, LAN, MAN AND WAN
1. PAN → Personal range (few meters)
2. LAN → Local (one building)
3. MAN → City-level
4. WAN → Global (like the Internet)
Type Full Form Coverage Example Speed Ownership
Area
PAN Personal Area Very small Bluetooth Very high Owned by one
Network area (a few between (short person
meters) phone & distance)
laptop
LAN Local Area Small area Computers High speed Owned by an
Network (room, in a school (up to 1 Gbps organization
building, or office or more)
campus)
MAN Metropolitan Covers a Cable TV or Medium to Owned by
Area city or large city-wide high government or
Network campus Wi-Fi telecom
companies
WAN Wide Area Very large The Internet Lower than Shared or
Network area LAN/MAN public
(country or (depends on ownership
world) distance)
• NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
Feature Bus Star Tree
Structure Single cable backbone Central hub/switch Combination of
star & bus
Failure Whole network fails if Only affected device Affected branch
Effect main cable breaks loses connection fails
Cabling Cost Low High High
Performance Slower with more High High
devices
Used In Small networks Offices, labs Big institutions
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1. Bus Topology
Definition:
All computers and devices are connected to a single central cable called the bus or
backbone.
Advantages:
• Easy to install and use for small networks
• Requires less cable length
Disadvantages:
• If the main cable fails, the entire network stops working
• Performance slows with many devices
Example:
Small office or classroom network.
2. Star Topology
Definition:
All computers are connected to a central hub or switch.
Advantages:
• Easy to add or remove devices
• Failure in one cable doesn’t affect others
Disadvantages:
• If the hub fails, the whole network stops
• Requires more cables
Example:
Used in most modern offices and schools.
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3. Tree Topology
Definition:
A combination of Star and Bus topologies — multiple star networks connected to a
main bus.
Advantages:
• Supports expansion easily
• Fault in one segment doesn’t crash the whole network
Disadvantages:
• If the backbone fails, network segments get isolated
• Complex cabling
Example:
Large organizations, universities, or city networks.
• TRANSMISSION MEDIA (COMMUNICATION CHANNELS)
WIRED MEDIUM (GUIDED)
Feature Twisted Pair Coaxial Cable Optical Fibre Cable
Cable
Material Copper wires Copper core + Glass or plastic fibers
metal shield
Data Electrical Electrical signals Light signals
Transmission signals
Speed Up to 1 Gbps Up to 10 Gbps Up to 100+ Gbps
Bandwidth Low Medium Very High
Distance Short (up to Medium (up to Long (tens to hundreds of
Coverage 100 m) few km) km)
Interference High Moderate None (immune to EMI)
Cost Cheap Moderate Expensive
Flexibility Very flexible Less flexible Fragile
Common Use LAN, TV, internet Backbone, long-distance
telephones communication
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Twisted Pair → Cheap, short distance, easy to install
Coaxial → Better protection, medium range
Optical Fibre → Super fast, long distance, expensive
WIRELESS MEDIUM (UNGUIDED)
Wireless transmission media are communication channels that do not use any physical
cables. They transmit data through air using electromagnetic waves such as radio,
micro, and infrared waves.
Feature Radio Waves Microwaves Infrared Waves
Definition Radio waves are Microwaves are Infrared waves are
electromagnetic high-frequency radio short-range
waves used for long- waves used for electromagnetic
distance wireless point-to-point waves used for
communication. communication. communication
between close
devices.
Range Long distance Medium to long Short distance
Line of No Yes Yes
Sight
Needed
Frequency 3 kHz – 300MHz 300MHz – 300 GHz 300 GHz – 400 THz
Range
Used In AM/FM radio, TV Radar, satellite Remote control,
broadcasting, walkie- communication, Sensors
talkies,Wi-Fi microwave ovens,
Wi-Fi
Penetrates Yes Partially No
Walls
Radio Waves
Advantages:
• Covers large areas
• Inexpensive to set up
• Suitable for hilly terrain
Limitations:
• Easily affected by noise and interference
Micro Waves
Advantages:
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• High data transmission speed
• Supports long-distance communication
Limitations:
• Cannot pass through solid objects
• Affected by weather (rain, fog)
Infrared Waves
Advantages:
• Secure (signals stay within a room)
• No interference with radio systems
Limitations:
• Short range (a few meters)
• Affected by sunlight or obstacles
• COMPONENTS OF DATA COMMUNICATION - TERMINOLOGIES
Component Description Example
Sender The device that sends the message Computer, mobile phone
Receiver The device that receives the Printer, another computer
message
Message The actual data being transferred Text, image, video
Transmission The path through which data Twisted pair cable, fiber
Medium travels (communication medium) optics, radio waves etc
Protocol A set of rules that govern TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP etc
communication
Example:
When you send an email
• Sender: Your Device
• Receiver: Your friend’s Device
• Message: The email text
• Medium: Internet(wired/wireless)
• Protocol: SMTP
• MEASURING CAPACITY OF COMMUNICATION MEDIA
Term Definition Measured In Example
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Bandwidth The maximum amount of data that Hertz (Hz) or bits 100 Mbps
can pass through a transmission per second (bps) LAN
medium per second
Data The actual speed of data transfer bits per second 50 Mbps
Transfer (bps) download
Rate speed
Analogy:
Bandwidth = width of a road
Data transfer rate = how fast the cars actually move
• IP ADDRESS
An IP Address is a unique numerical label assigned to every device connected to a
network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication.
Types:
• IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4):
Example: [Link] (32-bit address)
• IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6):
Example: 2001:0db8:85a3::8a2e:0370:7334 (128-bit address)
Purpose:
Helps identify the location and identity of devices on a network (like a home address
for your computer).
• NETWORK DEVICES
Network devices are hardware components used to connect computers and other
devices to form a network and enable communication between them.
Modem (Modulator–Demodulator)
Definition:
A modem converts digital signals (used by computers) into analog signals (used by
telephone lines) and vice versa.
• Modulation: Digital → Analog
• Demodulation: Analog → Digital
Purpose: Enables internet connection over telephone lines.
Type: Connecting device between computer and ISP.
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Ethernet Card (Network Interface Card – NIC)
Definition:
An Ethernet card or NIC is a hardware component installed in a computer that
allows it to connect to a network using a cable (wired) or wirelessly.
Features:
• Each NIC has a unique MAC address.
• Can be wired (LAN) or wireless (Wi-Fi card).
RJ45 Connector
Definition:
An RJ45 connector(Registered Jack 45 ) is a standard connector used to connect
Ethernet cables to computers, routers, or switches.
Features:
• The plug at the end of an Ethernet cable.
• Used in LAN networks.
Repeater
Definition:
A repeater is an electronic device used to amplify weak signals in a network to
extend the transmission distance.
Function:
Takes a weak signal and retransmits it with original strength.
Used In: Long-distance network connections, fiber optic links.
Hub
Definition:
A hub is a basic device that connects multiple computers in a network and transmits
data to all connected devices, regardless of destination.
Features:
• Broadcasts data to all devices.
• Inexpensive but less efficient.
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Switch
Definition:
A switch connects multiple devices in a network and forwards data only to the
intended device, not to all.
Features:
• Uses MAC address to identify devices.
• Faster and more secure than a hub.
Difference between HUB and SWITCH
Hub Switch
Connects multiple computers in a Connects multiple computers and sends
network and sends data to all devices. data only to the intended device.
No intelligence — cannot identify Intelligent — uses MAC addresses to
destination. identify devices.
Broadcasts data to all ports. Unicasts data to a specific port.
Causes more traffic. Reduces network traffic.
Less secure (data seen by all). More secure (data sent to correct
device).
Router
Definition:
A router is a device that connects multiple networks and directs data from one
network to another (like between your home network and the Internet).
Features:
• Can assign IP addresses to devices.
• Determines the best path for data.
Gateway
Definition:
A gateway acts as a translator between different types of networks (for example,
LAN to Internet).
It connects networks that use different protocols.
Features:
• Can perform data conversion.
Wi-Fi Card (Wireless Network Card)
Definition:
A Wi-Fi card allows a computer or laptop to connect to a wireless network (WLAN)
without using cables.
Features:
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•Communicates with Wi-Fi routers using radio waves.
• Often built-in in laptops or external via USB.
Example: Wireless internet on laptops or mobile devices.
• Data Transmission Methods: Packet Switching vs Circuit Switching
Circuit Switching
• In Circuit Switching, a dedicated communication path (or circuit) is established
between two devices before they start communicating.
• The path remains reserved for the entire duration of the communication.
Example
Like a telephone call
• When you call someone, a dedicated line is set up between your phone and
theirs.
• No one else can use that line until you hang up.
How It Works
1. A connection is established (setup phase).
2. Data is transmitted through the dedicated path.
3. The connection is terminated (closed) after communication.
Advantages
➢ Reliable — no delay once the connection is established.
➢ Order of data is maintained.
Disadvantages
➢ Line stays reserved even when no data is sent.
➢ Must establish the circuit first.
Used In
• Traditional telephone networks
• Older communication systems
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Packet Switching
• In Packet Switching, data is divided into small packets before being sent.
• Each packet travels independently through the network and may take different
routes to reach the destination.
• At the destination, packets are reassembled into the original message.
How It Works
1. Data is broken into packets.
2. Each packet is labeled with destination info.
3. Packets travel through different routes in the network.
4. Receiver reassembles them in the correct order.
Advantages
➢ Efficient use of network.
➢ No need for a dedicated line.
➢ If one route fails, packets can be rerouted.
Disadvantages
➢ Packets may arrive out of order or get delayed.
➢ More complex — needs reassembly and error checking.
Used In
• The Internet
• Email, file transfers, VoIP, streaming, etc.
• Network Protocols
1. HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol)
• Used to transfer web pages on the Internet.
• Works on client-server model (browser ↔ web server). Client is the end user
and server has the website.
• Example: [Link]
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2. HTTPS (HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure)
• It is the secure version of HTTP, the protocol used to transfer data between
your web browser and the website you are visiting.
• Ensures data privacy and protection during transmission.
• HTTPS uses encryption to protect the data exchanged between your browser
and the website.
• Encrypt the data so no one can read it during transmission.
• Verify that the website you’re communicating with is genuine (authentication).
• Ensure data is not altered during transfer (integrity).
• Example: [Link]
3. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
• Used for transferring files between computers on a network or the internet.
• Uploading and downloading of files.
• Requires authentication (username & password).
• Can upload, download, rename, or delete files on the server.
• Example
Suppose you create a website on your computer.
You can use FTP to upload your website files to the web server so people can
see it online.
4. PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol)
• Used to establish a direct connection between two computers (e.g., dial-up
internet).
• When you used an old dial-up modem to connect to the Internet, PPP was the
protocol that allowed your computer to communicate with your Internet
Service Provider (ISP).
• PPP helps send data safely and reliably from one system to another over a
point-to-point link.
5. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
• Used to send emails from a client to a mail server or between mail servers.
• Example: When you send mail from Gmail → SMTP sends it to the recipient’s
mail server using an email address.
6. POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3)
• Used to retrieve emails from a mail server to a local client (downloads mail).
• Allows to download the received messages on local machine using tool like
Outlook so that user can read them even when they are not connected to
internet.
• Advantage – once messages are downloaded, the user can disconnect from
internet and read the messages at leisure.
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7. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol)
• It is the main communication protocol used to connect computers on the
Internet.
• TCP ensures reliable delivery; IP handles addressing and routing.
• How it works:
➢ Data is broken into small packets before being sent.
➢ Each packet travels independently through the network.
➢ IP (Internet Protocol) handles addressing and routing — it decides
where each packet should go.
➢ TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) ensures that all packets are
delivered correctly and reassembled in the right order at the destination.
8. TELNET (Telecommunication Network)
• It is a network protocol that allows a user to log in to another computer
remotely and use it as if they were sitting in front of it.
• It was commonly used by network administrators to manage servers and
devices.
• How it works:
➢ You open a TELNET client program on your computer.
➢ You connect to a remote server using its IP address or domain name.
➢ You log in with a username and password.
➢ You can then execute commands on that remote system
9. VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol)
• Transmits voice and multimedia over the Internet instead of telephone
networks.
• Examples: Skype, Zoom, WhatsApp calls.
• Converts analog voice signals into digital data packets.
• Introduction to Web Services
1. WWW (World Wide Web)
• A system of interlinked hypertext documents accessed via the Internet.
• Uses HTTP/HTTPS for communication.
• You use a web browser (like Chrome, Firefox, or Edge) to view these pages.
2. HTML (HyperText Markup Language)
• Standard language used to create web pages.
• Defines the structure of web content using tags like <html>, <head>, <body>,
<p>, etc.
3. XML (Extensible Markup Language)
• Used to store and transport data in a structured, readable format.
• Unlike HTML, XML defines data, not presentation.
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• Example:
<student>
<name>Manan</name>
<grade>A+</grade>
</student>
This file clearly shows the student’s data — easy for both humans and
machines to understand.
• It helps different systems (computers, apps, or websites) exchange information
easily, even if they use different software or hardware.
Difference between XML and HTML
Feature XML HTML
Purpose To store and transport data To display data
Tags User-defined Predefined
Focus What data is How data looks
Case sensitivity Case-sensitive Not case-sensitive
Example use Data exchange Web page design
4. Domain Names
• The human-readable address of a website.
Example: [Link]
• It helps people find websites easily on the Internet without remembering long
numbers (IP addresses).
• Translated to an IP address using the DNS (Domain Name System).
• [Link] is a public DNS server provided by Google.
It’s used to translate domain names (like [Link]) into IP addresses that
computers understand.
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5. URL (Uniform Resource Locator)
• The complete web address that specifies the protocol, domain, and path.
• Example:
[Link]
Components:
o https:// → Protocol
o [Link] → Domain name
o /[Link] → File path
6. Website
• A collection of web pages linked together under one domain name.
• Example: [Link]
7. Web Browser
• Software that allows users to access and view websites.
• Examples: Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Microsoft Edge.
• It interprets HTML, CSS, and JavaScript.
8. Web Server
• A computer/software that stores and delivers web pages to clients upon request.
• Examples: Tomcat, Apache
• Responds to HTTP/HTTPS requests.
9. Web Hosting
• A service that provides storage space and access for websites on the Internet.
• Examples: GoDaddy, AWS (Amazon Web Services) etc
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