THE DREADED MATH QUIZ

Please complete the problems below is best you can. Please show your work.

1) Frank works in an apple orchard, picking and packing apples. One day he
packed 24 crates of apples, with 36 apples in each crate. How many apples did he
pick altogether?

2) Mary is building a deck around a rectangular pool, which is 8 feet wide by 15

feet long. If the deck will be 3 feet wide all around the pool, what will be the area
of the deck?

3) Divide these fractions. Please write each quotient in lowest terms:

8 + 2 1 + _§_ 7+ 1
9 7 4 6 3 9

4) Please factor the following polynomials:

X 2 -16 3x2 +22x +24
 The Mathematics Survey:
A Tool for Assessing
Attitudes and Dispositions
T
he need for positive attitudes and disposi­ vide valuable information, especially at the begin­
tions permeates the teaching and learning of ning of the school year. The results can be used to
mathematics. What students believe about guide the development of a classroom environment
mathematics influences what they are willing to conducive to growth in positive attitudes and in
say publicly, what questions they are likely to addressing misconceptions and counterproductive
pose, what risks they are willing to take, and what beliefs (Picker and Berry 2001 ; Rock and Shaw
connections they make to their lives outside the 2000). This article describes the development and
classroom (Borasi 1990; Whitin and Whitin 2000). implementation of a mathematics attitude survey
Unless students have a realistic sense of math­ designed to meet this need. Examples of fourth­
ematical applications in real-life contexts, they grade children's responses to the survey over a
are unlikely to see themselves pursuing courses in four-year period, the ways in which the results
advanced mathematics or choosing mathematics­ guided teaching and learning, and an analysis of
related careers (Picker and Berry 2001). post-assessments illustrate the process.
Principles and Standards for School Mathemat­
ics (NCTM 2000) delineates a range of attitudes
and beliefs about mathematics that contribute to The Mathematics Survey as
productive problem solving and communication. a Tool for Assessment
For example, perseverance, curiosity, confidence, The mathematics survey (fig. 1) is composed of
and flexible thinking are related to learners' invest­ six sentence-completion prompts designed to
ment in challenging problem solving and investiga­ elicit children's perceptions of what constitutes
tions involving complex patterns and relationships. mathematical knowledge, ways of thinking, and
Confidence, open-mindedness, a willingness to usefulness in everyday life. It was adapted from
share one's own successes and failures, and the the Burke Reading Survey (Goodman, Watson, and
ability to shift perspectives are hallmarks of mean­ Burke 1987) and correlates with attitudes identified
ingful communication. Resourcefulness and reflec­ by NCTM (2000). Prompts 1, 2, 3, and 5-''To be
tive analysis are important dimensions in learners' good tn math, you need to ... because ..."; "Math is
ability to use various forms of representation to hard when ..."; "Math is easy when ..."; ''The best
generate, clarify, and express thinking. thing about• math is ..."-are included to encour­
Given the ways in which mathematical attitudes, age responses that reflect the degree of students'
skills, knowledge, and strategies are intertwined, confidence, curiosity, flexible thinking, and their
assessing students' attitudes and beliefs can pro- views of student-teacher and student-student rela­
tionships. The fourth prompt-"How can math
help you?"-addresses students' perceptions about
the usefulness of mathematics and real-life applica­
tions. The final prompt-"If you have trouble solv­
ing a problem in math, what do you do?"-is inten­
tionally somewhat ambiguous so that the students
can reveal their definitions of, attitudes toward, and
strategies for problem solving.

426 Teaching Children Mathematics / April 2007

 The following questions guided the analysis of
Figure 1
student responses:
Mathematics survey
• What do these responses reveal about students'
1. To be good in math, you need to ... because ...
perceptions regarding the teacher-student rela­ 2. Math is hard when .. .
tionship? Regarding student-student relation­ 3. Math is easy when .. .
ships? Do references to the teacher imply that 4. How can math help you?
the teacher is the sole source of knowledge? Is 5. The best thing about math is ...
there evidence of student autonomy? Of collab­ 6. If you have trouble solving a problem in math, what do you do?
orative thinking? Are other students mentioned? Tell anything else you want about math.
If so, in what ways? On the back of your paper, draw a picture that shows what math means to
• What do these responses reveal about students' you.
perceptions regarding mathematical content and
applications? Do students cite examples of func­ suggest a belief that mathematics is a silent and
tional applications of mathematical ideas? Do solitary endeavor. The responses suggest that these
they view mathematics as valuable and relevant children view mathematics class as a period of
in both the present and the future? teacher-student interchanges in which the teacher
• What do these responses reveal about students' poses questions or problems and evaluates answers.
perceptions regarding processes of engaging The children do not usually mention their peers
in mathematical investigations (e.g., planning, except in a negative sense, such as "talking to other
reasoning, using strategies in a flexible manner, people" rather than "paying attention." To be a suc­
making connections, representing ideas in mul­ cessful mathematics student, one must listen to the
tiple ways, collaborating, discovering patterns teacher, follow directions, and study. Responses
and relationships)? Do the students view chal­ such as this to prompt 1-"study real hard because
lenge as rewarding? you need to know the problems in a flash"-also
imply that speed is a universal measure of math­
Examples of typical responses collected from the ematical success. References to extended investiga­
four fall surveys illustrate the assessment process tions are absent. Similarly, each year about half the
(see fig. 2). In these examples, words and phrases responses to prompt 6-"If you have trouble solv­
about listening, paying attention, and studying ing a problem in math, what do you do?"-suggest

Teaching Children Mathematics/ April 2007 427

 Identifying these trends served to guide plans for
Figure 2
structuring the environment, designing instruc­
Typical student responses from the fall mathematics surveys tional activities, and delineating the teacher's role.
Figure 3 shows a summary of the trends from the
1. To be good in math, you need to ... because ...
ustudy and do all your papers" fall surveys; productive attitudes, dispositions,
uconcentrate and don't play around because if you don't concentrate you and beliefs about mathematics (NCTM 2000); and
will do bad" plans for teaching and learning.
ustudy and listen because you might not know what to do"
"study real hard because you need to know·the problems in a flash"
2. [Link] is hard when ... Using the Results of the
"it's 2-digit division"
"you don't listen, not pay attention, or talking to other people" Survey
"you don't concentrate" Changing the view of mathematics as a, solitary
"you don't follow directions" endeavor entailed structuring group problem-solv­
"you can't understand what the teacher says" ing tasks, promoting collaborative conversations,
3. Math is easy when ...
"you work good by listening to the teacher" and encouraging the children to view their peers
"when you h_ave studied really hard" as resources. In the case of these fourth graders,
"when it's times or plus" the teacher decided that beginning the year with
4. How can math help you? a noncomputational activity, such as pentominoes
"when you get good g·rades and not get on restriction" or classification with attribute blocks, could help
· "when you go to the store"
"when you get a job" expand the children's limited views of mathematics
"when you get an A" _ . as computation. Further, a puzzle or game format
"If you saw two numbers and if you wanted to do something with the could highlight for the children that all mathemati­
numbers." · cal activity is not done "in a flash" or by following
a prescribed procedure. As pairs or small groups
6. If you have trouble solving a problem in math, what do you do7
"Raise your hand and ask the teacher." of children worked together to solve puzzles, their
"Ask for help." conversations laid an important foundation for writ­
"I skip it and do the next one." ing and visual representation (Huinker and Laugh­
lin 1996; Whitin and Whitin 2003; Wickett 1997).
that students depend on the teacher for direction At the completion of the task, the teacher conducted
(e.g., "raise your hand," "ask the teacher"). Other a reflective conversation that specifically addressed
responses such as the one suggesting skipping the the targeted dispositions. She posed questions such
problem imply time management. Only rarely do as these: "What was going through your mind
students describe devising an alternative method, when you first started the puzzle?" "How did your
collaborating, or using various forms of representa­ group's ideas help you?" "What did you do if your
tion as problem-solving strategies. first idea didn't work?" Many children were sur­
In response to prompt 4-"How can math help prised to find that their peers encountered frustra­
you?" -the children's statements indicate that tion or that the teacher did not regard their building
the rewards of engaging in mathematical activity off a classmate's suggestion as "cheating."
are extrinsic-for example, getting good grades Following the conversation, the teacher asked
and maintaining good relationships with parents. the children to record their discoveries about their
Almost exclusively, students do not mention the learning processes in writing and to name spe­
intrigue or challenge of investigations as rewarding cific children whose thinking helped them-for
or "fun." Few students mention mathematics as use­ example, "Catherine h~lped me when she said,
ful in the present; most give vague references to col­ 'Switch them around."' Public acknowledgment of
lege or employment in the distant future. Although collaborative efforts and written reflections about
some children cite using money as a helpful part of problem-solving processes continued throughout
mathematics, others mention computational activ­ the year (Whitin and Whitin 2000). Figure 4 shows
ity that is devoid of any context, such as the student one student's representation of the value of math­
who suggested seeing "two numbers" and "wanting ematical conversations. The first box shows a red
to do something" with them. and a blue circle, representing two children's ideas.
The patterns that emerged from the survey anal­ During the conversation, the two ideas begin to
ysis illuminate a range of attitudes and beliefs that blend (second box) until finally they merge into one
could interfere with students' mathematical growth. purple circle in which "the class works together and

428 Teaching Children Mathematics / April 2007

the ideas get mixed." The student's summary-"! sions she built on children's spontaneous questions,
think math is easier when our class puts our ideas such as, "If 4 x 3 = 3 x 4, why doesn't 34 x 3 = 33
together"--demonstrates a marked change in atti­ x 4 ?" This question inspired an investigation of the
tude from such presurvey comments as "Math is commutative property in multiplication, as well as
easy when it's times or plus." the problem-posing extension, "Are there similar
To build the students' confidence and self­ multiplication problems that do yield the same
reliance, the teacher needed to shift attention away product? What are the attributes of the problems
from herself as dispenser of knowledge. To achieve that do 'work'?" In pursuing these extensions, one
this goal, she carefully examined the implicit mes­ child found that 22 x 3 equaled 33 x 2. Follow­
sages conveyed through her interactions with the ing the pattern of using a two-digit number with
students. She made conscious efforts to respond to the same number of tens and ones, she tried 33 x
the children's questions and comments in ways that 6 and 66 x 3. When she discovered that the strat­
invited revisiting or extending a problem (Schwartz egy worked, she wrote: "When I wrote down the
1996). If the students asked, "Is that right?" the problems I didn't know if I would get the same
teacher, to encourage them to revisit their thinking answer or not I used these numbers because 3 x 6 =
process and either confirm or revise their solution, 18 and 6 x 3 = 18." Her statement conveys her
would respond, "How can you be sure?" or "Explain willingness to take risks, her resourceful thinking,
your thinking." When the children shared a conjec­ and her sense of personal accomplishment. These
ture-for example, "When you add two odd num­
bers, you get an even number"-the teacher invited Figure 3
further investigation by asking, "Does that always
Using the anafysi~ of ~urvey results to gutdeinstructiorial pl~n;
work?" If a child raised a question during a class
discussion, the teacher developed the habit of turn­
-,: :,

Tre~ds lmpliedb)' Positive Attitudes, '[Link] Plans·

ing the question over to the group. In addition, she ... fqr C6a¥tge .
theSurv~~ Di~positions, B!!liefs
learned to carefully choose words that conveyed
resourcefulness and curiosity-for example, invent 1. Mathematics is 1. Collaboration ' Structure group tasks;
1.
a solitary, silent and commuriica~ make children's strate-
or discover rather [Link] or use. endeavor. tion contribute gies public; encourage
Regularly using student-authored problems for to mathematical children to note others'
homework and a morning "problem of the day" understanding. contributions to their
were additional ways to increase the children's learning
confidence. Over time, the teacher strove to feature 2. The teacher is in 2. Mathematics in- 2. Encourage interaction,
as the "problem of the day" an original problem charge of impart- volves learners in revisiting, extending
written by every child in the class. As part of the ing knowledge. constructing mean- (Schwartz 1996); involve
The rewards for .ing for themselves . . students through
ritual, the student-author led the discussion of the
developing math- The rewards for student-authored
problem's solution (Whitin and Whitin 2000). On ematical expertise developing exper- problems, mathematics
other occasions, the children expanded on entries are external and are tise are intrinsic. journals, mathematics
in their mathematics journals and "published" their often postponed "publications"
findings for parents and other classes. In these ways until the future.
the children had opportunities throughout the year 3. Problems are 3. Problems are 3. Encourage strategy
to view one another as resources, develop their solved in a swift, solved through sharing, problem-posing
confidence, and feel recognized and rewarded for prescribed manner. flexible use of investigations, extended
multiple strategies. explorations, mathemat-
their learning.
The time required ics journals (Whitin and
Instituting a mathematical forum where students to solve problems Whitin 2000)
shared their problem-solving strategies served to depends on the
develop the children's flexible thinking. When one complexity of the
child demonstrated his use of the distributive prop­ problem.
erty, for example, the teacher suggested that the 4. Mathematics is 4. Mathematics has 4. Emphasize content-
other students work in groups to apply his strategy unrelated to other real-life applica- related problems (e.g.,
to a variety of problems and later share their discov­ subjects. tion across the science), problems
curriculum and in inspired by children's
eries. The teacher also introduced the students to
contexts outside literature, student-
problem posing (Brown and Walter 1990). Some­ school. authored problems
times she planned problem-posing explorations in
advance (Whitin forthcoming), and on other occa-

Teaching Children Mathematics/ April 2007 429

 changed to "To think mathematically means
Figure 4
so that the children would state more directly their
A student's visual depiction of the value of sharing ideas in definitions of mathematical activity. Two new
mathematical problem solving prompts were added: "When you write and draw
1,,/h~,-, I do m h , +hi about math ..." and" 'What if' in math ....." The first
beHe-- I 'a+' -. 0 ,.., .. t,,,, .. .r !.<SC eeoples- ,deas +c ,.,..,aJ.;e ~ would ensure that the children address multiple
.d . th,ni,, ll;aih .
' eos -\oge+her. •~ eas,er w~ our class pu.'ts our forms of representation and communication, while
the second referred to problem-posing experiences
(Brown and Walter 1990). Both questions were
included as a means to evaluate the effectiveness of
the instructional modifications made to address the
needs identified on the fall surveys. The examples
in figure 6 illustrate trends in the end-of-the-year

•
assessments .
These examples of responses show a wider
variety than those from the fall surveys. This range
suggests that over the course of the year, the chil­
dren developed more individualized mathematical
identities as well as the confidence to express them­
selves. One of the sharpest contrasts with the initial
surveys is that the later surveys contain almost no
and other problem-posing explorations also helped references to the teacher. For a student facing a
dispel the notion that all mathematical proficiency difficult problem, asking "someone to help me"
is universally equated with the speed of generating implies peers as well as adults. This student also
a solution. shows responsibility by adding, "I'll do the rest."
Finally, problem-solving op~ortunities arose in In this case, "help" does not mean that "someone
contexts outside mathematics class. Students gath­ else will do the work for me." The student who
ered, represented, and analyzed data to make deci­ mentioned the teacher directly included other alter­
sions about the ideal seed mixture to place in the natives as well. Responses such as "use your own
class bird feeders (Whitin and Whitin 1999). While or someone else's strategy" and '.'Math is easy when
studying geology in science, the children used- nets there are groups or partners" also show an apprecia­
to build models of crystals, a process that afforded tion for collaborative thinking. In fact, as a whole,
them the opportunity to apply geometric principles the children used the pronoun "we" in phrasing
and terminology to the natural world (see fig. 5). their answers to various prompts. This subtle shift
In addition, the teacher regularly read aloud math­ in language from the fall surveys further implies a
ematics-related children's literature to demonstrate collaborative spirit.
mathematical connections within a wide variety In addition to showing less dependence on the
of contexts, initiate investigations, and inspire the teacher, the students showed more resourceful­
children's writing. The changes in children's views ness in their attitudes about problem solving. The
about the usefulness of mathematics, as well as response "make it into an easy math problem" sug­
other attitudes and dispositions, were later reflected gests the Sl!"ategy of simplifying the problem, while
in their end-of-the-year assessment. "trying another problem to help solve that problem"
and "relate other math to it" show students' aware­
ness of connections among mathematical ideas.
The Survey as Post­ The child who noted "I write down what I think"
Assessment: Reflection is aware that writing is a tool for reflection and
and Evaluation discovery.
At the end of each year, the children completed Sample responses to two of the revised and
the survey as a post-assessment. Usually the same new questions are shown in figure 7. The collec­
survey format was used for both the pre-assessment tion of statements implies active construction of
and the post-assessment, but in the final year the mathematical meaning. Thinking mathematically
post-assessment survey was slightly modified. incorporates strategic thinking ("math strategies"),
Question 4-"How can math help you?"-was the ability to assume multiple perspectives or pose

430 Teaching Children Mathematics/ April 2007

 Figure 5
While studying geology in science, the children used nets to build models of crystals, a process that afforded them the
opportunity to apply geometric principles and terminology to the natural worl.d.

5a. Building a model of a calcite crystal 5b. Comparing a calcite crystal with its model

problems ("say a Jot of things about one question"), years of this study.
ownership ("make up creative problems"), and Children's attitudes and dispositions play a
responsibility for one's own learning ("be energetic vital role in mathematics classrooms. The survey
and serious about your attitude and thinking"). described here suggests one way to gain a window
Some responses to the new question "'What if' into children's existing beliefs. Given that informa­
in math ..." revealed an appreciation for engaging in tion, teachers can better make instructional plans to
mathematical investigations-for example, "every­ help their students become more confident, enthu­
thing would be more of a challenge and a mystery, siastic, and autonomous learners.
math would be even more fun." Interestingly, the
child who initially responded to the prompt "How
can math help you?" with the abstract example of
References
Borasi, Raffaella. "The Invisible Hand Operating in
"wanting to do something with 2 numbers" com­
Mathematics Instruction: Students' Conceptions and
mented in the spring that "you can use math with Expectations." In Teaching and Learning Mathemat­
almost everything." In contrast to earlier comments ics in the 1990s, 1990 Yearbook of the National Coun­
about "getting an A" and benefiting from mathe­ cil of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM), edited by
matics "in college," these comments convey a sense Thomas J. Cooney, pp. 174-82. Reston, VA: NCTM,
1990.
of mathematical activity as intrinsically reward­
Brown, Stephen, and Marion Walter. The Art of Problem
ing. Thus, analysis of the post-assessment surveys Posing. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1990.
provided documentation of individual children's Goodman, Yetta, Dorothy J. Watson, and Carolyn L.
growth as well as trends in the classroom com­ Burke. Reading Miscue Inventory: Alternative Proce­
munity. This feedback was valuable in the ongoing dures. New York: Richard C. Owen, I 987.
Huinker, DeAnn, and Connie Laughlin. "Talk Your Way
process of refining teaching throughout the four

Teaching Children Mathematics/ April 2007 431

 Figure 6
Typical student responses from post-assessment mathematics surveys

1. To be good in math, you need to ... because ...

"try hard and correct yourself because you would have a hard time if yq_u don't"
"have your own or someone else's strategy" ,,,,
"be able to solve puzzles and be able to make puzzles because it means you know what math is"
"study on what you do good because then you will do a lot better"
2. Math is hard when ...
"you don't have a strategy and you can't find a strategy"
3. Math is easy when ...
•you really understand it"
"you have had experience"
"there are groups or partners"

6. If you have trouble solving a problem, what do you do 7

"If it is times I do plus. If itis division I do times."
"I try my hardest and write down what I think."
•1 relate other math to ita'ndwork from there."
"I ask someone to help me a little and I'll do the rest."
•Think slow so [Link] not be confused and you might need help from your teacher or use paper."
"You can look at a hardprciblem and make it into an easy math problem."

Thinking about · Mathematicians and Their Work."

Figure 7 Teaching Children Mathematics 6 (May 2000): 550-
55. .
Typical stud~r1t ,;;~~nses to sample
Schwartz, Sydney L. "Hidden Messages in Teacher Talk:
revised and new survey questions
Praise and Empowerment." Teaching Children Math­
ematics 44 (March 1996): 396-401.
When you write and draw ab~ math ... Whitin, David J., and Phyllis Whitin. "Building a Com­
•if you draw a picture, then yolNlilill find the munity of Mathematicians." Teaching Children Math­
answer" ematics 9 (April 2003): 464-69.
"you can understand it better" Whitin, Phyllis. "Meeting the Challenges of Negotiated
"it puts new thoughts in your head" Mathematical Inquiry." Teaching and Leaming: The
"you ar~ showing how you think in math" Journal of Natural Inquiry and Reflective Practice
"I have a feeling i will make lots of (2006-7) (forthcoming). [Link]/dept/
connections" ehd/journal/.
To think mathematically means ... · Whitin, Phyllis, and David J. Whitin. "Mathematics Is
•to think hard about your math and make up for the Birds: Reasoning for a Reason." In Develop­
creative problems" ing Mathematical Reasoning, K-12, 1999 Yearbook
"you use math strategies to solve a problem" of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
"you can say a lot of things about one (NCTM), edited by Lee Stiff, pp. 107-14. Reston,
question" VA: NCTM, 1999.
"to be energetic and serious about your at­ - - - . Math ls Language Too: Talking and Writing in
titude and thinking" the Mathematics Classroom. Urbana, IL: National
Council of Teachers of English and Reston, VA: Na­
tional Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2000.
into Writing." In Communication in Mathematics Wickett, Maryann. "Uncovering Bias in the Classroom­
K-12 and Beyond, 1996 Yearbook of the National A Personal Journey." In Multicultural and Gender
Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM), edited Equity in the Mathematics Classroom: The Gift of
by Portia C. Elliott, pp. 81-88. Reston, VA: NCTM, Diversity, 1997 Yearbook of the National Council of
1996. Teachers of Matliematics (NCTM), edited by Janet
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). Trentacosta and Margaret J. Kenney, pp. 102-6. Res­
Principles and Standards for School Mathematics. ton, VA: NCTM, 1997. A
Reston, VA: NCTM, 2000.
Picker, Susan W., and John S. Berry. "Your Students'
Images of Mathematicians and Mathematics." Math­
ematics Teaching in the Middle School 7 (December
2001): 202-8.
Rock, David, and Jean Shaw. "Exploring Children's

432 Teaching Children Mathematics / April 2007

t-~l:tf:tj;li\1:\~;~;;,
adi ··- ·
'Ti · · Surve · A Tl I
. . , ..
Assessing. Att1tu,de,
at,t:s for and
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-•··The foll9"" .. Jiqestiq,:is;~fat@·to ''Th1fMathe~atics Survey: A'Tool fojA~~!i)gAttitudefantfl)isposi-

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• What is tlle r~lationship between .attitudes and dispositions aµcrmatlt~Jll~ti~ proficlency2 · .·.·
:: . : :);:::t\·,l~'·:·· . ··· : ;. ·. •.·. -,
1
• ·: • • •. • ·•··:> :·• : ·•,~FJ,"t~\)/,i't, .. •.· '•· ·· ,, ·.•>:

•. How(}() Y~#s~~~~~'.c~mmen~ and actions in. the cJassroom suggest :attitudes arid dispositio~? ~iir
[Link] ycnif 1Jb~ervati,~ns and analysis with your colleagu~ )t">:f 1 '':S}ff '.· · •·•· .. . ·

• .-·wli~~- -.'" ift~f~J~ do youuse to foster students' d~velopment of'~~iitlJeJJajdes~d dispositions?

-~·:,0;.-<::~;)~:; }:~.~-:~~.)~. .-::r~rr:-,:~-:<t. _, _ :~-, . · -- ·_:·.: ..,."i)<~-·~,•;;;::it·· -~ ·;<\{~{1;:If~J.::.,·-·~r>~·~;-;·.•·.c"-•~'
-> ·.':... ~,>·
2
• Children's view$ <»,f geometry or data analysis are'~ometj~es vecy diffe~nt from_ their views of number
or ~ge)?ra.~at ·gu~stiQps wo~dyou use to assess stuclents;-attitijci~~.iiisp6sitions to~ard next 1he
inathematfcstiJ)ityc,Ji ~ scheduled to .teach?. How in\ghtthe d~ij cb~RJll~:W 1011 ·go_ a~qt teacbipg_
the utdtf:' "''''"''.c>''•.:t:}; -.'.- . .. •· ·•· .. ·. ·. . : ....·. . , . · .,;_i,;",:'i,':"' ('· , ., ,. " . ..... , '<·

· • ·Teachers, P?rticularly novice. teachers, tend· to rely on lesson plannipg f'orrn;ats to consider the i111:por•
. tant eleme11ts of th~ lesson. H~w might one modify the lesson piari fon,n~t~remind teachers that atten-
tion to issu& -~f attifudes, confidence, and collaboration are important? ;': ··. .
' .;y~;"·F,. ;;~:.~:i;t~~.r ~ .. ·

You are invited to tell us h6\iv you us~ ''Reflect and Discuss" as part of y~professional development. The
Editorial Panel appreciates the interest and values the views of those who take the time to send us their com­
ments. Letters may be submitted toTeaching Children Mathematics at tcm@[Link]. Please include "Readers'
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Teaching Children Mathematics / April 2007 433

ASCD Page 1 of 8

Educational Leadership
February 2004 I Volume 61 I Number 5
Improving Achievement in Math and Science Pages 12-17

Improving Mathematics
Teaching
James W. Stigler and James Hiebert

The TIMSS video studies provide a picture of what

happens in mathematics classrooms in the United States
and in other countries.
February 2004
How does mathematics instruction differ from country to country? What do these international
comparisons tell us about how to improve mathematics achievement?
We have been working for 10 years on a research program aimed at answering these questions.
The TIMSS video studies document typical teaching practices in various countries. These studies
employ the video survey, a novel methodology that combines two research traditions: qualitative
classroom research and large-scale survey research. The video studies capture close-up pictures
of the classroom processes used by national samples of 8th grade mathematics teachers in
different countries. These teachers are not necessarily experienced or effective. They are ordinary
teachers, teaching lessons that they routinely teach.
Why would we want to study a random sample of ordinary lessons? First, these lessons together
represent what average teaching looks like in different countries. If we want to improve student
learning, we must find a way to improve teaching in the average classroom. Even slight
improvements in the average can positively affect millions of students. This concept represents a
new way to formulate the question of how to improve teaching.
Second, studying a national sample of classroom lessons can help us discover whether policy
initiatives have influenced classroom practice. All reform efforts to improve teaching and learning
must pass through a final common pathway: the classroom. Most reforms get stopped short at
the classroom door; all available evidence suggests that classroom practice has changed little in
the past 100 years.
Finally, studying lessons from different cultures gives researchers and teachers the opportunity to
discover alternative ideas about how we can teach mathematics. Watching lessons from other
countries prompts questions about the assumptions that guide common practices in our own
country. It is often a startling experience to journey back and forth, looking first at foreign videos
and then back at our own.

The First TIMSS Video Study

The TIMSS 1995 video study (Stigler & Hiebert, 1999) examined national samples of 8th grade
mathematics lessons from three countries: Germany, Japan, and the United States. Several
findings from the first study provide important background information.

Lack of a Shared Language to Describe Teaching

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The lack of a shared language for describing teaching makes it very difficult to generate and
disseminate professional knowledge. Even before beginning the video studies, we suspected that
this problem existed; indeed, that suspicion was one of the reasons we chose to document
teaching through videotapes instead of questionnaires. As the tapes started to arrive and we
discussed what we saw on them, it became obvious that different people saw different things and
described what they saw in different ways.
For example, we tried in the first study to mark where on the video each mathematics problem
started and where it ended, a process that we thought might simplify our task by enabling us to
analyze each problem separately. We could not agree on what a problem was {although we did
manage to do so in the later study). Some observers would only count an activity as a problem if
it involved students in sustained thinking over a long period of time. Others might count as a
problem a brief exercise that students could solve quickly by recalling a solution that they had
previously been taught. The word "problem" clearly means different things to different people.
Other words and phrases, such as "develop concepts" or "teach for understanding," pose similar
challenges.

Slippage Between Policy and Classroom Practice

In part because we lack a shared language, attempts by policymakers to change what happens in
classrooms often achieve either no results or unintended results as reform efforts get filtered
through the weak communication channels we rely on to disseminate policy (Elmore, 2000). In
our first video study, we asked teachers whether they had read mathematics education reform
documents (for example, those published by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics)
and whether they implemented the documents' recommendations in their classrooms. Most
teachers said that they had read such documents and that they used the reform ideas in their
classrooms. However, the videos revealed great unevenness in how teachers interpreted the
reforms and showed little evidence that classroom practices actually reflected the goals of the
reforms.

The Cultural Nature of Teaching

We concluded from our first study that teaching is a cultural activity: learned implicitly, hard to
see from within the culture, and hard to change. We were struck by the homogeneity of teaching
methods observed within each country and by the striking differences in methods we observed
across Germany, Japan, and the United States. Even in the United States, a country with great
diversity in language, ethnicity, and economic conditions and an education system controlled by
local governing boards, the nationwide variation in 8th grade mathematics teaching was much
smaller than we had expected.

The 1999 TIMSS Video Study

The TIMSS 1999 video study expanded on the first study. In addition to the United States, we
included Australia, the Czech Republic, Hong Kong,1 Japan, the Netherlands, and Switzerland.
Each of these countries performed significantly higher than the United States did on the TIMSS
1995 mathematics achievement test for 8th grade.
The design of the 1999 video study was simple. We selected a random sample of 100 8th grade
mathematics classrooms from each country and videotaped them at some point during the school
year. We digitized, transcribed, and translated the tapes into English, after which an international
team of researchers analyzed them. Coding and analysis focused on the organization of lessons,
the mathematical content of lessons, and the ways in which the class worked on the content as
the lessons unfolded. Here are some of the most interesting findings.

Effective Teaching Takes Many Forms

In both the 1995 study and the 1999 study, teaching methods in Japan differed markedly from

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what we observed in all of the other countries. Japanese students, for example, spent an average
of 15 minutes working on each mathematics problem during the lesson, in part because students
often were asked to develop their own solution procedures for problems that they had not seen
before.
Because Japan was the only high-achieving country in the first video study (as indicated by
students' performance on the testing component of TIMSS), many researchers assumed that the
United States would need to copy Japanese methods to produce the levels of learning displayed
by Japanese students. The 19~9 study, however, makes it clear that despite the well-crafted
nature of the Japanese lessons, high achievement does not necessitate a Japanese style of
teaching. Other countries posted high scores with lessons that looked decidedly un-Japanese. For
example, in contrast to the relatively long time spent on each problem in Japan, every other
country in the study spent only up to five minutes on the average problem.
The videotapes from each country reveal a unique combination of features. Many teaching
methods that are hotly debated in the United States vary among the six higher-achieving
countries. For example, the Netherlands uses calculators and real-world problem scenarios quite
frequently. Japan does neither. Yet both countries have high levels of student achievement.
As another example, consider the debate over what kinds of problems students should work on
during the mathematics lesson: basic computational skills and procedures (using procedures
problems) or rich mathematical problems that focus on concepts and connections among
mathematical ideas (making connections problems). Figure 1 shows the percentage of each kind
of problem observed in six of the seven countries.

Figure 1. Types of Math Problems Presented

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ASCD Page 4 of 8

Japan is an outlier; 54 percent of the problems observed in the country's classrooms were making
connections problems. But note that Hong Kong, one of the highest-achieving countries in the
study, is at the opposite end of the continuum, with only 13 percent of problems coded as making
connections. Classrooms in all of the countries spend time both on problems that call for using
procedures and on those that call for working on concepts or making connections. The percentage
of problems presented in each category, however, does not appear to predict students'
performance on achievement tests.

Implementation Is Important
What, then, do the higher-achieving countries have in common? The answer does not lie in the
organization of classrooms, the kinds of technologies used, or even the types of problems
presented to students, but in the way in which teachers and students work on problems as the
lesson unfolds.
In the 1999 video study, we coded each problem twice: once to characterize the type of problem
and the second time to describe how the problem was implemented in the classroom. The teacher
could implement a making connections problem as a making connections problem, or the teacher
could transform it into another type of problem-most commonly, a using procedures problem.
For example, a teacher might transform a making connections problem designed to have students
figure out a method for calculating the area of various types of triangles into a using procedures
problem by giving students, at the outset, the formula (1/2 Base x Height) and telling students

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ASCD Page 5 of 8

to simply plug in the relevant values.

Figure 2 shows how the teachers in the study actually implemented the making connections
problems in the classroom: the percentage implemented as making connections and the
percentage implemented as using procedures. Unlike Figure 1, this analysis reveals a pattern in
which the highest-achieving countries resemble one another. Hong Kong and Japan, the two
countries that differed most in the percentage of making connections problems presented, show a
new similarity. In both countries, the majority of making connections problems are implemented
as making connections problems; a much smaller percentage are transformed into lower-level
using procedures problems. Here is the most striking finding of all: In the United States, teachers
implemented none of the making connections problems in the way in which they were intended.
Instead, the U.S. teachers turned most of the problems into procedural exercises or just supplied
students with the answers to the problems.

Figure 2. How Teachers Implemented Making Connections Math Problems

80 ....

59

The debates over mathematics education in the United States often pit two views against each
other. One group believes that U.S. classrooms do not focus enough on concepts and
understanding. The other group believes that U.S. classrooms overemphasize concepts at the
expense of basic skills, thus holding back student achievement (Loveless, 2003).
Our research indicates that the lower achievement of U.S. students cannot be explained by an
overemphasis on concepts and understanding. In fact, U.S. 8th graders spend most of their time
in mathematics classrooms practicing procedures. They rarely spend time engaged in the serious

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ASCD Page 6 of 8

study of mathematical concepts.

Improving Teaching
On the basis of this brief tour of the TIMSS videotape studies, three broad ideas can inform our
efforts to improve classroom teaching of mathematics in the United States.

Focus on the Details of Teaching, Not Teachers

Most current efforts to improve the quality of teaching focus on the teacher: how the profession
can recruit more qualified teachers and how we can remedy deficiencies in the knowledge of
current teachers. The focus on teachers has some merit, of course, but we believe that a focus on
the improvement of teaching-the methods that teachers use in the classroom-will yield greater
returns.
The TIMSS video studies reveal that teaching is cultural; most teachers within a culture use
similar methods. Indeed, within our study, teachers with strong mathematical knowledge showed
the same cultural patterns of teaching as teachers with weaker knowledge. We must find a way
to improve the standard operating procedures in U.S. mathematics classrooms-to make
incremental and continuous improvements in the quality of the instruction that most students
experience.
A focus on teaching must avoid the temptation to consider only the superficial aspects of
teaching: the organization, tools, curriculum content, and textbooks. The cultural activity of
teaching-the ways in which the teacher and students interact about the subject-can be more
powerful than the curriculum materials that teachers use. As Figure 2 shows, even when the
curriculum includes potentially rich problems, U.S. teachers use their traditional cultural teaching
routines to transform the problems and reduce their instructional potential. We must find a way
to change not just individual teachers, but the culture of teaching itself.

Become Aware of Cultural Routines

We can only change teaching by using methods known to change culture. Primary among these
methods is the analysis of practice, which brings cultural routines to awareness so that teachers
can consciously evaluate and improve them. A recent study by Hill and Ball (in press) of a large­
scale professional development program found that analysis of classroom practice was one of
three factors predicting growth of teachers' content knowledge.
Analysis of classroom practice plays several important roles. It gives teachers the opportunity to
analyze how teaching affects learning and to examine closely those cases in which learning does
not occur. It also gives teachers the skills they need to integrate new ideas into their own
practice. For example, by analyzing videotaped examples of other teachers implementing making
connections problems, teachers can identify the techniques used to implement such problems, as
well as the way in which teachers embed these techniques within the flow of a lesson.
Attempts to implement reform without analysis of practice are not likely to succeed.

Build a Knowledge Base for the Teaching Profession

Finally, educators must find a way to inject new knowledge into the system of improvement and
to share that knowledge with future generations of teachers (Hiebert, Gallimore, & Stigler, 2002).
As John Dewey pointed out long ago, one of the saddest things about U.S. education is that the
wisdom of our most successful teachers is lost to the profession when they retire.
What kind of knowledge do teachers need? They need theories, empirical research, and
alternative images of what implementation looks like. U.S. teachers who want to improve their
implementation of making connections problems, for example, will run up against a formidable
challenge: They might never have seen what it looks like to implement these problems

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ASCD Page7of8

effectively.
Teachers need access to examples, such as those collected in the TIMSS video studies. They need
to decide how they can integrate these examples into their own practice. They need to analyze
what happens when they try something new in their own teaching: Does it help students achieve
the learning goals? Finally, they need to record what they are learning and share that knowledge
with their colleagues.
Teachers have a central role to play in building a useful knowledge base for the profession.
Enabling teachers to learn about teaching practices in other countries and to reflect on the
implications of those practices holds great promise for improving the mathematics instruction
provided to all students.

References
Elmore, R. F. (2000). Building a new structure for school leadership. Washington, DC:
Albert Shanker Institute.
Hiebert, J., Gallimore, R., Garnier, H., Givvin, K. B., Hollingsworth, H., Jacobs, J., Chui,
A. M. Y., Wearne, D., Smith, M., Kersting, N., Manaster, A., Tseng, E., Etterbeek, W.,
Manaster, C., Gonzales, P., & Stigler, J. W. (2003). Teaching mathematics in seven
countries: Results from the TIMSS 1999 video study (NCES 2003-013). Washington,
DC: U.S. Department of Education.
Hiebert, J., Gallimore, R., & Stigler, J. W. (2002). A knowledge base for the teaching
profession. Educational Researcher, 31(5), 3-15.
Hill, H., & Ball, D. (in press). Learning mathematics for teaching: Results from
California's Mathematics Professional Development Institutes. Journal for Research in
Mathematics Education.
Loveless, T. (2003, February). Trends in math achievement: The importance of basic
skills. Presentation at the Secretary's Summit on Mathematics, Washington, DC.
Available: w.w.w. . ed_,g_oy/inits/rrn:1Jhscience/[Link]
Stigler, J. W., & Hiebert, J. (1999). The teaching gap. New York: Free Press.

Endnote

I This article refers to the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of China as a country, along
with the six other participants in the TIMSS 1999 video study, for the sake of consistency.

Author's note: The TIMSS 1999 video study was funded by the National Center for Education Statistics and the Office
of Educational Research and Improvement of the U.S. Department of Education, as well as the National Science
Foundation. It was conducted as a component of the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study
(TIMSS), under the auspices of the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA).
Each participating country provided the services of a research coordinator who guided the sampling and recruiting of
participating teachers. In addition, Australia and Switzerland contributed financial support for data collection and
processing of their respective samples of lessons.
For complete details of the TIMSS 1999 video study, see Hiebert et al. (2003). This report and a four-CD set with 28
complete mathematics lessons for public release, four from each country, are available at [Link].
Ronald Gallimore, codirector of the TIMSS 1999 video study, contributed to the ideas presented in this article. The
views expressed in this article are the authors' and do not necessarily reflect those of the International Association
for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement, the funding agencies, or any of the individuals who contributed to the
studies.

James W. Stigler Is a professor in the Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, and CEO of
Lessonlab, Inc.; stigJer@ps_ych,1,1cta,e_du_. James Hiebert is Rodney J. Barkley Professor in the School of Education,
University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware; bj~_!2_ert_@[Link].

[Link] 9dee008f9965 3 fb85 5... 10/3/2007

Intertwined !itrands ar Proficiency
Conceptual
Understanding
Strategic Productive
Competence Disposition

~
----
Adaptive ·
Procedural
Reasoning / ~ Fluency

Kilpatrick, J., Swafford, J., & Pindell, B. (2001).

Adding It Up: Helping Children Learn Mathematics.
Mathematics Learning Study Committee, Center for Education, Division of Behavioral
and Social Sciences and Education, National Research Council.
 QUESTIONS TO HELP STUDENTS DEVELOP
NUMBER SENSE AND CLARIFY THINKING

Tell how you did that?

What went on in your mind when _ _?
When have you done something like this before?
What would be your criteria for __?
What do others think about what._ _s.aid?
Do you agree? Disagree? Why or why not?
Does that make sense? Why or why not?
Does that always work? Why or why not?
Is that always true? Explain.
Do you see a pattern? Explain
Can you predict the next one? What about the last
one?
How did your prediction compare with your
results?
How can you rmd out?
How did you know _ _?
What might you do next?
What's another way you might approach this?
How might you be able to use this in other
situations?
· What do you think would happen if._ _ _?
What would it look like if?
How does this relate to _____? .
Have we ever solved a problem like this one
before?
What is alike and/or different about the solutions?
All Kinds of Minds Page 1 of 1

OARTICLES
The Pathways of Math's Ways
Dr. Mel Levine

Students face a hefty challenge as they struggle to climb through the pathways leading to an academic summit called
success in mathematics. Once they get there, the view is great. En route there are seemingly endless obstacles. The
pitfalls are especially troubling for students who have differences in learning that impede their ability to think with
numbers. Let's look at some of the challenges and the ways they might not be met. We can divide these into: knowing
what you're doing; remembering what to do and what you're doing, and becoming a good problem solver.

Knowing What You're Doing

Different students have different levels of understanding when they engage in mathematics. Some go through the
mathematical motions, while others understand in depth such concepts as place value, factoring, and circumference.
Students with weak concept formation are apt to over-rely on rote memory.
HELPFUL HINTS: They need help mapping out the important concepts in diagrams and getting a chance to explain them in
their own words before applying them. They also can use hands on experience applying the concept(s) outside of school in
practical ways.

Some kids have trouble understanding the technical language of math. Terms like exponent, hypothesis, and denominator
can confuse them. Also, they are likely to become confused with word problems and verbal explanations of the processes.
HELPFUL HINTS: These kids may benefit from keeping a personal dictionary of key terms. They need practice looking at
word problems and just identifying what process (such as subtraction) will be needed - without having to solve the
problem. To help with problems understanding verbal explanations, teachers should give these kids correctly solved
problems (demonstration models) to analyze and talk about.

Remembering What to Do
Lots of students go to pieces over the memory load imposed by mathematics, which is one of the most cumulative subjects
kids face; things keep on depending upon what you've learned in the past, and that adds up to a colossal drain on
memory. Some kids have trouble recalling facts. Some do okay with math facts, but have a hard time recalling how to do
things (like long division). Others have trouble remembering what they're doing while they're doing it (a so-called active
working memory deficit). Still others fail to recognize and respond well to the many different recurring patterns, patterns
such as hexagons, phrases (like "is the equivalent of"), and symbols (such as%, +, =).
HELPFUL HINTS: Try to figure out which memory part isn't working. Then design drill games to use for 10 minutes a night
just before the child goes to bed until the recall becomes fast and accurate (we call this automatization). Remember, long­
term memory works best right before someone goes to sleep.

Becoming a Good Problem Solver

Good work in math depends upon a systematic stepwise approach to problem solving. Some kids try to do everything at
once or they work too quickly or they don't consider alternative strategies, trying only the first approach that comes to
mind. Often they don't proofread or focus enough on the details. These shortcomings are especially common in kids with
attention deficits when they approach mathematics.
HELPFUL HINTS: Help kids like this pace themselves. Reward them for working slowly. Give them proof reading exercises,
opportunities to find errors in the work of others. Encourage them to talk their way through problems - step by step. Have
them describe how they will solve a problem before they begin their work. Also, have them explain the steps they used
once they have completed a problem.

Taming Math
Math can be intimidating for kids. They need practical arithmetic experiences that are fun. Examples would be computing
sports statistics, doing craft projects that entail calculations, and playing number games. Most important, however: don't
ever let a child get more than six months behind in mathematics. Catching up after that can be nearly impossible, and
affected students are apt to develop paralyzing mathematics phobias.

If we understand the nature of a child's strengths and weaknesses, we can help any child to achieve and feel good in
mathematics. It's a matter of finding the best itinerary and the best route through the subject's many possible pathways.

CD 2006 All Kinds of Minds. All rights reserved. This material may not be copied, reproduced, modified, republished, uploaded, posted,
transmitted, or distributed in any form or by any means without the express written consent of All Kinds of Minds. Visit
[Link]/[Link] for more information.

[Link] 6/19/2007
 CMC Research Notes:
Mathematics throughout History; Preparing
Students for a Changing World
by Jack Carter, CSU East Bay

Mathematics throughout History (2002) explored the influence of a mathematics

Furinghetti (2000) reviewed arguments sup­ education curriculum focused on understand­
porting the history of mathematics as a link ing through explorations of historical topics.
between teaching and providing students Participants in the study were elementary
with flexibility, open-mindedness, and moti­ education majors enrolled in university-level
vation toward mathematics. The review mathematics content or methods classes. Prior
emphasized the role of historical mathematics to enrolling in the classes, the future teachers
as a magnifying glass for analyzing critical exhibited an overwhelming focus on technical
points and difficult concepts through the aspects of mathematics, and after the classes,
words of past authors. Furinghetti found that the researchers expected these students to
this use of the history of mathematics avoided express more emancipatory ideas about math­
the presentation of a polished theory and ematics. Fleener et al. were surprised to learn
thereby allowed students to follow the paths that, despite several semesters of opportuni­
of those who struggled with mathematical ties to expand their ideas about mathematics
problems underlying the theory, and to gain a throughout history, students maintained a
deeper appreciation of the theory studied. predominantly technical interest perspective
Results also showed that mathematics of mathematics. The researchers concluded
throughout history not only implied that all that the students' past pervasive emphasis on
kinds of students should know mathematics technical skills and demonstration of compe­
for its cultural value, but also that teachers tencies in K-12 mathematics prevented the
should use the functionality of history in the research from having an impact on students'
learning/understanding of mathematics. approaches to teaching of mathematics.
Gulikers and Blom (2001) presented a Bosse and Hurd (2002) explored some of
framework for bringing structure to bridging the historical factors leading to the relatively
the gap between history and mathematics small number of women employed in math­
education, between historians and teachers, ematics throughout history. The researchers
and between past mathematicians and present generated a large database and biographical
day students. Arguments for applying math­ commonalities were combined to create a
ematics throughout history to teaching related generalized biography of the lives of historic
to (1) the desirability and necessity of teaching woman mathematicians. The generalized
and learning mathematics along the lines of its biography demonstrated four findings:
historical development and (2) the wish to 1. Every woman in the study was hindered
influence teachers' attitudes and enrich teach­
in a significant manner in her pursuit of
ers' methodological repertoires. Arguments mathematics.
for applying mathematics throughout history
to students related to (1) enhancing knowl­ 2. Nearly all mathematically successful
edge of how mathematical concepts have women were supported in their math­
developed, (2) helping students learn in non­ ematical pursuits by male mathematicians.
linear ways, and (3) setting programs that 3. Alliances with male university professors
balanced learning obstacles and smooth produced mentoring relationships that
progress. Gulikers and Blom concluded that were symbiotic to both parties and subser­
teaching mathematics in historical perspective vient on the part of the women.
developed resources that were in accordance
with students' natural development, but that a 4. The role assigned to women by male
gap existed between historical research in mentors entailed the communication of
mathematics and teachers' practical needs. mathematical ideas to others, and women
Fleener, Reeder, Young, and Reynolds Continued on page 26
March 2006 CMC ComMuniCator Page25
 worked in the realm of mathematics edu­ st~ctures_in changing material, symbolic, and
cation rather than mathematics research. social environments constituted a powerful
Bosse and Hurd also found evidence that mechanism for developing new ideas.
most of the historic women mathematicians Sfard and Lavie (2005) observed conversa­
were from affluent families where heads of tions between children and their parents
households were either aristocrats or occupa­ ab?ut q~anti_tative ~omparisons to probe
tionally wedded to universities. The research­ ~hild_ren_ s anthmehcal understanding and its
ers concluded that the women studied were ~mphcat10ns for preparing them for a chang­
consistently given responsibilities that held i~g world. By as~uming that thinking can be
one intrinsic commonality-the communica­ viewed as a special case of communicating
tion of mathematical ideas. a?d. that arithmet~c can be thought of as spe­
cialized form of discourse, Sfard and Lavie
Preparing Students found that children's discourse diverged from
Lesh, Zawojewski and Carmona (2003) stud­ that of grown-ups' discourse along three
ied the nature of the mathematical under­ dimensions-cardinality, purpose, and con­
~tandings ~hat are likel~ to have the greatest solidation. In each dimension the researchers
impact on ISsues of eqmty and opportunity found that the children started as ritualized
and to prepare students for a changing world. participants in the arithmetical routines of
Ke:y ~o. the study were cons!I"uct-eliciting grown-ups, but gradually the rituals shifted to
activities that put students m situations where become genuine explorations. Sfard and Lavie
they were able to judge the usefulness of co?clud~d that the ~ondition for seeing the
alternative ways of mathematical thinking ~nthmet_ical world m mature ways is forget­
and thereby recognize what was needed for tmg the image of the world as it was at the
success beyond school. Results showed that outset.
the constructs and conceptual tools that stu­ References
dents ~eveloped also molded the shape of the Bosse, M.J. and D.A.C. Hurd. "Woman Communicating
changmg world that students envisioned. Mathematics: The Historic Role of Women." Math­
Representational fluency was also at the heart ematics and Computer Education 36 (3)(2002): 218-26.
of what students needed to prepare them­ Fl~e~er, M.J., S.L Reeder: E. Yo~m~, and A.M. Reynolds.
selves for the world beyond schools. Results H1st~ry of Mathem_atic~: Bm_ldn~g Relationships for
showed that this fluency was a chief math­ Teaching and Learmng. Actzon m Teacher Education
24 (3)(2002): 73-84. ·
ematical construct for understanding com­
plex, changing systems. Lesh et al. also found Furinghetti, F. "The History of Mathematics As a
that mathematical topics most useful in pre­ Coupling Link between Secondary and University
paring students for a changing world were Teaching." International Journal of Mathematical
Education in Science and Technology 31 (1)(2000): 43-51.
those where the emphasis was on multimedia
displays, iterative and recursive functions, Gulikers, I. and K. Blom. "'A Historical Angle' A
and dynamic systems. Survey of Recent Literature on the Use and Value of
History in Geometrical Education." Educational
Schwartz and Martin (2004) compared Studies in Mathematics 47 (2)(2001): 223-258.
instructional activities that promoted student
invention to prepare for future mathematics Lesh, R., J.S. Zawojewski, and G. Carmona. "What
Mathematical Abilities Are Needed for Success
learning with tell-and-practice classroom Beyond School in a Technology-Based Age of Infor­
activities. The experimental activities sup­ mation?" In Beyond Constructivism, Models and Model­
ported many different paths of interaction and ing P~rspectives on ~athematics Problem Solving,
invention while the tell-and-practice activities Learning, and Teaching, edited by R. Lesh and H.M.
relied upon direct instruction and individual Doerr, 205-222. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, 2003.
pr~c~~e. Findings showed that the inventing
activities prepared students for a changing Schwartz, D.L. '.1nd T. Martin. "Inventing to Prepare for
world and that students were able to access ~uture_ L_earnmg: The Hidden Efficiency of Encourag­
mg Ongmal Student Production in Statistics Instruc­
that preparation for subsequent mathematics tion." Cognition and Instruction 22 (2)(2004): 129-184.
learning. Schwartz and Martin concluded that
the results indicated that one way to prepare Sfard, A. and I. Lavie. "Why Cannot Children See as the
Same What Grown-Ups Cannot See as Different?­
students to learn in a changing world involves Early Number Thinking Revisited." Cognition and
letting them generate original productions. Instruction 23 (2)(2005): 237-309. 8
Particularly, the opportunity to produce novel
Page26 CMC ComMuniCator Volume 30, Number 3
 X-
What does it take to learn Iems up to multiple variables and be­
algebra? First you have to yond. stm, I couldn't [Link] hlmup
to a year's worth of work in a couple of
master the fundamentals. months. And on a [Link] June day,
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bra. by the fear of appearing uncool
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Times' sertes this week on college-prep, he was voc-ed. We would
problem. Algebra, the re- pass occasionally in the halls, and he
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Jolllijly and .I were brought. to- [Link] makes no sense tor math, which is al- there.
gethetbyMrs. EHmbeth Bukanz, the al- to work algebraic equations, .his at'ith- most enttreJy sequential.
gebra' [Link]. Mrs. Bukanz wore her metic kept bringing up weird results. Leaving children back isn't a solu- EFORE I. p-sED .Johnny.'s full
saIKIY)lair in ~ [Link] French twist and He'd figure he was on the wrong track tion; it simply makes them feel stupid. name 1n a story that would
her glasses on a-chain: But she was gen- and make up an answer. They learn, like Johnny, to look at the reach more than a million
tle-1i'ftd smiling; and she had passion - This discovery should have made floor. The floor,can't embarrass them. readers, 1t was only right to try
at-le§st for what she called "the beauty us feel worse. How could we posstl>Jy What I learned froin Johnny - . to contact him tor permission.
of algebra. "·I, too; loved its perfect logic make up for a dearth of third-grade aside from the fact tbat greasers could Directory [Link] one John Pa-
and tidy solutions, so unlike my messy •. skills and cover algebra too? • be sweet-natured and very, very smart · trello, not too far from Yonkers.
[Link] llfe. . . , · But atleast we knew where to start. - is that schools ate structured to heb> The. phone was answered by his
"But ;Jcihnnywas deatto algebra's si- We spent about half of those early administrators feel organized, not to wlfe, Joann. It was the same Johnny, but·
re&>l'lmlg. He was flunking, and Mrs. Bu- sessions on multiplication drills. Seven help children learn. · he had died a year and a half ago· of a
kanZ hoped that lfI used my study halls times eight, eight times seven - Johnny Young children's skills are an over massive stroke, leaving behind Joann
to [Link] [Link] score at least 65% could. never remember. As an adult, in the map, yet we corral them into second and four children.
on the New York stat.e Regents exam. memory of Johnny's struggles, I would grade, third grade and so forth, where As she and I talked, both of us 1n
Passing the exam alloWed even failing rehearse my kids at an eat'iy age in that everyone moves at. one pace in an sub- - [Link] at times;itwas amazing how much
students to move on to high school, one math fact. Get that 56 down, I would jects. Better to group them according to of what I remembered about Johnny
whicli'f:ltarted 1n loth grade; otherwise, [Link] them, .and the rest of multiplication their skills in each subject, without the continued throughout his life - the
Johnilywould be left behind. is a snap. "grade" labels, and let them move on to tough outer look, the swee_tness a :mfili-
Johnny wore his leather jacket in Today's failing high school stu- the next skill when they have [Link] [Link] underneath, the quick mind, the
class<i:lespit.e the spring warmth, and he dents, though plagued by more poverty the one they were on. If they're not get- habit of tilting his face [Link] floor.
hlitiiwally tilted his face toward the and upheaval than Johnny or I ever ting it, give them extra tutoring, but His eldest is a doctor; the second, a
flOOP1io that when he looked up at me, knew, bring the same scanty skills to al- don't push them forward .until they're teacher. His teenage daugb~r wants to
he seemed embarrassed. Yet for such a gebra class, according to The Times' se- ready. This way, there is no failure - be a journalist, and I'll see what! can do
cool tuY, he was surprisingly friendly lies. They never quite grasped multipli- only progress. to help her along the way.
arid-OOllllDitted to givingthis a try. cation tables, but stlll they moved on to It requires a sea change in thinking, Johnny became an auto mechanic.
Things looked pretty hopeless to more [Link] math. but it's not impossible or even an that ("He loved math, and you know auto re-
bdtli' [Link] those first couple of sessions, Who can focus on the [Link] hard. Back before standardized [Link] pair involves a lot of math," Joann said.
as Johnny stumbled through algebra logic of peeling back an equation until put classes in [Link], some progres- Yes, it does.)
problems while I qied to tlgure out ex- · "x" is bared when it involves at'ithmetic sive schools already were using [Link] Another thing Joann told me about
actJy what he didn"'t understand. Then, that comes slow and slippery, always [Link] to do this in math as well as Johnny: He "".a8 incredibly fast at multi-
as we-took 1t down to each [Link] of each giving a different answer to the same reading and writing. plication.
11tt1e..''Calculation, the trouble became calculation? · · Johnny finally nailed seven times
cl~ Johnny somehow had reached Yet in [Link] decades, the same eight, then with amazing quickness KARIN KLBm is an editorial writer ft»:
niDtb. gi;ade;witbout J.eam1n9: [Link] school strucbJre [Link].. • womd,[Link] basic "x' mob. · !Cb.e Times, . •·
 Going Back in Time
by Christina Myren, Conejo Valley USD, cmyren@[Link]; and
Fran Threewit, Kenwood Elementary, fthreewit@[Link]

t our last ComMuniCator panel meeting

A
development, and especially is this true of the best
we were browsing through children's primary work. The mind of the child just entering
school is bent upon investigation, exploration, and
textbooks from the last century. The discovery. It is the privilege of the primary teacher
books, A Child's Book of Number and First Days to guide this investigation, furnish proper and
in Number, were written in 1903 and 1924 fruitful environment for exploration, and teach the
respectively. At first glance, the books ap­ child the use of the best written and spoken lan­
peared quite different from today's four-color, guage in which he may tell of his discoveries.
There is no broader field for the free develop­
two-page spread editions. However, as we ment of the child mind than is to be found in
read further we were struck with the similar­ number work. The child needs only to be invited
ity in content of what children use today. and he will discover many facts concerning his
Because of the theme of this issue, Mathemat­ home, birds, animals, flowers, fruits, and forms; in
ics Throughout History, we decided it would short, he will discover the world in which he lives.
be interesting to share some of the similarities As we read in A Child's Book of Number, we
with you. were again taken by the instructions to the
Our first example is the opening two teacher that emphasized connecting the work
paragraphs from First Days in Number: in number to the child's world. The emphasis
It is not the purpose of this book to teach on playful learning and daily connections to
number facts to the primary pupil. Education is number are numerous: __________
Continued on page 28

MAKING RHnatS .[Link] TWO AN OUTDOOR GAME

Some children made rhymes about adding two.

He1·e is one of them. Bee if you ca.n make a
better one.

Two little boys,

Sitting in the door.
Two more join them,
Then there are - - . These children have made up a number game.
They form a circle as in "Drop-the-handker­
chief". One child runs around the circle saying:
Four little boys,
[Link] up sticks. "Hink-i-ty; pink-i-ty, pank-i-ty, poo,
Two more help them, I had - - pennies and now I have two.
Then there are - - . Hink-i-ty, pink-i-ty, pank-i-ty, poo,
Who knows how many] lost i Do you 1 "
Six little boys,
As she says " Do yon 1 " she taps some one. The
Swinging on the gate.
one tapped answers, and tries to catch her before
Two more get on,
she can get around the circle.
Then there are - . If she is cuught, she has to go around again.
lf not, the other child goes around and taps some
Tell how many : one in the same way.
They use any number from two to ten where
2 6 5 8 4 3 7 1 the blank is.
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 rrn J
[9]
 That the child may delight in his work, see that We are sure you will agree with us that
it is useful to him in his play and in his little daily each of the above examples, with some editing
affairs, and wish to know more of number from
day to day, there are many little rhymes, number of style and color, could be part of -- Lurrent
stories, and simple descriptions of games. These are primary textbook series.
not given for the sake of the drill they contain, but The passages and pages from these books
to secure and hold the child's interest in his study remind us again that we need to go back to
of number. For it is expected that many or all of - the tried and true ideas of connecting math­
them will suggest similar things that the child will ematics to the child's world by the use of
wish to do with number, and thus they will suggest
real "projects" in the true sense of that much-used rhymes, number stories, and simple games. At
and overused term. the same time, we need to stay focused on the
These rhymes, number stories, and descriptions developmental needs of primary children.
of games also furnish valuable material in silent
reading, for they are so simple and interesting that References
the children will wish to read them without their Stone, John C. A Child's Book of Number. Chicago: Benj.
being assigned for study. H. Sanborn & Company, 1924.
Examples of rhymes, games, and connec­ VanAmburgh, Della. First Days in Number. New York:
tions to number stories are seen on the pages Silver Burdett and Company, 1903. II
from the book that are shown on page 27.
 Timeless Activities from a Well-Worn Book
by Christina Myren, Conejo Valley USD, cmyren@[Link], and
Fran Threewit, Kenwood Elementary School, fthreewit@[Link]

CONCEPT: Number BACKGROUND

SKILLS: Working with three addends, find­ As we perused the old textbooks referred to in
ing tens, adding nine to a single digit number, the article Going Back in Time on pages 27-28
finding the missing addend we found several timeless activities worthy of
MATHEMATICS STANDARDS: Grade 1: note for primary students. We have selected
NS 1.4, 2.0; Grade 2: NS 1.0, 2.0 two activities from the book A Child's Book of
GRADES: 1-2 Numbers that are appropriate for first and
MATERIALS: Chalkboard or paper, appro­ second graders. The first activity reinforces
priate writing tool facts to 9 and the second emphasizes facts up
to 18 with 9 as one of the addends.

DIRECTIONS follow-up homework assignment for your

Because of their charm and clarity we are students to complete with a family member.
presenting the directions for both of the activi­ Please refer to the K-2 Student Problem on
ties as they originally appeared in the 1924 page 59 for further directions.
textbook. The intention of the second activity
is that it be taught at school and then played Reference
at home to continue the reinforcement of the Stone, John C. A Child's Book of Number. Chicago: Benj.
facts. H. Sanborn & Company, 1924.
We have included a parent letter
worksheet on page 48 that you may use as a

A GAME WITH NINE A HOME GAME FOR TWO

t~
,1Fi~:l
'·J'·_

.; .
~ :~
.,~
,

,
I
. . Jack and Billie have made up a number game.
"' They call it "Tit-tat-toe; three-in-a-row." It
takes two to play the game. They take tunis in
These children are playing n g·ame. The one writing some number not larger than 9. The one
in the center says, "I am 9. 'IVho will help me that finishes a row of three numbers that make 10
make lG I" Some child runs in the ring and says,
wins one point. When all the spaces are filled,
" l am 7. 1 will help you mak,; lG."
they draw new lines and begin another game.
The child that helped make Hl then says, " I
Sometimes they agree to write numbers that
am H. Who will help me make 14 '/" Some one
will make some other number instead of 10.
runi- in the ring and says, " f am 5. I will help
you make 14." See what these make :

The first child in the ring to help B make some 5 3 2 5 7 4 6 2

number stays and asks a question. The one in the 3 4 6 2 1 4 4 8
center is always B. Ile never m,ks for a number 7 8 7 8 7 7 5 5
larger than 18.
[ 60]
[ 58)
Dear Family,
Your child's homework tonight is to play the game that is explained below. The
game comes from a child's textbook called A Child's Book of Numbers that was
written in 1923.
As you play this game, ask questions to help your child make predictions.
You may want to ask such questions as:
t/ What number might make sense here?

t/ How many more to make ten?

t/ What would happen if we could only use numbers 1-9, and not O?

t/ How is this game like a game you have played before?

Please return the form below with your comments to school tomorrow.
A HOME GAME FOR TWO

Jack and Billie have made up a number game.

They call it "Tit-tat-toe; three-in-a-row." It
takes two to play the game. They take turns in
writing some number not larger than 9. The one
that finishes a row of three numbers that make 10
wins one point. When all the spaces are filled,
they draw new lines and begin another game.
Sometimes they agree to write uumbers that
will make some other number instead of 1O.

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ and I played the game last night. We thought

this game was like the _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ game that we played
before.
Comments:
-------------------------

Student- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Parent- - - - - - - - - -
 ath Riddles:
Helping Children Connect
Words and Numbers
to introduce important mathematical ideas and to
engage and challenge students intellectually.
Teacher. Today, class, we will practice Well-chosen tasks can pique students' curiosity
counting groups of coins and finding different and draw them into mathematics" (p. 18).
ways of making a certain amount of money. As an elementary-level teacher of mathematics,
From the tray on your table, take one dime, two [ am cbnstantly challenged to find ways to help stu­
nickels, and four pennies .... dents connect words, numbers. and concrete expe­
riences. About ten years ago, [ began trying to meet
some of the needs of diverse groups of children by
incorporating student-written riddles and puzzles
Teacher (holding a lunch bag). [ have some­ in my classroom mathematics program.
thing in the bag. (Shakes the bag) Early on, [ discovered that writing good riddles
Children. Money! was not as easy as it first appeared. and that the
Teacher. Yes, [ have some coins in the bag, activity sometimes left students frustrated and con­
but you'll have to figure out how much [ have fusc:d. Still, [ was impressed by the effort that stu­
and exactly which coins [ have. A girl named dents put into the process and the excitement that
Jessi wrote the clues. Here's the first clue: "[ resulted when they had the opportunity to solve
have seven coins." Take coins from the tray on riddles that their classmates had created.
your table and show which ones I might have in Over the years. by trial and error. [ have devel­
the bag. Then l'll give another clue. oped procedures that enable a diverse range of stu­
dents to write interesting, solvable riddles that rein­
force a variety of mathematics skills and concepts.
esson A is a good, hands-on mathematics The process of creating new riddles provides an

L activity. Lesson B is based on the solving and

writing of mathematics riddles. Both offer
potentially valuable learning experiences, but the
impetus. for students to express themselves fully
and clearly because they want other children to
solve-or at least attempt to solve-their riddles.
second lesson is more likely to excite and engage Also. children working together tend to give edito­
children. Principles and Standards for School rial feedback in a constructive way. with peer com- ·
Mathematics (NCTM 2000) states, "[n effective ments ranging from remarks about penmanship
teaching, worthwhile mathematical tasks are used and spelling to more substantiv<:! discussions of rid­
dle clues and solutions. Principles and Standards
for School Mathematics ( NCTM 2000) notes.
Qrl'S"-rrlll, sherrllr@[Link], has been a classroom teacher for more than --Teachers also need to provide students with assis­
f/11,ty .,..,., ~ currently teaches at Calistoga Elementary School in Calistoga, tance in writing about mathematical concepts....
QIJfomi•. Cart mo works with gifted students and serves as a mentor teacher
Students will also need opportunities to check the
/ffld ttNChflf ln-Hrv~ instructor. He is the author of mathematics resource
boob baHd on rlddlH. music, storytelling. and magic tricks. clarity of their work with peers·· ( pp. l 98-99).
The process of writing and solving riddles pro­
vides a rich context for learning new vocabulary

368 ,eaching Children Maihemaiics , March 2005

and phrases. from "Jt"s a trapezoid .. 10 "Three more another clas.< have written. For most groups. it is a
black beans than white beans·· to ·There are equal good idea 10 select some riddles that will be easy
numbers of dimes and pennies. and half as many for most children and other riddles that will pro­
nickels as dimes." Using this type of language in vide a challenge for highly capable students.
conjunction with concrete material~ helps reinforce To ensure that most of the riddles will fall
meaning. Also. because the v0cabulary required for within a reasonable range of difficulty. the teacher
a particular type of riddle is .<omewhat limited. needs to limi1 the quantities used. For example.
children with special needs in reading. as well as when I have second-grade students write riddles
those who are English learners. find most of the involving four kinds of beans, 1 ask that they use
activities accessible. Principles and Swndards "from five 10 twenty beans, using two or three
states. ··Representing numbers with various physi­ types of beans:· A child might start with five white
cal ma1erials should be a major part of mathemat­ beans. five red beans. and two pintm-or twelve
ics instruction .... Having a concre1e referent helps beans in all. \Vith third and fourth graders. 1 might
students develop understandings that are clearer allow "from fif1een to thirty-five beans of three or
and more easily shared'" (pp. 33. 197: see fig. 1). four kinds:·
You may want to provide an answer key for rid­
dles that you have written or those from other
Guiding Student sources. so that students can check their own work.
Riddle•Writers Make sure that students record the solution 10 each
Before children attempt 10 write original riddles of riddle that the~ write for their classmates. One of
a giwn type. they need nperience ~oh ing riddles the simpies1 methods is to have the student write or
1ha1 mhers have written. The 1eacher can create draw the solution at the bottom of the page. then
'-ampie riddles or prm ide riddif, 1ha1 students in fold ii se, era] times to co, er the ansv,-er. The riddle

1e&cn1nf: ChiicirHi Mathema11c~ March ~OO!i 369

---------·---------------------------------------------------

may also be written directly on an envelope with

the solution inside.
Second graders Derek and Jared worked together to create a riddle After students have created their own riddles.
using three kinds of beans. they need a system for exchanging the riddles with
their classmates. Options include the following:
I
• Place all riddles on a table or other common
area. Students select riddles to solve and take
them back to their own work space. (This is
simple but can result in a lot of movement and
noise.)
• Have groups work on a small subset of the rid­
dles. perhaps placing them in a tray in the cen­
ter of a table or group of desks.
• Have students work on copies that you have
made. writing directly on the copies.
• Make the riddles part of a learning center or
independent work station.

To allow children to work at varying rates. con­

Second grader Kayla wrote a good, solvable riddle, but did not use the
sider assigning some of the activities in a menu for­
class chart to proofread her spelling.
mat, with required items and choices. This can work
especially well in academically diverse classes.

A Sample Lesson:
I hai VQ IS cens. Coin Riddles
[n the process of solving coin riddles. students
I ~0ive 5 coins. refer to actual coins as concrete representations of

I hove (Y) ore., penn:j s their thinking. They extend their command of the:
vocabulary of comparison and practice finding the
t hne- Di rn s. values of collections of coins: see tigs. 2 and 3.
The following materials will be needed at vari­
ous times during the coin-riddle activities:

• Coins ( real or play): About four quarters and six

dimes. six nickels. and six pennies for each pair
Ian's riddle provided an interesting challenge for most of his third­ of students
grade classmates. • Trays. plates. or shallow dishes
• Copies for each student of the worksheet ··Coin
Riddles .. (see fig. -'l
• Overhead transparency or chart of ··creating
Coin Riddles .. ( see tig. 5)
• 8 1/'2-by- l l lined paper. one sheet per student
• Transparent overhead coins (optional)

Make a transparency of ··Creating Coin Rid­

dles," or copy it on large chart paper or on the
board. [n two paper bags or envelopes. place coins
to indicate the solutions for the riddle e\amples.
Label these ··Jessi:· containing one dime. two nick­
els. 1nd four ?ennies: and .. Michael:· with two
dimes. one nickel. and tive pennies.

370 -:-sac,1ing Childrsn Mathematics, March 200S

Coin riddles

Kayla's Riddle Jennifer's Riddle

I have 18i. I h8ve 9 coins worth 96¢.
I have 5 coins. There are more dimes than quarters.
I have more pennies than dimes. There are more quarters th8n pennies.
There is the same number of dimes and
Nick's Riddle nickels.
I have 4 coins.
My coins are worth 30¢. Alyssa's Riddle
I have no pennies. I have 40c.
I have no quarters.
Aaron's Riddle I have 11 coins.
I have 7 coins worth 29i.
I have twice as many pennies as dimes. Julian's Riddle
I have 87¢.
Danny's Riddle I have 7 coins.
I have 6 coins. I have more quarters than nickels.
My coins are worth 65i. I have 1 more penny than what a penny is
I have more dimes than nick€1s. worth.
I don't have any pennies.
Curtis's Riddle
Alejandra's Riddle I have 10 coins.
I have 6 coins. My coins are worth 61¢.
My coins are worth 62¢. I have twice as many nickels as dimes.
I have the same number of each coin. I have no quarters.
I have three kinds of coins.
Brooke's Riddle
Mary Ann's Riddle I have 11 coins.
I have 8 coins. My coins are worth 99¢.
My coins are worth 45i. I have the same number of pennies and
I have the same number of nickels, dimes, dimes.
and quarters.

Brady's Riddle
Coin Riddle Solutions
I have 35¢.
Most appropriate for students Most appropriate for students
I don't have any dimes.
in grades 2 and 3: in grades 3 and 4:
I have 7 coins.
They are not all nickels. Koyla: 1 dime, 1 nickel, Jennifer: 2 quaners, 3 dimes,
3 pennies 3 nickels, 1 penny
Nick: 2 dimes, 2 nickels Alyssa: 1 dime, 5 nickels,
Aaron: 2 dimes, 1 nickel, 5 pennies
4 pennies Julian: 3 qu;;ners, 2 nickels,
Donny: ·, quaner, 3 dimes, 2 pennies
2 nickels Curtis: 3 dimes, 6 nickels,
Alejandro: 2 quaners, 2 nickels, 1 penny
2 pennies Brooke: 2 qucr1ErS, 4 dirl1€s,
Mary Ann: ·, quaner, ·, dime, 1 nickel, 4 penni€S
1 nickel, 5 pennies
Brady: 1 qu;;rter, ·, nickel,
5 pennies

371
 Creating coin riddles

You need:
Pennies, nickels, dimes, and quarters
Paper and pencil

Directions:
• Write a title and your name.
• Select from _ to _ coins worth up to _,. ,,
• Write three or more clues about your coins.,
• Be sure to tell how many coins you have and how much they are worth altogether.
• These words may come in handy:

worth , cents (¢)

twice as many half as many
three times money
same number equal groups
more than fewer than
total altogether

At the bottom of the paper, draw the

coins, or show your answer with
words and numbers.
Fold the paper several times to
cover the answer.
Ask another student to solve your '~
u,.
riddle. Make changes if necessary. , .0
,:
a.
e
"'
0
0
f

372 Teaching Children Matn:irnacics March 2005

rntroducing coin riddres
Tell children that they will he solving coin riddles
that other students have v,rinen. then writing rid­ Third grader Reyna wrote a coin riddle in her first language, with the
dles of their own. Distrihme the coins. help of a Spanish vocabulary chart.
Hold up the bag or eD\ elope labeled ··Jessi.··
Explain that it contains sewral coins. which may
include pennies. nickels. dimes. and quaners. and
that a student named Jessi has written a riddle
/tdivino.2a ole frlona::las
about the coins. Distribute the trays of coins and pvr Rev110..
read .lessi·s riddle:
T€11jo 8 rno11edas.
J have 7 coins.
J have twice as many pennies as nickels.
J have only one dime.
l have no quaners.
/1 i.5 M C/'teda S
l have 24~.

Ask students to disco,er possible solutions as Ten..90 el rri/srno nLt,,,erCJ

:-ou reveal one clue at a time. Pame occasionallv to
ask questions. such as ··could there be two pen­ de pehnies 'I [Link]
nies')"" and ··could there be as much as seventy-five
cents?"" Ask whether the~e riddles would be soh­
able if fewer clues were pi,en: ··Which clues are
necessary and which are merel: helpfup··
When you ha, e o; po,ec ail the clues. ask stu-

373
 dents to share their solutions and their reasoning. ;olutions. You may prefer that ,tuJems draw each
Then open the bag or envelope to rc:veal ··Jessi·s·· collection of coins. write the s(duuuns using words
coins. Repeat the process for ~lichael 's riddle: and numbers. or both.
Explain which riddles you wuuld like every
I have 30¢. child to attempt. and give options tur those who
I have one nickel. tinish early. Depending on your ume1 :onstraints.
I have three more pennies than dimes. you may want to continue the :1..:rn ity during
.•,
There are 8 coins in all. another session.

Before distributing the ··Coin Riddles" work­ Creating coin riddles

sheet (see fig. 4). demonstrate ways of recording Based on how your students did during the first
activity. decide on a maximum number of coins
and a maximum total value to use in creating new
riddles. Write these limits on the transparency
Danny's riddle was unsolvable. He did not count his collection of
coins correctly; also, he misunderstood the phrase "five times,,n ,, ··Creating Coin Riddles" (see fig. 5).
intending to indicate "five more dimes than nickels." Display the transparency on the overhead. or
use the chart you have prepared. Select a set of
coins and draw them schematically, or use clear
uvc:rhead coins. Following the directions on the
transparency, write a title and-with student
input!__write several clues on the board or on chart
paper. Discuss the riddle briefly. asking whether it
,ec:ms challenging enough and how it might be
made: dearer or more interesting .
.-\sk students to write their own riddles,
following the format you have modeled (see
fig. 6 ). At your discretion, have students work
in pairs.

r: he.. ve_ ~ f if'ht1. 5 aj"

Solving classmate-written
riddles
d i me.. s- t /,.qn h ,'[Link] Select a riddle written during the previous session.
Write one clue at a time on the board or overhead,
[Link]. q ec>,ns having volunteers propose possible solutions as
you go along.
Have students share their completed riddles
with one another. During this session you may also
ask that students edit previously written riddles or
write additional riddles (see figs. 7 and 8).
Brooke's first coin riddle had many solutions.

A Final Word
Judging from my own classroom experience. and
that of a number of my colleagues. having students
create and solve mathematics riddles has many
benefits. The activities-

• ime~rate mathematics. reading. and writing:

• 2ddress many of the NCTM Standards:
have • 1ilo1,1, children to engage in algebraic thinking in

vi o. ve .t hands-on context: and

• 2re appropriate for diverse ability levds and
'TIUltilingual classrooms.

374 -[Link] Children Maihematics March 2005

 \\.orking \\ith mathematic~ riddie~ appears to
booq qudents · ~trategic compelfnre and ..the abil­
it~ to formulate mathematicai probiems. represent
them. and solve them:· as Kiipatrirk ( :!001) notes.
··Becoming strategically competent involves an
a, oidance of ·number grabbing· methods . . . in
fa,or of methods that generate problem models•·
(p. 124).
Just as important. writing and ,ohing mathe­
matics riddles is also a lot of fun-for students and
teachers alike!

Bibliography
Burn,. T\1arilyn. and Bonnie Tank. A Collffrion of Marh
LesJonsfrom Grade 1 rhrouph 3. White Plains. N.Y.:
Algebraic Reasoning Early AdV;ill~res
Cui,enaire Company of America. l 988.
-Professor Arbe_gla lntrodlKes in Alg~b_ia--- -
Variables and functions Featuring [Link] the Hero
Kilpatrick. Jeremy. Jane Swafford. and Bradford Findell.
for Grades 3-5. for Grades 1-2.
eds. Adding Ir Up: Helpinp Children Learn Ma1he­
ma1ics. Washington. D.C.: ~ational .Academy Press. G£MS. Setting standar<ls for excellence
200 l. in education. from the University o1 Cafifomia
:'\ational Council of Teacher, of T\1a1hema1ics (NCTM). at Berkeley's lawrence Hall of Science.
Principles and Srandards for School Marhemarics.
Rrnon. Va.: NCTM. 2000. LEarn more at [Link],
Sherrill. Carl M. RiddleMarh: U.\ing Srudem- Wri11e11 or call 510/642-7771
Riddle.1 10 Build Marhemarical Pm,·er. Calistoga.
Calif.: !\1oming River Publicatiom. 2001. £.

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-:E2cr,1r,g Children Matherr1ei1c~ March 2005 375
Discussion for Ants, Ants, Ants

Directions to Children
Six ants live in the six houses, one in each.
They would love to visit each other, but first they
have to build roads between the houses so that
each ant has a road that goes directly to the
house of each other ant. Although you will see
all kinds of interesting paths that can be drawn
between any two houses, you should draw in
only one, the straightest possible. How many
roads are needed to connect each pair of ants?

Materials
Pencil, the problem sheet, and a ruler. ·
 Ants, Ants, Ants

'
._: C 1
..,.
 •
1ne
How do we help floundering students who
lack basic math concepts?
Marilyn Burns

aul, a 4th grader, was strug­ connects to addition.

P
gling to learn multiplication. Paul wasn't the only student in this
Paul's teacher was concerned class who was floundering. Through
that he typically worked talking with teachers and drawing on
very slowly in math and my own teaching experience, I've real­
"didn't get much done." I agreed to see ized that in every class a handful of
whether I could figure out the nature of students are at serious risk of failure in
Paul's difficulty. Here's how our conver­ mathematics and aren't being
sation began: adequately served by the instruction
MARILYN:Can you tell me something you
offered. What should we do for such
know about multiplication? students?
PAUL: [Thinks, then responds] 6 x 8 is 48.
Grappling with Interventions
MARILYN: Do you know how much 6 x 9 My exchange with Paul reminded me of
is7
three issues that are essential to teaching
PAUL: I don't know that one. I didn't learn mathematics:
it yet. ■ It's important to help students make
MARILYN: Can you figure it out some way? connections among mathematical ideas
so they do not see these ideas as discon­
PAUL: [Sits silently for a moment and then
shakes his head.] nected facts. (Paul saw each multiplica­
tion fact as a separate piece of informa­
MARILYN: How did you learn 6 x 8?
tion to memorize.)
PAUL: [Brightens and grins] It's easy-gain' ■ It's important to build students' new of 6 x 8 masked his lack of deeper
fishing, got no bait, 6 x 8 is 48. understandings on the foundation of understanding.)
As I talked with Paul, I found out that their prior learning. (Paul did not make For many years, my professional
multiplication was a mystery to him. use of what he knew about addition to focus has been on finding ways to more
Because of his weak foundation of figure products.) effectively teach arithmetic, the corner­
understanding, he was falling behind ■ It's important to remember that stone of elementary mathematics. Along
his classmates, who were multiplying students' correct answers, without with teaching students basic numerical
problems like 683 x 4. Before he accompanying explanations of how they concepts and skills, instruction in
could begin to tackle such problems, reason, are not sufficient for judging number and operations prepares them
Paul needed to understand the mathematical understanding. (Paul's for algebra. I've developed lessons that
concept of multiplication and how it initial correct answer about the product help students make sense of number

16 EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP/NOVEMBER 2007

to Cate
entiation needed can happen tion, I have reaffirmed my longtime
within regular classroom commitment to helping students learn
instruction. facts and skills-the basics of arith­
But students like Paul metic. But I've also reaffirmed that "the
present a greater challenge. basics" of number and operations for all
Many are already at least a students, including those who struggle,
year behind and lack the foun­ must address all three aspects of numer­
dation of mathematical under­ ical proficiency---computation, number
standing on which to build
new learning. They may have
multiple misconceptions that
hamper progress. They have Extra help for
experienced failure and lack
confidence. struggling learners
Such students not only
demand more time and atten­ must be more than
tion, but they also need
supplemental instruction that additional practice.
differs from the regular
program and is designed
~ specifically for their success. sense, and problem solving. Only when
~ I've recently shifted my the basics include understanding as well
i professional focus to thinking as skill proficiency will all students learn
i about the kind of instruction what they need for their continued
~ we need to serve students like success.
! Paul. My colleagues and I
~ have developed lessons that Essential Strategies
I provide effective interventions I have found the following nine strate­
for teaching number and gies to be essential to successful inter­
and operations with attention to three operations to those far behind. We've vention instruction for struggling math
important elements---computation, grappled with how to provide instruc­ learners. Most of these strategies will
number sense, and problem solving. My tion that is engaging, offers scaffolded need to be applied in a supplementary
intent has been to avoid the "yours is instruction in bite-sized learning expe­ setting, but teachers can use some of
not to question why, just invert and riences, is paced for students' success, them in large-group instruction.
multiply" approach and to create lessons provides the practice students need to
that are accessible to all students and cement fragile understanding and
that teach skills in the context of deeper skills, and bolsters students' mathe­ 1. Determine and Scaffold the
understanding. Of course, even well­ matical foundations along with their Essential Mathematics Content
planned lessons will require differenti­ confidence. Determining the essential mathematics
ated instruction, and much of the differ- In developing intervention instruc- content is like peeling an onion-we

ASSOCIATION FOR SUPERVISION AND CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 17

must identify those concepts and skills expected to complete independent practice multiplying and experience
we want students to learn and discard work. I have found a four-stage process applying the associative and commutative
what is extraneous. Only then can helpful for supporting students. properties, we present them with prob­
teachers scaffold this content, organ­ In the first stage, the teacher models lems that involve multiplying three one­
izing it into manageable chunks and what students are expected to learn and digit factors. An appropriate first problem
sequencing these chunks for learning. records the appropriate mathematical is 2 x 3 x 4. The teacher thinks aloud to
For Paul to multiply 683 x 4, for representation on the board. For demonstrate three ways of working this
example, he needs a collection of certain example, to simultaneously give students problem. He or she might say,
skills. He must know the basic multipli­
cation facts. He needs an understanding
of place value that allows him to think
about 683 as 600 + 80 + 3. He needs to
be able to apply the distributive prop­
My "Aha!" Moment
erty to figure and then combine partial Mary M. Lindquist, Professor of Mathematics Education, Columbus
products. For this particular problem, College, Georgia. Winner of the National Council of Teachers of
he needs to be able to multiply 4 by 3 Mathematics Lifetime Achievement Award.
(one of the basic facts); 4 by 80 (or
My "aha" moment came long after I had finished a masters in mathematics,
8 x 10, a multiple of 10); 4 and by 600
taught mathematics in secondary school and college, and completed a
(or 6 x 100, a multiple of a power of
doctorate in mathematics education. Although I enjoyed the rigor of learning
10). To master multidigit multiplication,
and applying rules, mathematics was more like a puzzle than an elegant body of
Paul must be able to combine these knowledge.
skills with ease. Thus, lesson planning Many years of work on a mathematics program for
must ensure that each skill is explicitly elementary schools led to that moment. I realized that
taught and practiced. mathematics was more than rules-even the begin­
nings of mathematics were interesting. Working
2. Pace Lessons Carefully with elementary students and teachers, I saw that
We've all seen the look in students' eyes students could make sense of basic mathematical
when they get lost in math class. When concepts and procedures, and teachers could help
them do so. The teachers also posed problems to
it appears, ideally teachers should stop,
move students forward, gently let them struggle, and
deal with the confusion, and move on
valued their approaches. What a contrast to how I had
only when all students are ready. Yet
taught and learned mathematics!
curriculum demands keep teachers
With vivid memories of a number-theory course in which I memo-
pressing forward, even when some
rized the proofs to 40 theorems for the final exam, I cautiously began teaching a
students lag behind. Students who
number-theory course for prospective middle school teachers. My aha moment
struggle typically need more time to with these students was a semester long. We investigated number-theory
grapple with new ideas and practice ideas, I made sense of what I had memorized, and my students learned along
new skills in order to internalize them. with me. My teaching was changed forever.
Many of these students need to unlearn
before they relearn.

3. Build in a Routine of Support

Students are quick to reveal when a
lesson hasn't been scaffolded sufficiently
or paced slowly enough: As soon as you
give an assignment, hands shoot up for
help. Avoid this scenario by building in
a routine of support to reinforce
concepts and skills before students are

18 EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP/NOVEMBER 2007

 I could start by multiplying 2 x 3 to get 6,
and then multiply 6 x 4 to get 24. Or I
Students are quick to reveal when a lesson
could first multiply 2 x 4, and then
multiply 8 x 3, which gives 24 again. Or I hasn't been scaffolded sufficiently or paced
could do 3 x 4, and then 12 x 2. All three
ways produce the same product of 24. slowly enough: As soon as you give an
As the teacher describes these opera­
assignment, hands shoot up for help.
tions, he or she could write on the
board: can be thought of as combining 6
4. Foster Student Interaction groups of 8). He needed time and prac­
2x3x4 2x3x4 2x3x4
We know something best once we've tice to cement this understanding for all
V ~ V taught it. Teaching entails communi­ multiplication problems. He would
6 X 4 = 24 8 X 3 = 24 2 X 12 = 24
cating ideas coherently, which requires benefit from investigating six groups of
It's important to point out that the one teaching to formulate, reflect other numbers-6 x 2, 6 x 3, and so
solving a problem in more than one on, and clarify those ideas-all on-and looking at the numerical
way is a good strategy for checking processes that support learning. Giving pattern of these products. Teachers need
your answer. students opportunities to voice their to provide many experiences like these,
In the second stage, the teacher ideas and explain them to others helps carefully sequenced and paced, to
models again with a similar problem­ extend and cement their learning. prepare students like Paul to grasp ideas
such as 2 x 4 x 5-but this time elicits Thus, to strengthen the math under­ like how 6 x 9 connects to 6 x 8.
responses from students. For example, standings of students who lag behind,
the teacher might ask, "Which two make student interaction an integral
factors might you multiply first? What part of instruction. You might imple­ 6. Encourage Mental Calculations
is the product of those two factors? ment the think-pair-share strategy, also Calculating mentally builds students'
What should we multiply next? What is called tum and talk. Students are first ability to reason and fosters their
another way to start?" Asking such asked to collect their thoughts on their number sense. Once students have a
questions allows the teacher to rein­ own, and then talk with a partner; foundational understanding of multipli­
force correct mathematical vocabulary. finally, students share their ideas with cation, its key for them to learn the
As students respond, the teacher again the whole group. Maximizing students' basic multiplication facts-but their
records different ways to solve the opportunities to express their math experience with multiplying mentally
problem on the board. knowledge verbally is particularly valu­ should expand beyond these basics. For
During the third stage, the teacher able for students who are developing example, students should investigate
presents a similar problem-for English language skills. patterns that help them mentally
example, 2 x 3 x 5. After taking a multiply any number by a power of 10.
moment to think on their own, students I am concerned when I see a student
work in pairs to solve the problem in 5. Make Connections Explicit multiply 18 x 10, for example, by
three different ways, recording their Students who need intervention instruc­ reaching for a pencil and writing:
work. As students report back to the tion typically fail to look for relation­ 18
class, the teacher writes on the board ships or make connections among X 10
and discusses their problem-solving mathematical ideas on their own. They
00
choices with the group. need help building new learning on
18
In the fourth stage, students work what they already know. For example,
independently, referring to the work Paul needed explicit instruction to 180
recorded on the board if needed. This understand how thinking about 6 x 8 Revisiting students' prior work with
routine both sets an expectation for could give him access to the solution for multiplying three factors can help
student involvement and gives learners 6 x 9. He needed to connect the develop their skills with multiplying
the direction and support they need to meaning of multiplication to what he mentally: Helping students judge which
be successful. already knew about addition (that 6 x 8 way is most efficient to multiply three

ASSOCIATION FOR SUPERVISION AND CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 19

 8. Provide Practice
Struggling math students typically need
a great deal of practice. It's essential that
practice be directly connected to
students' immediate learning experi­
ences. Choose practice problems that
support the elements of your scaffolded
instruction, always promoting under­
standing as well as skills. I recommend
giving assignments through the four­
stage support routine, allowing for a
gradual release to independent work.
Games can be another effective way
to stimulate student practice. For
example, a game like Pathways (see
Figure 1 for a sample game board and
instructions) gives students practice
with multiplication. Students hone
multiplication skills by marking boxes
on the board that share a common side
factors, depending on the numbers at and that each contain a product of two
7. Help Students Use Written designated factors.
hand, deepens their understanding. For
Calculations to Track Thinking
example, to multiply 2 x 9 x 5, students
have the following options: Students should be able to multiply
700 x 4 in their heads, but they'll need 9. Build In Vocabulary Instruction
2x9x5 2x9x5 2x9x5 pencil and paper to multiply 683 x 4. The meanings of words in math-for
V ~ V As students learn and practice proce­ example, even, odd, product, and Jactor­
18 X 5 = 90 10 X 9 = 90 2 X 45 = 90 dures for calculating, their calculating often differ from their use in common
Guiding students to check for factors with paper and pencil should be clearly language. Many students needing math
that produce a product of 10 helps rooted in an understanding of math intervention have weak mathematical
build the tools they need to reason concepts. Help students see paper and vocabularies. Its key that students
mathematically. pencil as a tool for keeping track of how develop a firm understanding of mathe­
When students calculate mentally, they think. For example, to multiply matical concepts before learning new
they can estimate before they solve 14 x 6 in their heads, students can first vocabulary, so that they can anchor
problems so that they can judge multiply 10 x 6 to get 60, then 4 x 6 to terminology in their understanding. We
whether the answer they arrive at makes get 24, and then combine the two should explicitly teach vocabulary in the
sense. For example, to estimate the partial products, 60 and 24. To keep context of a learning activity and then
product of 683 x 4, students could track of the partial products, they might use it consistently: A math vocabulary
figure out the answer to 700 x 4. You write: chart can help keep both teacher and
can help students multiply 700 x 4 14 X 6 students focused on the importance of
mentally by building on their prior 10 X 6 = 60 accurately using math terms.
experience changing three-factor prob­ 4 X 6 = 24
lems to two-factor problems: Now they 60 + 24 = 84 When Should We Offer
can change a two-factor problem- They can also reason and calculate this Intervention 7
700 x 4 - into a three-factor problem way for problems that involve multi­ There is no one answer to when
that includes a power of 10- 7 x 100 x 4. plying by three-digit numbers, like teachers should provide intervention
Encourage students to multiply by the 683 X 4. instruction on a topic a particular
power of 10 last for easiest computing. student is struggling with. Three

20 EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP/NOVEMBER 2007

different timing scenarios suggest them­ while others are learning multidigit struggling students are studying two
selves, each with pluses and caveats. multiplication, floundering students different and unrelated mathematics
may need experiences to help them topics at the same time.
While the Class Is Studying the Topic learn basic underlying concepts, such as
Extra help for struggling learners must that 5 x 9 can be interpreted as five After the Class Has Studied the Topic.
be more than additional practice on the groups of nine. This approach offers learners a repeat
topic the class is working on. We must experience, such as during summer
also provide comprehensive instruction Before the Class Studies the Topic school, with a math area that initially
geared to repairing the student's shaky Suppose the class is studying multipli­ challenged them.
foundation of understanding. cation but will begin a unit on fractions ■ The plus: Students get a fresh start
■ The plus: Intervening at this time within a month, first by cutting out in a new situation.
may give students the support they need individual fraction kits. It would be ■ The caveat: Waiting until after the
to keep up with the class. extremely effective for at-risk students rest of the class has studied a topic to
intervene can compound a student's
confusion and failure during regular
Many students needing math intervention class instruction.

have weak mathematical vocabularies. How MyTeaching Has Changed

Developing intervention lessons for at­
risk students has not only been an all­
■ The caveat: Students may have a to have the fraction kit experience consuming professional focus for me in
serious lack of background that requires before the others, and then to experi­ recent years, but has also reinforced my
reaching back to mathematical concepts ence it again with the class. belief that instruction-for all students
taught in previous years. The focus ■ The plus: We prepare students so and especially for at-risk students­
should be on the underlying math, not they can learn with their classmates. must emphasize understanding, sense
on class assignments. For example, ■ The caveat: With this approach, making, and skills.
Thinking about how to serve students
like Paul has contributed to changing
my instructional practice. I am now
FIGURE 1. Pathways Multiplication Game
much more intentional about creating
and teaching lessons that help interven­
Player 1 chooses two tion students catch up and keep up,
numbers from those 72 36 49 88 54 particularly scaffolding the mathemat­
listed (in the game ical content to introduce concepts and
shown here, 6 and 11) skills through a routine of support. Such
and circles the product of 84 77 96 132 56
careful scaffolding may not be necessary
those two numbers on
for students who learn mathematics
the board with his or her
63 81 48 108 121 easily, who know to look for connec­
color of marker.
tions, and who have mathematical intu­
Player 2 changes just
one of the numbers to
another from the list (for
example, changing 6 to 6
® 99 144 64 42
ition. But it is crucial for students at risk
of failure who can't repair their math
foundations on their own. ID
7 8 9 11 12
9, so the factors are now
9 and 11) and circles the product with a second color. Copyright © Marilyn Bums.
Player 1 might now change the 11 to another 9 and circle 81 on the board.
Play continues until one player has completed a continuous pathway from Marilyn Bums is Founder of Math Solu­
one side to the other by circling boxes that share a common side or corner. tions Professional Development,
To support intervention students, have pairs play against pairs. Sausalito, California; 800-868-9092;
mburns@[Link].

Permission to reprint courtesy of ASSOCIATION FOR SUPERVISION AND CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 21

Educational Leadership, [Link].
 Circles and Stars
Begin by rolling a die. Take the number that comes up and draw that many circles after the
equal sign. Have your partner roll the die. Take the number that comes up and draw that many
stars in each of your circle. Use the circles and stars to fill in the blanks. Do all seven
problems. Add up the total number of stars. The team that has the most stars wins .

• • .,,,,. - ..... '

• /

• '**'
\
- ' .... .,,,,. 7
I

• 3 circles
2 stars in each circle
6 stars in all

3x2==6

Circles and Stars

Transparency