CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

●​ Meaning: To calculate or count

1.1 What is a Computer? Memory Trick:

A computer is an electronic machine that performs Compute = Calculate → Computer = Calculator
multiple tasks such as: Machine

●​ Accepting data
●​ Processing data 1.4 Early Purpose of
●​ Producing output Computer

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●​ Storing data for future use
Initially, computers were invented mainly for:
In simple words:

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✔ Mathematical calculations​
Computer = Input → Process →
✔ Counting large numbers
Output + Storage

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That’s why early computers were just advanced
Standard Definition calculators

A computer is an electronic device that retrieves,

processes, analyzes data and produces output
while storing information for future use.
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1.5 Hindi Name of Computer
Computer = “Sanganak”

1.2 Why is Computer called a

Data Processor? 1.6 Full Form of COMPUTER
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Letter Meaning
A computer converts raw data into meaningful
information, hence it is called:
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C Common
Data Processor
O Operating
Example:
M Machine
Raw Data After Processing
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(Information) P Purposely

Marks: 45, 60, 80 Average = 61.6 U Used for

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T Technological
Daily sales Total monthly profit
numbers
E Educational

So: R Research

●​ Data = Raw facts

●​ Information = Processed useful result
Easy Trick:

“Common Operating Machine Purposely Used for

Technological & Educational Research”
1.3 Origin of the Word
“Computer” 1.7 Important Personalities
●​ Derived from Latin word “Compute” Name Contribution
 Computer works internally in 3 steps:
Charles Babbage Father of Computer
1.​ Fetch → Get instruction
Alan Turing Father of Modern Computer
2.​ Decode → Understand instruction
3.​ Execute → Perform action
Trick to Remember:
Trick: FDE = Fetch → Decode →
Babbage → Basic Computer​ Execute
Turing → Modern Computing

1.12 Components of
1.8 First Computers in India
Computer System
●​
🤣
First computer: Siddhartha (Youbox wala
) There are 6 main parts:

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●​ First installed computer: HEC-2M (1952) at
Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata
No. Component Function

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1.9 Computer Literacy 1 CPU Brain of computer

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A person is called computer literate if: 2 Input Devices Enter data

✔ He/she can operate a computer for basic needs ST3 Output Devices Show results

Important Day: 4 Memory Store temporary

data
World Computer Literacy Day = 2 December
5 Secondary Storage Store permanently
Started by: NIIT

6 Communication Data transfer

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Devices
1.10 Information Processing
Cycle
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This is the heart of computer working. 1.13 Major Functions of

Cycle: Computer
1. Input
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Input → Processing → Output

●​ Taking data from user

Stage Meaning Example
●​ Example: Keyboard typing
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Input Entering Typing marks

data 2. Processing

Processin Calculation Average calculation ●​ Data is processed using programs

g
3. Output
Output Result Display average
●​ Result is shown
Sometimes storage is also included. ●​ Example: Screen display

4. Storage

●​ Data is saved
1.11 Fetch–Decode–Execute
Cycle 5. Control
 ●​ Controls all operations Can perform:

●​ Addition (mainly)
1.14 Computer Related
Terms Trick:

Abacus = Beads = Counting

DATA

●​ Raw facts and figures Important Points About Abacus

●​ Always unprocessed
●​ Derived from word “Abax”
Example: ●​ Wooden rectangular frame
●​ Basis of modern calculator
●​ Name, marks, numbers
Napier’s Bones

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INFORMATION
●​ Invented in 1611
●​ Used for multiplication and division

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●​ Processed form of data
●​ Useful for decision making
Modern = Turing​
Abacus = First device
Example:

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After the development of early devices like Abacus
●​ Result: Pass/Fail
and Napier’s Bones, several important mechanical
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and electromechanical devices were invented.
These inventions gradually led to the development
1.15 Types of Data of modern computers.

Type Description Example

Napier’s Bones Napier’s Bones was an
Text Alphabets A, B, C early mechanical calculating device invented by
John Napier in 1611.
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Numerical Numbers 1, 2, 100

Features
Alphanumeric Mix of both A1, B2
BO

●​ Consisted of rods (called bones)

Graphical Images, charts Graph ●​ Stored digits from 0 to 9
●​ Used for multiplication, division, addition,
Multimedia Audio + Video Songs and subtraction

Conceptual Importance
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1.16 Record Napier also developed the concept of logarithms,

which simplified complex calculations.
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Record = Collection of related data

Example
Example:
To multiply 23 × 4:
●​ Student record = Name + Roll No + Marks
●​ Numbers were arranged on rods
●​ Results were obtained by reading diagonal
1.17 History of Computer values

(Beginning) Memory Technique

Abacus Napier → Numbers → Rods → Calculation

●​ First calculating device Slide Rule

●​ Developed in China
●​ Consists of beads on rods
The Slide Rule was developed by William
●​ Also called Counting Frame
Oughtred in 1622.
Working Principle Features

It is based on logarithmic scales. ●​ Improved Pascal’s calculator

●​ Could perform multiplication and division
Uses ●​ Introduced stepped drum mechanism

Operation Explanation Concept Insight

Multiplication Using sliding scales This machine was more powerful and flexible than
Pascal’s calculator.
Division Reverse sliding
Jacquard Loom
Squares Using scale alignment
Developed by Joseph Marie Jacquard in 1801.

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Cubes Advanced scale
Features
Square Roots Scale reading ●​ First programmable mechanical machine

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●​ Used punched cards to control weaving
Trigonometric functions Special scales patterns

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Importance in Computer History
Concept Insight ST ●​ Introduced the concept of programming
It was widely used by engineers before electronic using punched cards
calculators. ●​ Later used in early computers

Limitation Memory Technique

●​ Requires manual skill Jacquard → Punched Cards → Programming

●​ Accuracy depends on user Concept
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Pascal’s Calculator (Pascaline) Punched Card System

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Invented by Blaise Pascal in 1642. Developed by Herman Hollerith in 1890.

Features Features

●​ First mechanical automatic calculator ●​ Used hard paper cards with holes
●​ Stored data in binary form
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●​ Used gears (cogwheels)

●​ Could perform addition and subtraction (presence/absence of holes)

Structure Application
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●​ Wheels marked from 0 to 9 ●​ Used in US Census for data processing

●​ Each rotation represented a number
Importance
Example
●​ First large-scale data processing system
If a wheel moves from 9 to 0, it carries over to the ●​ Foundation of input/output systems
next digit.
Difference Engine
Importance
Developed by Charles Babbage between
●​ First step toward automation in calculation 1821–1822.

Leibniz Calculator Features

Developed by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in 1671. ●​ First steam-powered mechanical calculator

 ●​ Designed to solve mathematical tables Features

Purpose ●​ Used punched cards

●​ Automated census data processing
●​ Eliminate human errors in calculations
Importance
Importance
●​ Reduced processing time drastically
●​ Beginning of automated computing ●​ Led to formation of IBM

Analytical Engine Transition to Electronic

Developed by Charles Babbage in 1833. Computers
Features

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After mechanical devices, the development moved
towards electronic computers.
●​ First concept of a general-purpose
computer

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●​ Included: ABC Computer (1942)
○​ Input unit
○​ Processing unit Developed by John Vincent Atanasoff and

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○​ Output unit Clifford Berry
○​ Memory
Features
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Key Concept
●​ First electronic computer
This machine introduced the idea of a ●​ Used vacuum tubes
programmable computer. ●​ Solved linear equations

First Programmer Importance

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Ada Lovelace ●​ First step toward digital computing

●​ Wrote the first algorithm Mark I (1943)

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●​ Known as the first software engineer

Developed by IBM and Howard Aiken
Concept Insight
Features
Modern computers are based on the Analytical
Engine design. ●​ First electromechanical computer
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●​ Used both electrical and mechanical

Memory Technique components
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Analytical Engine = Modern Computer Blueprint ENIAC (1946)

Arithmometer Developed by J. Presper Eckert and John
Mauchly
Invented by Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar in
1820. Full Form

Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer

Features

●​ First commercially successful mechanical Features

calculator
●​ Performed basic arithmetic operations ●​ First general-purpose electronic computer
●​ Very large and power-consuming

Census Tabulating Machine

EDVAC (1950)
Developed by Herman Hollerith in 1890.
Developed by John von Neumann Importance
Full Form ●​ First commercial computer
●​ Used for business and government
Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer purposes

Key Concept
Stored Program Concept
●​ Introduced stored program concept Proposed by John von Neumann

EDSAC (1949) Concept

Developed by Maurice Wilkes ●​ Data and instructions are stored in the
same memory
Full Form

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Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator
Importance

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●​ Basis of modern computer architecture
Importance

●​ First stored-program computer Memory Technique

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Single Memory → Data + Program
UNIVAC ST
Full Form:​
Universal Automatic Computer

Summary Table of Historical Devices

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Device Year Inventor Importance

Napier’s Bones 1611 John Napier Logarithmic calculation

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Slide Rule 1622 William Oughtred Logarithmic operations

Pascaline 1642 Blaise Pascal First mechanical calculator

Leibniz Calculator 1671 Leibniz Advanced calculations

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Jacquard Loom 1801 Jacquard Punched card concept

Difference Engine 1822 Babbage Automatic calculation

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Analytical Engine 1833 Babbage First computer concept

ABC 1942 Atanasoff & Berry First electronic computer

ENIAC 1946 Eckert & Mauchly First general-purpose computer

 Conceptual Importance

1.17 History of ●​
●​
Introduced the use of logarithms
Reduced complex multiplication into

Computer simpler addition

Deep Insight
The history of computers is not a sudden
development but a gradual evolution over
Napier’s work laid the mathematical foundation for
centuries. It reflects humanity’s continuous effort to
later computing devices such as slide rules and
reduce manual calculation, minimize errors, and
logarithmic tables.
increase speed and efficiency.

The development can be understood in four major

stages: 1.17.2 Slide Rule –
Analog Computing

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Stage Description
Device

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Manual Stage Human-based calculations
Developed by William Oughtred in 1622.

Mechanical Machines with gears and rods

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Stage Fundamental Principle
Electromechani Combination of electrical and Based on logarithmic scales, where:
cal Stage mechanical parts
ST ●​ Addition of lengths = Multiplication of
Electronic Fully electronic computers numbers
Stage

Detailed Uses
1.17.1 Napier’s Bones –
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Function How it Works

Beginning of Advanced Multiplication Sliding scales align values

BO

Calculation Division Reverse alignment

Invented by John Napier in 1611. Square Using squared scale

Cube Using cubic scale

Detailed Structure
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Trigonometry Special scales

Napier’s Bones consisted of:

●​ Rectangular rods (bones) Real-Life Application

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●​ Each rod represented digits from 0–9

●​ Numbers were arranged in a specific
Before electronic calculators, engineers used slide
pattern
rules to:

Working Principle ●​ Design bridges

●​ Calculate distances
The device used diagonal arrangements of ●​ Solve physics equations
numbers to perform multiplication and division.
Limitations
Example (Conceptual)
●​ Accuracy depends on user skill
To multiply 23 × 4: ●​ Not suitable for very precise calculations

●​ Select rods for 2 and 3 Conceptual Importance

●​ Align them side by side
●​ Read diagonal values to get the result
It represents the transition from mechanical to ●​ Subtraction
analog computation. ●​ Multiplication
●​ Division

1.17.3 Pascal’s Calculator Conceptual Advancement

– First Automatic Leibniz’s machine improved Pascal’s design and
Machine brought computing closer to modern capabilities.

Invented by Blaise Pascal in 1642. Deep Insight

Internal Mechanism Leibniz also proposed the idea of binary number

system, which is the foundation of modern
computers.
●​ Consisted of gears and wheels

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●​ Each wheel represented digits (0–9)
●​ Automatic carry mechanism was
introduced 1.17.5 Jacquard Loom –
Birth of Programming

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Working Example
Concept

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If a wheel moves from 9 to 0:
Developed by Joseph Marie Jacquard in 1801.
●​ It automatically increments the next wheel ST
(carry operation)
Working Mechanism
Operations ●​ Used punched cards to control weaving
patterns
●​ Addition ●​ Each card contained holes representing
●​ Subtraction instructions
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Deep Insight Conceptual Breakthrough

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This was the first machine to: This was the first time:

●​ Perform calculations automatically ●​ Instructions were stored externally

●​ Reduce human effort significantly ●​ Machines followed predefined instructions

Limitation Importance in Computing

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●​ Could not perform multiplication and ●​ Introduced the concept of programming

division directly ●​ Inspired early computer input systems
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Deep Understanding
1.17.4 Leibniz Calculator
– Advancement in Each punched card can be compared to:

Mechanical Computing ●​ A line of code in modern programming

Developed by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in 1671.

1.17.6 Punched Card
Key Innovation System – Data Storage
●​ Introduced Stepped Drum Mechanism Revolution
Developed by Herman Hollerith in 1890.
Capabilities
●​ Addition Structure
 ●​ Cards made of stiff paper
●​ Holes represented binary data (1 and 0) Mill CPU

Input Input devices

Application
●​ Used in US Census processing Output Output devices
●​ Reduced processing time from years to
months
Key Features
Conceptual Importance
●​ Programmable machine
●​ First large-scale data processing system ●​ Used punched cards
●​ Introduced input, output, and storage ●​ Had memory and processing unit
integration
First Programmer

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Deep Insight
Ada Lovelace

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Punched cards were used in computers until the
1970s. ●​ Wrote the first algorithm
●​ Understood machine capability beyond
calculation

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1.17.7 Difference Engine
Deep Concept
– Beginning of ST
Automation This machine had all the basic components of
modern computers.
Developed by Charles Babbage (1821–1822)
Very Important Insight
Purpose Modern computers are direct descendants of the
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Analytical Engine.
●​ To compute mathematical tables
automatically
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1.17.9 Arithmometer –
Mechanism
Commercial Calculator
●​ Based on finite difference method
●​ Used mechanical gears Invented by Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar
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Importance Features
●​ Eliminated human calculation errors ●​ First commercially successful calculator
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●​ First automatic mechanical calculator ●​ Used in offices and businesses

1.17.8 Analytical Engine 1.17.10 Transition to

– Foundation of Modern Electronic Computers
Computer Mechanical limitations led to:

Developed by Charles Babbage in 1833. ●​ Slow speed

●​ High error rate
●​ Physical wear and tear
Components (Very Important)
Component Modern Equivalent This led to the development of electronic
computers.

Store Memory
 ●​ Foundation of modern computer
1.17.11 ABC Computer architecture
(1942)
Developed by John Vincent Atanasoff and
1.17.15 EDSAC (1949)
Clifford Berry
Developed by Maurice Wilkes

Features
Importance
●​ First electronic computer
●​ Used vacuum tubes ●​ First practical stored-program computer
●​ Solved algebraic equations

Importance 1.17.16 UNIVAC

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●​ Beginning of digital electronics Full Form

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Universal Automatic Computer
1.17.12 Mark I (1943)
Importance

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Developed by IBM and Howard Aiken
●​ First commercial computer
Features ●​ Used in business, government, and

●​ Electromechanical
ST census

●​ Automatic sequence control

1.17.0 Conceptual
1.17.13 ENIAC (1946) Introduction: Why
Computers Were
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Developed by J. Presper Eckert and John

Mauchly Invented
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Features Before understanding each machine, it is important

to understand why computers evolved.
●​ First general-purpose electronic computer
Human beings faced three major problems:
●​ Used thousands of vacuum tubes
1.​ Slow Calculation Speed
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Limitation 2.​ High Chances of Error

3.​ Difficulty in Handling Large Data
●​ Consumed huge electricity
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●​ Generated heat To solve these problems, humans gradually

developed machines.

1.17.14 EDVAC and

1.17.1 Evolution Stages
Stored Program Concept
of Computer
Developed by John von Neumann
The development of computers did not happen
suddenly. It evolved step by step.
Core Idea
●​ Data and instructions stored in same Stage Nature Key Feature
memory
Manual Stage Human-b Fingers,
ased memory
Importance
 Mechanical Machine Gears, rods Deep Mathematical Concept
Stage s
●​ Based on logarithmic principles
Electromechanic Mixed Electrical + ●​ Converts multiplication into addition
al Stage mechanical

Electronic Stage Modern Fully electronic Importance

●​ First device to reduce calculation
complexity
Deep Concept ●​ Foundation for future computational
mathematics
Each stage solved the limitations of the previous
stage:
Slide Rule (1622)
●​ Manual → Slow

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●​ Mechanical → Limited capability
Developed by William Oughtred
●​ Electromechanical → Semi-automatic
●​ Electronic → Fast and accurate

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Core Principle
1.17.2 Based on:​

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Log(a × b) = Log(a) + Log(b)
MECHANICAL Thus:​

ERA (DETAILED Multiplication becomes addition of distances.

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ANALYSIS) Detailed Functional Table
Operation Method
This era includes machines that used physical
components like gears, rods, and wheels. Multiplication Add distances
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Napier’s Bones (1611) Division Subtract distances

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Invented by John Napier Square Use square scale

Cube Use cube scale

Structural Design
Trigonometry Special scales
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●​ Set of rods (called bones)

●​ Each rod had numbers arranged
diagonally
●​ Represented multiplication tables
Engineering Example
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Working Mechanism Engineers used slide rules for:

(Step-by-Step Concept)
●​ Bridge design
●​ Aeronautics calculations
1.​ Select rods corresponding to numbers
●​ Physics problems
2.​ Align rods side by side
3.​ Read diagonals to get results
Deep Insight
Example (Conceptual
This is an analog computer, not digital.
Understanding)
Multiply 23 × 4: Limitation
●​ Take rods for 2 and 3 ●​ Not exact
●​ Read 4th row ●​ Requires expertise
●​ Combine diagonal values
 Leibniz also introduced:​
Pascal’s Calculator Binary Number System (0 and 1)
(1642)
Importance
Invented by Blaise Pascal
Binary system is the foundation of modern
computers.
Mechanical Structure
●​
●​
Interconnected wheels
Each wheel = 1 digit (0–9)
Jacquard Loom (1801)
●​ Gear mechanism
Developed by Joseph Marie Jacquard

Key Innovation
Working Mechanism

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Automatic Carry System
●​ Used punched cards
●​ Each card contained pattern instructions
Working Logic

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If digit exceeds 9: Conceptual Breakthrough

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●​ It resets to 0 ●​ First programmable machine
●​ Carries 1 to next wheel ●​ Instructions stored externally

Example
ST
Deep Understanding

999 + 1: Each punched card = Instruction set

●​ All wheels rotate → 000 Connection to Modern

●​ Carry propagates → 1000
Computing
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Importance ●​ Similar to programming code

●​ Inspired computer input methods
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●​ First automatic mechanical calculator

●​ Reduced manual intervention
Punched Card System
Limitation (1890)
●​ Only addition and subtraction
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Developed by Herman Hollerith

Leibniz Calculator (1671) Structure

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Developed by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz ●​ Hard paper card

●​ Holes represent binary data

Key Innovation
Working Concept
Stepped Drum Mechanism
●​ Hole = 1
●​ No hole = 0
Capabilities
●​ Addition Application
●​ Subtraction
●​ Multiplication ●​ US Census processing
●​ Division
Impact
Deep Concept
 ●​ Reduced processing time drastically First Programmer
●​ Introduced automated data handling
Ada Lovelace
Deep Insight
Deep Conceptual Insight
This system introduced:
This machine had:
●​ Input
●​ Output
●​ Storage ●​ Input unit
●​ Processing unit
●​ Output unit
Difference Engine (1822) ●​ Memory

These are exactly the components of modern

Developed by Charles Babbage
computers.

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Core Principle Critical Understanding

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Based on:​
Modern computers are direct implementation of
Finite Difference Method
Analytical Engine concept.

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Purpose
Arithmometer
●​ Solve polynomial equations
●​ Generate mathematical tables
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Invented by Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar

Importance Importance
●​ Eliminated human errors ●​ First commercially used calculator
●​ First automatic calculating machine ●​ Used in offices
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Analytical Engine (1833)

1.17.3
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– MOST IMPORTANT
Developed by Charles Babbage TRANSITION TO
Complete Structure ELECTRONIC ERA
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Component Function Modern Mechanical machines had limitations:

Equivalent
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●​ Slow speed
Store Data Memory ●​ Mechanical wear and tear
storage ●​ Limited complexity

Mill Processing CPU This led to the development of electronic

computers.
Input Data entry Keyboard

Output Result
display
Monitor
ABC Computer (1942)
Developed by John Vincent Atanasoff and
Clifford Berry
Key Features
●​ Programmable Features
●​ Stored data
●​ Performed calculations ●​ First electronic computer
●​ Used punched cards ●​ Used vacuum tubes
 ●​ Solved linear equations
EDVAC and Stored
Deep Insight Program Concept
Marked the beginning of digital computing.
Proposed by John von Neumann

Mark I (1943) Core Principle

Developed by IBM and Howard Aiken ●​ Data + Instructions stored in same
memory

Nature
Importance

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Electromechanical
●​ Foundation of modern computer
architecture

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Importance
●​ Bridge between mechanical and electronic EDSAC (1949)

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era
Developed by Maurice Wilkes
ST
ENIAC (1946) Importance
Developed by J. Presper Eckert and John
Mauchly ●​ First practical stored-program computer

Features UNIVAC
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●​ First general-purpose electronic computer

Full Form:​
●​ Used vacuum tubes
Universal Automatic Computer
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Limitations Importance
●​ Very large
●​ First commercial computer
●​ High power consumption
●​ Used in business and government
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U
BO
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ST
U
D
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