Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:23363–23392

[Link]

REVIEW ARTICLE

Global perspective of municipal solid waste and landfill

leachate: generation, composition, eco‑toxicity, and sustainable
management strategies
Ali Mohd Yatoo1,2 · Basharat Hamid2 · Tahir Ahmad Sheikh3 · Shafat Ali1 · Sartaj Ahmad Bhat4,5 · Sudipta Ramola6 ·
Md. Niamat Ali1 · Zahoor Ahmad Baba3 · Sunil Kumar5

Received: 25 May 2023 / Accepted: 23 February 2024 / Published online: 5 March 2024
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2024

Abstract
Globally, more than 2 billion tonnes of municipal solid waste (MSW) are generated each year, with that amount anticipated
to reach around 3.5 billion tonnes by 2050. On a worldwide scale, food and green waste contribute the major proportion of
MSW, which accounts for 44% of global waste, followed by recycling waste (38%), which includes plastic, glass, cardboard,
and paper, and 18% of other materials. Population growth, urbanization, and industrial expansion are the principal drivers
of the ever-increasing production of MSW across the world. Among the different practices employed for the management of
waste, landfill disposal has been the most popular and easiest method across the world. Waste management practices differ
significantly depending on the income level. In high-income nations, only 2% of waste is dumped, whereas in low-income
nations, approximately 93% of waste is burned or dumped. However, the unscientific disposal of waste in landfills causes
the generation of gases, heat, and leachate and results in a variety of ecotoxicological problems, including global warming,
water pollution, fire hazards, and health effects that are hazardous to both the environment and public health. Therefore,
sustainable management of MSW and landfill leachate is critical, necessitating the use of more advanced techniques to lessen
waste production and maximize recycling to assure environmental sustainability. The present review provides an updated
overview of the global perspective of municipal waste generation, composition, landfill heat and leachate formation, and
ecotoxicological effects, and also discusses integrated-waste management approaches for the sustainable management of
municipal waste and landfill leachate.

Keywords Global waste · Landfill heat · Recycling · Fire hazards · Health effects · Global warming · Integrated waste
management

Abbreviations
Responsible Editor: Ta Yeong Wu
MSW Municipal solid waste
* Ali Mohd Yatoo HMs Heavy metals
aliyatoo123@[Link] LFG Landfill gas
1 ETs Elevated temperatures
Centre of Research for Development, University of Kashmir,
Srinagar 190006, Jammu and Kashmir, India LF Landfill
2 WHO World Health Organization
Department of Environmental Sciences, University
of Kashmir, Srinagar 190006, Jammu and Kashmir, India BIS Bureau of Indian Standards
3 MW Municipal waste
Faculty of Agriculture, SKUAST-Kashmir, Jammu
and Kashmir, Wadura 193201, India PM Particulate matter
4 GHGs Greenhouse gases
River Basin Research Centre, Gifu University, 1‑1 Yanagido,
Gifu, Japan VOCs Volatile organic compounds
5 BOD Biological oxygen demand
Waste Re‑Processing Division, CSIR-National Environmental
Engineering Research Institute (CSIR-NEERI), COD Chemical oxygen demand
Nagpur 440020, India MWM Municipal waste management
6
Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, SWM Solid waste management
China SW Solid waste

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23364 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:23363–23392

Introduction and landfill gases such as ­CO2 and ­CH4 are generated dur-
ing the waste decomposition process (Chavan et al. 2019).
The worldwide generation of municipal solid waste The heat generation may persist even after the dumping
(MSW) is rapidly mounting due to industrial development ground is closed (Chavan and Kumar 2018). In underde-
and rising living and economic standards (Peng et al. veloped nations, the risk of landfill fires is great since most
2023; Khan et al. 2022). Every year, nearly 2.1 billion landfills are non-engineered (Chavan et al. 2019).
tonnes of MSW are produced globally, of which 33 per- Landfill leachate is believed to be one of the serious eco-
cent is improperly managed (Lino et al. 2023). Recently, it logical concerns linked to MSW (Mor and Ravindra 2023).
has been reported that MSW production is likely to mount The leachate amount and quality are both largely determined
to 3.4 billion tonnes by the year 2050 (Statista 2023; Kaza by the volume, moisture content, and components of solid
et al. 2018). The top three producers of MSW are the waste (SW), as well as climatic and hydrogeological con-
USA, China, and India (Statista 2023; United Nations ditions (Kamaruddin et al. 2017; Adhikari et al. 2014). It
2019). In recent years, rapid urbanization, particularly in mainly contains inorganic salts, organic compounds, heavy
developing nations, has also drastically amplified MSW metals (HMs), and other contaminants (Abdel-Shafy et al.
generation (Peng et al. 2023; Harris-Lovett et al. 2018). 2023; Shen et al. 2018) and has a strong potential to affect
Around 54 percent of the population of the globe is esti- the environment and public health (Ambujan and Thalla
mated to reside in cities, with that number likely to climb 2023). The landfill leachate can also make its way into water
to 68 percent by 2050 (UN DESA 2018). MSW generation resources, leading to water pollution (Samadder et al. 2017).
per capita has also increased dramatically as the lifestyles Landfill leachate is harmful both in the short and long term
and social/economic status of people living in metropoli- and is considered dangerous as its infiltration into under-
tan areas have improved (Gour and Singh 2023; Sharholy ground water can lead to biological magnification (Mishra
et al. 2007). Augmented use of commodities and services et al. 2019).
also results in the massive production of MSW (Toro and Thus, in order to ensure sustainable waste management
Morales 2018). The municipal waste (MW) constituents and safeguard human health, the transition from traditional
vary depending on income, as people with low and mid- waste dumping methods to advanced technology is a key
dle income produce mostly organic trash, while people requirement. These advanced thermochemical and biological
with high income generate more metals, glassware, and techniques include incineration, pyrolysis, liquefaction, gasi-
wastepaper (Kumar and Samadder 2017). Throughout the fication, anaerobic digestion, and composting, which will not
globe, MSW generation has a wide range of environmen- only help to reduce waste volume, generate clean energy, and
tal consequences, including GHG emissions, plastic, and produce stable organic fertilizer (Waqas et al. 2023; Singh
water pollution (Vinti et al. 2023; Chen et al. 2020). et al. 2020; Shah et al. 2019), but will also provide numerous
Management of MSW comprises recycling, incinera- job opportunities to unemployed youth (Sharif et al. 2018).
tion, conversion to energy, landfilling, and composting Furthermore, global interest in diverting MSW for recycling
(Waqas et al. 2023; Khan et al. 2022; Nandhini et al. and the production of energy is considerably preferable to
2022). However, because of its low cost and minimal landfilling owing to fewer environmental implications,
technical requirements, landfilling is one of the most fre- including lesser emission of greenhouse gases, decreased
quently employed techniques for disposing of MSW (Man- pollution, and high energy recovery potential. This article
junatha et al. 2023). For example, in the USA, approxi- discusses the global perspective of MSW, landfill leachate,
mately 52.6 percent of MSW is discarded in landfills (Sun their related impacts, and sustainable waste management
et al. 2019), 59.1 percent in Brazil (Costa et al. 2019), approaches that can assist MSW management authorities
85 percent in the kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Ouda et al. and researchers in developing more effective strategies.
2016), 94.5 percent in Malaysia (Tan et al. 2014), and 79
percent in China (Havukainen et al. 2017). However, land-
filling has significant societal, health, and environmental Municipal solid waste generation
issues (Mor and Ravindra 2023; Naddeo et al. 2018). In and composition: a global perspective
landfills, MSW undergoes physicochemical and biologi-
cal interactions, liberating elements, gases, and nutrients Waste generation
(Zornoza et al. 2016; Regadío et al. 2015). The organic
fraction of waste also attracts different pathogens, espe- MSW is a diverse range of waste often generated daily in
cially bacteria and viruses, which can cause significant or different social sectors such as homes, agriculture, commercial
long-term diseases in living beings (Han et al. 2022; Van units, hospitals, municipal collection, and treatment plants
Fan et al. 2018). A significant amount of leachate, heat, (Bhat et al. 2018). Households are the major MSW-generating
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:23363–23392 23365

sources, contributing 44–75% of the entire waste produced but produce only around 5% of the global waste (Kaza
(Qonitan et al. 2021). Fereja and Chemeda (2022) recently et al. 2018). Taking about region-wise waste generation,
reported that an average of 0.475 kg of garbage is produced presently, the East Asia and Pacific region produces
by residential homes per inhabitant per day. However, the rate the majority of the world’s waste (23%), Sub-Saharan
of MSW generation increases during the holidays and summer Africa (9%), and the Middle East and North Africa
(Rafiee et al. 2018). The global production of MSW per year region produces the least amount (6%). However, by
is more than two billion tonnes (Kaza et al. 2018), with the 2050, global waste production is projected to hit around
USA, China, India, Brazil, and Indonesia being the biggest 3.5 billion tonnes per year (Statista 2023; Kaza et al.
producers of waste globally (Fig. 1) (UN 2019). Worldwide, 2018) (Fig. 3), with Sub-Saharan Africa and South
the mean amount of waste generated p­ erson−1 ­day−1 is 0.74 kg Asia producing 15% (516 million tonnes) and 19% (661
(Kaza et al. 2018). However, the rate of MSW generation per million tonnes) of global waste, respectively. While
capita per day is higher in developed countries compared to North America is anticipated to produce approximately
developing countries like Brazil, China, and India (Fig. 2) 12% (396 million tonnes), and the Middle East and North
(Statista 2022). Africa will produce the least around 8% (Kaza et al. 2018)
Generally, there is a direct relationship between waste (Fig. 4). Thus, in the next few decades, regions with a high
production and income level (Kumar and Agrawal 2020). proportion of growing low- and middle-income nations,
Despite having only 16% of the world’s population, such as South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, are likely to
high-income nations produce 34% of the world’s waste. experience a greater rate of waste generation than regions
Low-income nations have 9% of the global population like Europe and North America.

Fig. 1  Top 10 municipal solid

waste (United Nations 2019)

Fig. 2  Per capita generation of

solid waste (Statista 2022)
23366 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:23363–23392

Fig. 3  By 2025, around 3.5 bil-

lion tonnes of global waste will Region wise projected total waste generation by 2050
be generated 800
714

Millions of tonnes per year

700 661

600
516
490
500
396
400 369

300 255

200

100

0
Middle east Sub-Saharan Latin North South Asia Europe and East Asia and
and North Africa America and America Central Asia Pacific
AAfrica Caribbean

Fig. 4  Currently, East Asia and

Current and projected share of waste generation by region
the Pacific, Europe, and North
America generate the highest 25%
23%
amount of global waste, but 21%
by 2050, the share of global 20% 19%
20%

waste generation in high- 17%

income countries is predicted 15%
to decrease, while in low- and 15% 14% 14%

middle-income countries like 11% 11%

12%

South Asia and Sub-Saharan 10% 9%

Africa, the share of global 8%

waste generation is predicted to 6%

increase 5%

0%
Middle East and Sub-Saharan Latin America North America South Asia Europe and East Asia and
North Africa Africa and Caribbean Central Asia Pacific

Current 2050

Municipal solid waste composition America, which produce more dry waste (Abylkhani et al.
2021; Kumar and Agrawal 2020). The typical composition
Waste composition is the categorization of the types of mate- of MSW generated in different countries around the globe
rials in MSW. MSW consists of different physical compo- is presented in Table 1.
nents, including paper, wood, plastic, cans, yard trimmings,
glass, rubber, metal, fruit waste, batteries, paints, and phar-
maceutical products (Kumar and Samadder 2023; Nandhini Landfill heat generation: mechanism
et al. 2022). On a global scale, food and green waste make up and factors involved
the majority of MSW (44% of the global waste), followed by
recycling waste (38%), which includes plastic, glass, card- The primary by-product of the landfilling of MSW is heat
board, metal, and paper, and 18% of miscellaneous materials (Akhtar et al. 2023). Long-term high temperatures have been
(Fig. 5) (Zhu et al. 2021; Kaza et al. 2018). The composi- documented in MSW dumps across the world under vari-
tion of waste varies with income level, indicating different ous operational settings and climate locations (Yeşiller et al.
consumption habits. High-income nations produce more dry 2016). The temperature elevation in MSW landfills is linked
waste that can be recycled and comparatively less food and to a slew of problems, including concerns related to func-
green waste, while low-income nations produce more food tioning and regulation, in addition to the destruction to land-
and green waste and less waste that could be recycled (He fill gas and leachate collecting facilities (Jafari et al. 2017;
et al. 2022; Kumar and Samadder 2017). Across the globe, Luettich Scott and Yafrate 2016). During the gas collection
on average, all regions produce at least 50% or more organic and control activities, the atmospheric air frequently influxes
waste, with the exception of Europe, Central Asia, and North into landfills, which results in the anaerobic decomposition
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:23363–23392 23367

Fig. 5  Food and green waste

account for the highest percent- Global waste composition
age of municipal solid waste, 50%
followed by materials that can 44%
45%
be recycled like paper and card-
board, plastic, glass, and metal 40%
35%
30%
25%
20% 17%
14%
15% 12%
10%
5% 4%
5% 2% 2%
0%
Food and Glass Metal Paper and Plastic Rubber and Wood other
green waste cardboard leather

of landfilled trash and generates increased temperatures (Shi through the waste (Yeşiller et al. 2016), (iv) induction of
et al. 2021; Kumar et al. 2020). Organic wastes, on the other exothermic aerobic reactions due to slumping or slope fail-
hand, decompose aerobically, transiently, and anaerobically ures causing oxygen entry in the landfills (Yeşiller et al.
in landfills. The maximum temperature output occurs during 2016), (v) pyrolysis and high temperature combustion (Jafari
the beginning of anaerobic degradation; however, all three et al. 2017), (vi) heat production related to climate change
phases contribute to heat creation (Khire et al. 2020). The in landfills, and (vii) long-term deactivation of gas wells
entry of oxygen into landfills initiates exothermic decompo- in landfills (Joslyn 2019). Some of the important factors
sition in landfills through a number of other actions, includ- responsible for heat generation in landfills are the following:
ing suboptimal soil cover, rapid settlement, passive venting,
and sewer systems, all of which enable the supply of oxygen Landfill depth
to the waste. Several other mechanisms have been reported
to produce landfill heat, such as hydration of ash (Hao et al. The bulk of waste placed near the cover is impacted by
2017; Jafari et al. 2014), along with metal corrosion (Calder seasonal fluctuations in temperature, followed by an
and Stark 2010), pyrolysis (Benson 2017), and spontaneous escalating lag phase with augmented depth (Xiao et al. 2022).
combustion (Gray 2016). The highest temperatures at MSW Van Elk et al. (2014) discovered that waste temperature rose
dumps are typically not more than 55 °C, and the heat pro- with depth in terms of temperature distribution. According
duced by biotic reactions is equilibrated by releasing it into to the observations of Zhang et al. (2022) and Reinhart
the surroundings (Hanson et al. 2013, 2010). et al. (2017), the highest temperature was recorded in the
center of the landfill. However, Zhang et al. (2019a) reported
Factors affecting heat generation in landfills a maximum temperature around the level of leachate in a
freshly filled waste layer.
Landfills produce heat as a result of the biological break-
down of MSW. Most MSW dumps have average tempera- The age of waste
tures of ≤ 55 °C; however, a small percentage of landfills
have seen extreme temperatures of ≥ 93 °C. At tempera- Numerous studies have found the influence of waste age on
tures ≥ 93 °C, difficult conditions like excessive settlements, heat production (Khire et al. 2020; Hanson et al. 2005). With
differential settlement, and heat softening have caused infra- time, the temperature varies, and it has been observed that
structure damage to gas wells and leachate collection sys- the temperature of the garbage increases rapidly during the
tem pipe-work and variations in leachate and gas quality. early phases of landfilling (Nocko et al. 2019). Hanson et al.
The potential contributors to the development of elevated (2013) documented a higher heat production rate in MSW
temperatures (ETs) are (i) daily oxygen influx into the land- landfills in the initial stages that reduces as the waste ages
fills due to inadequate construction and operation of LFG in landfills. Similarly, Yoshida and Rowe (2003) reported
wells (Martin et al. 2013), (ii) high moisture content of that the temperature of the waste began to drop after around
organic waste which promotes faster biological reactions 10 years. According to Yeşiller et al. (2015), the placement
(Tupsakhare et al. 2020), (iii) reduced convective cooling of new waste piles on top of older stock usually results in an
from infiltration as a result of restricted vertical infiltration upward movement of the maximum temperature.
 23368

Table 1  Typical composition of municipal solid waste produced in different countries of the world
Country Organic/food (%) Paper/card- Plastic (%) Textile (%) Metals (%) Glass (%) Leather/rubber Wood (%) Miscellane- References
board (%) (%) ous (%)

Ghana (Africa) 48.6 7.1 20 4.2 1.2 1.0 1. 5 0.3 5.3 Sarquah et al. (2023)
Ethiopia 68.40 1.50 1.90 0.96 0.30 0.30 0.50 - 6.90 Fereja and Chemeda (2022)
India 34.82 4.02 3.69 3.66 2.04 2.12 1.03 1.27 6.34 Nain et al. (2021)
Kazakhstan 46.3 12.8 15.2 - 1.9 4.9 - 0.8 1.0 Abylkhani et al. (2021)
Bangladesh 78.9 9.5 3.1 - 1.1 0.5 - - - Ashik et al. (2017)
Tanzania 57.21 6.12 13.08 1.02 2.32 Kazuva and Zhang (2019)
Iraq 54.8 7 25.2 3.5 3.04 2.92 0.54 2.6 0.4 Abbas et al. (2016)
Malaysia 25.33 17.59 5.16 3.68 1.02 0.85 3.14 1.38 - Yusoff et al. (2018)
Russia 28.6 5.94 - - - 13.29 - - - Sereda (2021)
Jordon 53 9 12.85 10.22 4 - - - - Saidan et al. (2017)
Kazakhstan 47.6 6.2 12.5 3.4 2.0 6.2 - - - Abylkhani et al. (2019)
Russia 38.72 31.03 26.96 33.04 16.79 31.47 17.05 8.16 - Azarov et al. (2020)
India 29 4 25 2 1 - - - Ali and Ahmad (2019)
Canada 65 26 8 - 35 - - - - Wang et al. (2016b)
Nigeria 24.1 9.8 10.2 13.2 6.4 9.3 - - - Abubakar et al. (2018)
Saudi Arabia 48 20 25 1 4 2 - 1 - Osra et al. (2021)
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:23363–23392
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:23363–23392 23369

Waste placement conditions Landfill leachate: generation

and composition
The amount of heat in landfill waste is influenced by waste
disposal conditions, and waste that is dumped slowly gener- The most common way of disposing MSW is landfilling.
ates more heat over time (Yeşiller et al. 2005). The initial Leachate is the most toxic by-product of municipal waste
waste temperature and waste placement rates are among decomposition (Abdel-Shafy et al. 2023). Generation of
these conditions, and there is a substantial positive associa- landfill leachate occurs as a result of rainfall percolation
tion between the original waste temperature and heat con- or groundwater infiltration into the landfill, which causes
tent. It was observed that waste landfilled during warmer various biological and chemical reactions within the landfill
seasons reached higher maximum temperatures than waste (Podlasek et al. 2023; Wijekoonet al. 2022). Landfill lea-
landfilled during cooler seasons (Kumar and Reddy 2021). chate consists of various physicochemical contaminants,
Moreau et al. (2019) reported that waste temperature in the such as organic compounds, inorganic compounds, ammo-
landfill grew dramatically throughout the period of waste nia, xenobiotics, HMs, and biological organisms (Abdel-
disposal while being reduced when the landfill was closed. Shafy et al. 2023; Mojiri et al. 2016). The physicochemical
characteristics of landfill leachate from different landfills
Climatic conditions are demonstrated in Table 2. The leachate quantification
method becomes more challenging and complex when these
Climate drastically contributes to landfill heat production elements change over time and space (Grugnaletti et al.
(Chavan et al. 2022). The climatic conditions significantly 2016). The leachate constitution differs based on the type,
influence the temperature and amount of heat in the landfills composition, generation rate, and moisture of waste, as well
located in different regions (Yeşiller et al. 2005). Tempera- as landfill age, hydrology, weather conditions, and landfill
ture variations in landfills are caused by seasonal climatic design parameters (Moustafa et al. 2023; Mojiri et al. 2021;
changes that alter microbial dynamics, cause bioprocess Costa et al. 2019).
regression, and decrease waste decomposition efficiency.
With increased precipitation, the heat content increases
and reaches its maximum at a specific rate of precipitation.
Even if the waste is not frozen at the time of placement, Landfills and ecotoxicological effects
waste material landfilled during the warmest months of the
year may attain higher maximum temperatures than waste The major concern regarding improper management of
material landfilled during the cooler months (Yeşiller et al. MSW and landfilling is the generation of gases, heat, and
2015). This also means that waste dumped in warmer cli- leachate that can lead to water pollution, fire explosions,
mates achieves higher temperatures on average than waste global warming, air pollution, and other human health haz-
dumped in cooler climates. ards. Some of the important ecotoxicological issues related
to these are discussed in the following subsections:
Role of indigenous microbes

The majority of bacteria that cause the degradation of land- Landfills and water pollution
fill waste are mesophilic in nature (Fei et al. 2015), with
the exception of methanogens, which are thermophilic Water pollution has been a worldwide issue, posing con-
(Hao et al. 2017). Similarly, in temperate climatic condi- stant and significant danger to the surrounding nature
tions, landfills harbor cold-active microbes, which actively and wellbeing of human beings (Bhowmick et al. 2018).
participate in landfill waste decomposition at the upper cell Landfill leachate, containing a broad array of toxic and
surface. The microbial activities lead to increased temper- hazardous substances, has emerged as a key anthropogenic
atures and create thermal zones at the deeper and central cause of water pollution (Dhamsaniya et al. 2023; Negi
landfill layers. Organic waste decomposition by microbes et al. 2020). Most landfills, particularly in underdeveloped
significantly contributes heat to elevated-temperature land- nations, are built without designed liners and suitable lea-
fills (ETLFs) (Yeşiller et al. 2005). The breakdown of waste chate collecting systems (Alam et al. 2020), which lead
anaerobically is likewise not likely to produce extreme heat to surface and groundwater pollution (Dhamsaniya et al.
in ETLFs since methanogenesis discharges little exergonic 2023; Mangimbulude et al. 2009). Once groundwater gets
heat in comparison to anaerobic metal corrosion and ash contaminated, pollutants persist, and it becomes challeng-
hydration and carbonation (Hao et al. 2017). The process of ing to remediate because of poor access, extended life, and
methanogenic decomposition is exothermic, leading to high huge volume (Wang et al. 2012). Mainly, groundwater pol-
temperatures inside the landfill (Grillo 2014). lution occurs within a 1-km radius of a landfill site, with
 23370

Table 2  Physicochemical characteristics of landfill leachate in different countries (mg/L)

Country COD BOD NH4-N pH Fe Pb Ni Cr Cd References

Iraq - - - 7.29 - 12.41 22.33 19.70 5.00 Jalal and Darwesh (2023)
Colombia 23,688.00–34,405.00 2724.85–3684.43 - 7.94–8.92 - - - - - Gutiérrez-Mosquera et al. (2022)
Poland 954.0–4270.0 - 17.6–231.2 7.8–9.1 1.6–18.0 0.0–0.2 0.0–0.1 0.0–0.5 0.0 Wdowczyk et al. (2022)
Morocco 21,817 10,192 3317 7.88 59.53 - 0.7725 7.976 0.0251 Zaki et al. (2022)
Malaysia 1633 137.41 400 8.25 8.457 0.110 - 0.453 - Zaini et al. (2022)
Malaysia 2214 - 454 8.4 - - - - - Shadi et al. (2021)
Poland 1900 64 - 7.8 5.611 0.000044 0.166 0.611 0.01 Jabłońska-Trypuć et al. (2021)
Bangladesh 1397–1511 157–182 - 7.87–8.07 14.4 0.01 0.01 0.056 - Akter et al. (2021)
China 2078.22–7695.04 - 366.46–1444.38 8.2 - - - - - Song et al. (2020)
Croatia 673–1653 108–288 - 8.09–8.63 < 0.05 < 0.025–0.34 0.10–0.231 < 0.010 < 0.010 Ančić et al. (2020)
Vietnam 3308–3540 823–1274 1006–1197 7.9–8.5 - - - - - Luu (2020)
Iran 11,774 8634 - 7.73 41.80 0.213 3.465 0.176 - Vahabianet al. (2019)
India 1800 368 182 7.84 45.8 - 9.9 1.4 - Nair et al. (2019a)
Italy 629–1070 23–29 - 7.8–8.0 1.65–4.35 - 0.09–0.16 0.06–0.19 - Fasani et al. (2019)
Algeria - - - 7.0–7.5 - 7.3–60.4 20.0–42.2 76.0–98.9 0.5–1.6 Mouhoun-Chouaki et al. (2019)
China 2000–30,000 90–950 1.5–150 7.56–8.09 30–98 0–36 0.8–3.8 0.7–4.8 - Ren et al. (2018)
China 6140 558 1856 - - 0.31 - 0.052 0.01 Hu et al. (2016)
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:23363–23392
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:23363–23392 23371

most of the stern pollution of the groundwater occurring Landfills and human health effects
within a 200-m radius (Han et al. 2016). Water pollution
is far more common in regions around landfills, owing to Health effects by heavy metals and other pollutants
the existence of leachate as a possible source of pollution.
In recent years, many leachate-based water pollution Landfill leachate is a major problem because of its intricate
cases have been documented, particularly in poor nations. blend of contaminants, including HMs, dissoluble inorganic
Mishra et al. (2019) investigated groundwater quality and organic chemicals, suspended particulates, and nutrients
near Ramna landfill in Varanasi City (India) and found such as nitrates and phosphates (Beinabaj et al. 2023; Negi
that the groundwater quality was steadily deteriorating et al. 2020). Some of these contaminants, especially HMs,
owing to landfill leachate leaching. They further found can make their way into the food chains and influence human
that the water was unsafe to consume since the major- health (Fig. 6) (Iravanian and Ravari 2020). The main HMs
ity of the physicochemical characteristics exceeded the present in leachate are Cd, Cr, Hg, Cu, Zn, Pb, and As (Chu
WHO and BIS permitted limits for drinking water stand- et al. 2019), and the potential contributors of these HMs are
ards. Nagarajan et al. (2012) also found greater amounts batteries, plastic, lead-based paints, and electronic wastes
of chorine, nitrate, sulfate, and ammonia in groundwater dumped into landfills (Boateng et al. 2019; Han et al. 2014).
samples near landfills, suggesting that leachate percola- The primary routes of human exposure to hazardous met-
tion is affecting groundwater quality. Ammonia-N is a key als have been identified as drinking water and inhaling soil
contaminant in leachate because it may stay in water bod- particles (Zhu et al. 2011).
ies, posing a menace to humans and aquatic organisms Underground water contaminated with leachate causes
(Yenigün and Demirel 2013). Several studies have found environmental concerns such as water blooms and soil salin-
significant concentrations of ammonia-N in landfill sites ization, in addition to inducing a variety of aquagenic ail-
(Jahan et al. 2016), which, if not handled appropriately, ments if consumed or bathed in. For example, long-term use
may cause major consequences on water quality (Parvin of groundwater contaminated with heavy metals increases
and Tareq 2021). Negi et al. (2020) also found greater cancer risk and infant mortality and also causes motor and
levels of ammoniacal nitrogen in water samples taken at a cognitive problems in kids (Parvez et al. 2011; Rahman et al.
low depth and distance from the landfill. 2010). Other HMs, for instance, Cr, Cd, Hg, and Cr, are
The occurrence of HMs is one of the gravest contami- also effective toxins, and their high concentrations can cause
nants in leachate, which causes a serious risk to the well- respiratory issues, skin cancer, and damage liver, renal, neu-
being of humans (Parvin and Tareq 2021). In many parts rological, and immunological systems (Mohammadi et al.
of the globe, leachate samples taken from landfill sites 2020; Godwill et al. 2019). Nagarajan et al. (2012) observed
are enriched in HMs, causing a rise in the concentration elevated levels of other pollutants like chlorine, total dis-
of HMs in groundwater (Alam et al. 2020; Hossain et al. solved solids, nitrate, and fluoride in groundwater near the
2018). Murtaza and Sabihakhurram (2018) reported that Vendipalayam landfill. Phosphate and nitrate provide nutri-
HM concentrations in groundwater such as Cd, Cu, As, tion to microorganisms, but their high levels degrade the
and Pb were greater compared to the allowable limit. In quality of drinking water and make it unsafe for consump-
a recent study conducted in Ghana, Amano et al. (2021) tion (Wang et al. 2018a, 2016a). Excess nitrogen in the blood
studied various physico-chemical parameters and concen- causes methemoglobinemia-like conditions in cells by low-
trations of HMs in surface waters and underground water ering hemoglobin’s oxygen-binding ability (Sadeq et al.
close to landfill site and reported that the HM pollution 2008). Furthermore, nitrate is common in MSW landfills,
index (HPI) shows that the water sources were beyond and this compound has been linked to unexpected miscar-
the safe drinking water threshold. They further revealed riage and an augmented danger of non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma
that Cd concentrations in surface waters and underground (Martínez et al. 2017; Gurdak and Qi 2012).
water in the vicinity of the landfill site were much higher
than the WHO standard, deeming them unfit for consump- Health effects by pathogens
tion. The literature findings also evidenced the enhanced
levels of other HMs, for instance, Pb, Fe, Cr, and Cu, Contamination of groundwater with dangerous microbes
which may add to the risk of toxicity at landfill sites (Ola- as a result of leachate leakage poses a serious hazard to
gunju et al. 2020; Vongdala et al. 2019). Other pollutants, human health and has become a global environmental
such as chloride, calcium, bromine, phosphate, and nitrate, issue (Xiang et al. 2019). Various studies have revealed
have been found in high amounts in ground and surface that Escherichia coli concentrations in landfill leachate are
water sources, perhaps owing to their closeness to landfill high (Umar et al. 2011) and contain pathogenic genes (Shi
sites, rendering the water unsafe for human consumption et al. 2018). As a result, numerous studies have revealed
(Amano et al. 2021; Negi et al. 2020). the degree of contamination of underground water with E.
23372 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:23363–23392

Fig. 6  Landfill leachate, an

important source of heavy
metals, leads to water pollution,
which in turn causes various
health hazards in human beings
upon exposure

coli from leachate and unprocessed wastewater. Moreo- the wet land, open drains, and landfill leachate, which caused
ver, the presence of coliform bacteria in drinking water pathologic contamination to infiltrate into the subsoil.
has been substantially linked with diarrhea (Aziz et al.
2013). Diarrhea has been linked to around 1.5 million Landfills and fire hazards
infant fatalities annually, according to estimates (Fenwick
2006). Poor hygienic measures and drinking contaminated On a global scale, landfill fires are a major environmental
water are responsible for 90% of global diarrheal disease hazard (Obeid et al. 2020; Morales et al. 2018) that are most
(UNICEF 2012). common during the summer months (Milošević et al. 2021).
Furthermore, microbially polluted groundwater is the Because of the harmful chemical substances they produce,
source of many outbreaks of aquagenic diseases. Xiang landfill fires present the main menace to environmental
et al. (2019) observed that different disorders of the human and human wellbeing (Aderemi and Otitoloju 2012). In
digestive tract occur due to pathogenic E. coli owing to the underdeveloped nations, where landfills are non-engineered
presence of particular genes of pathogenicity and factors of and frequently located near residential areas, the risk of a
colonization and virulence. The leachate combined with the landfill fire is relatively high (Chavan et al. 2019). In most
unrestricted aquifers generates plumes, which may stretch to cases, large amounts of municipal garbage containing a
hundreds of meters and influence the aquifer’s hydrogeologi- range of combustible compounds that are placed in landfills
cal system (Mor et al. 2016). Maiti et al. (2016) performed represent a considerable danger of fire. The existence of
research at the Dhapa landfill site (Kolkata) to determine ­CH4, which is emitted by waste decomposition, raises the
the influence of the leachate plume on health and reported risk level since methane is very combustible and explosive
many health-linked problems, including diarrhea, nausea, (Milošević et al. 2021). The biochemical activities occurring
stomach discomfort, and other liver and intestine-related over-surface and within the landfill create a tremendous
health issues, among the populace living close to the men- quantity of heat and gases (Chavan et al. 2019), and this
tioned landfill site. Negi et al. (2020) recently conducted a buildup of heat causes fire hazards (Annepu 2012). The
microbiological examination of water samples and found existence of SW, together with heat produced and ­O2 influx,
that more than 40 and 52% of the samples were poor and all contribute to the formation of ingredients required for fire
unsafe for drinking during the pre- and post-monsoon peri- initiation (Moqbel et al. 2010). The inadequate dissipation
ods, respectively. They also revealed that groundwater sam- of the heat produced raises the ignition temperature of SW
ples taken near the Mohali landfill (India) showed substan- constituents beyond the threshold, which causes fires in
tial organic pollution, owing to open defecation surrounding landfills (Morales et al. 2018).
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:23363–23392 23373

Landfill fires may endanger the surrounding area and condensation nuclei, causing the earth’s overall radiation
public health by releasing hazardous chemicals into the budget to be disrupted (Schneidemesser et al. 2015). Fur-
air (Morales et al. 2018). It also has a larger influence on thermore, many VOCs can trigger allergies and asthma, as
the landfill’s structure (Morales et al. 2018). Landfill fire well as have a deleterious impact on lung function (Cakmak
emissions, due to their highly chronic and hazardous nature, et al. 2014; Kim et al. 2013). Some VOCs are thought to
frequently cause all-encompassing ecological and health be carcinogenic to landfill workers and the people who live
catastrophes for down-wind residents (Mazzucco et al. nearby (Majumdar and Srivastava 2012). Residents living
2020). Several studies have found that waste fire emissions near landfills, as well as landfill workers, are in danger of
cause persistent health problems, for instance, lung can- breathing VOCs, which can cause acute or chronic sick-
cer (Wiwanitkit 2016), gestational issues (Mazzucco et al. ness (Lakhouit and Alsulami 2020). According to various
2019), and abnormalities of the heart, lungs, and nervous studies, BTEX is a carcinogenic chemical renowned for its
system (Adetonaet al. 2020). capacity to harm human health (Rafiee et al. 2019; Garg and
Gupta 2019). Durmusoglu et al. (2010) conducted a cancer
Landfills and atmospheric pollution risk assessment for landfill workers in Italy based on BTEX
emissions and found that 67.5 people per million are at risk
Nowadays, atmospheric pollution is a major issue in big cit- of cancer, primarily owing to benzene exposure.
ies, owing to the presence of significant levels of organic
compounds in MW (Talaiekhozani et al. 2018). Land- Landfills and global warming
fill gases like C­ H4, ­CO2, and volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) are released by the anaerobic breakdown of organic Researchers in several countries have recently found that
wastes in landfills (Mor and Ravindra 2023; Nair et al. landfills are the most important cause of greenhouse gas
2019b). VOCs are a type of air pollutants that may be unsafe (GHG) emissions (Ghosh et al. 2023; Zhang et al. 2019b).
to both the environment and human wellbeing (Lakhouit The principal GHGs emitted by landfill sites owing to the
and Alsulami 2020). Benzene, toluene, ethyl-benzene, and biodegradation of organic waste are C ­ O2, ­CH4, and N ­ 2O
xylene isomers (also known as BTEX) are some of the typi- (Milovanovic et al. 2021; Gollapalli and Kota 2018). These
cal VOCs observed in landfill biogas (Lakhouit and Alsu- GHGs emitted from municipal organic waste contribute to
lami 2020). VOCs are common pollutants that are emitted worldwide temperature rise and climatic changes (Tominac
into the atmosphere from landfill sites as a result of the et al. 2020). Other possible sources of GHG emissions from
breakdown of organic stuff and recent domestic items such the waste management system include waste collection
as cleaning agents, sterilizers, and personal care products trucks, landfill machinery, and landfill fires (Milovanovic
that are found in dumped MW (Nair et al. 2019b). The high et al. 2021). As per the report by Kaza et al. (2018), the
moisture and temperature provide an ideal environment for management of waste contributes roughly 5% of global GHG
microbes to decompose the organic waste, thereby generat- emissions. Singh et al. (2017) reported that landfills produce
ing greater VOC quantities (Carriero et al. 2018). A signifi- one third of total anthropogenic C­ H4, which is a significant
cant quantity of VOCs is also emitted into the atmosphere contributor of GHGs to the atmosphere. C ­ H4 is one of the
during fires in landfills and the burning of waste. most significant GHGs due to its enormous potential for
In most metropolitan areas, the negative effects of VOCs global temperature rise, which is 28 times higher than that of
emitted into the atmosphere from landfill sites are a serious carbon dioxide (Du et al. 2017). Gupta et al. (2022) recently
issue (Nair et al. 2019b). The biogas generated from landfill revealed that landfills account for about 11% of the methane
sites increases the risk of contracting cancer in workers and emitted worldwide. Increased GHG production leads to
communities that live near dump sites (Lakhouit and Alsu- higher ambient temperatures, which leads to more rainfall,
lami 2020). VOCs produced from landfills can react photo- the melting of glaciers, changes in the hydrological system,
chemically with hydroxyl radicals and nitrogen oxides in the and ocean acidification (IPCC 2014).
troposphere to produce ozone, secondary organic aerosols
(SOA), and photochemical smog, all of which can harm both Landfills and odor pollution
human fitness and the quality of the air (Nair et al. 2019b;
Kumar et al. 2017). Ground-level O ­ 3 adversely affects the Landfills are a source of odorous and hazardous substances
health of people, plant development, and material longevity (Mor and Ravindra 2023; Wu et al. 2018). The odor pollution
(Awang et al. 2016). SOA is made up of a large number of brought on by MSW is a societal issue (Wu et al. 2017) and
distinct fragments that are created from various precursors, is one of the most important reasons for a growing number
and as a result, it may have a major impact on the area’s vis- of complaints by residents living near landfills (Tansel
ibility, air quality, and temperature (Ziemann and Atkinson and Inanloo 2019; Liu et al. 2019). Landfill emissions
2012). SOA may deflect solar radiation and generate cloud may negatively affect people’s standard of living and the
23374 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:23363–23392

environment around them (Naddeo et al. 2018). The released et al. 2018) (Fig. 7). Waste management practices differ sig-
gases and odors are mostly caused by the biodegradation of nificantly depending on the income level. In low-income
organic waste (Abdul-Wahab et al. 2017). MSW generates a nations where landfills are not yet available, open dumping
substantial quantity of odorants in the form of hydrocarbons, and burning are common (Ferronato and Torretta 2019). In
organic alcohols, sulfur compounds, N ­ H3, and other VOCs low-income nations, approximately 93% of waste is burned
(Sonibare et al. 2019). Several authors have reported that or dumped on highways, open fields, or water bodies, and
sulfur compounds like ­H2S, di-methyl disulfide, and ethyl only 3% of waste is recycled, whereas only 2% of waste is
sulfide are prominent odor sources in landfills (Yao et al. thrown in high-income nations, and around 29% is recycled
2019; Liu et al. 2018). Despite the fact that these offensive and another 22% is incinerated (World Bank 2022; Kaza
gases make up < 1% of overall emissions (Lim et al. 2018), et al. 2018) (Fig. 8). Waste management becomes more sus-
the related environmental risk and discomfort for nearby tainable as countries grow economically, and the first move
inhabitants are major problems in landfill operation and towards eco-friendly treatment of waste is the development
development (Njoku et al. 2019; Liu et al. 2015). and use of landfills (He et al. 2022).
The components of malodorous gases are affected by
different variables, including landfill age and size, as well
as environmental conditions like temperature, relative Sustainable and integrated municipal solid
humidity, and atmospheric conditions (Wang et al. 2019; waste management strategies
Yun et al. 2018a). High summer temperatures enhance odor
emissions owing to an increase in the anaerobic activity of MSW management requires special attention in order to
the microbes. Wu et al. (2018) recently observed that odor recover resources and reduce environmental impact. MSW
pollution was severe in the summer but significantly reduced is a heterogeneous resource with a huge potential for energy,
in the winter. Tansel and Inanloo (2019) also discovered nutrients, and material recovery; thus, different management
that the odor release potential during the winter months was techniques can be employed. The different treatment options
lowered due to reduced biodecomposition rates at colder (Fig. 9) available with different capacities for the safe
temperatures. Wind speed and direction might also play a handling and recycling of MSW are described below:
role in changing odor concentration (Liu et al. 2019).
People living near landfills, especially in the downwind Physical and thermal treatment of municipal solid
areas, are irritated by the foul odors from the landfills, waste
lowering their standard of living and overall health (Potdar
et al. 2016; Che et al. 2013). Long-term exposure to Sanitary landfilling
unpleasant scents might result in undesirable responses
ranging from psychological to physical problems such as Building safe landfills for waste that is non-reusable and
uneasiness, nausea, headache, and respiratory problems (Wu non-recyclable is an essential aspect of the sustainable
et al. 2015a; Palmiotto et al. 2014). In most situations, it is management of MW. Sanitary landfills are one of the
one of the most prevalent reasons for people to criticize the most secure and extensively utilized ways of MW disposal
existing landfill sites and has also evolved into one of the (Hereher et al. 2020). In these modern landfills, MW is
biggest obstacles to the development of new landfill sites confined by a liner system. Liners and drainage layers provide
(Cai et al. 2015). complementary roles in preventing the uncontrolled release
of pollutants into the environment (Azad et al. 2013; Bhuiyan
and Molla 2013). The operating procedures implemented
Municipal solid waste management: global in sanitary landfills, including landfill lining and capping,
perspective waste segregation, leachate collection, and treatment, have
been shown to decrease the release of pollutants into the
Waste management is a critical service that necessitates environment. In comparison to open landfills, sanitary
planning, administration, and collaboration at all levels of landfills are thought to be a more environmentally friendly
government and stakeholders. The typical MSW manage- way of disposing of final waste. The designs and capacities of
ment service involves waste collection from houses and busi- sanitary landfills make it easy to dispose MSW with respect
ness establishments, hauling it to a collection point, and then to pre-sorting, leachate treatment, and methane gas recovery
transporting it to a facility for ultimate disposal or treatment (Weng and Chang 2001). The greenhouse gas emissions from
(Idumah and Nwuzor 2019). Globally, approximately 33% sanitary landfills are considerably lower (8%) compared to
of waste is dumped openly, 37% is disposed of in landfills, open land filling (33%) of MSW (Sabour et al. 2020).
19% undergoes material recovery through recycling and However, various studies have reported that the leachate
composting, and 11% is handled through incineration (Kaza generated from sanitary landfills contains pollutants like
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:23363–23392 23375

Global waste management

Open dumping

Landfill (unspecified) 13.5% <1%

4%
Incineration
33%
5.5%
Sanitary landfill (with gas collection)
7.70
Composting
11% 25%
Controlled landfill

Recycling

Other

Fig. 7  Worldwide, around 33% of the waste is dumped openly, 13% is recycled, 11% is incinerated, and 37% is disposed of in some kind of land-
fill

Fig. 8  In low-income countries,

around 93% of municipal solid MSW management by income level
waste is dumped openly and 100% 93%
only 3% is landfilled, whereas in 90%
high-income countries, only 2% 80%
of the waste is dumped openly, 70%
39% is landfilled, and 29% is 60%
recycled 50%
39%
40%
29%
30% 22%
20%
10% 3.50% 6%
3% 2% 2%
0%
Low income conutries High income countries

Open dumping Landfill Composting

Incineration Recycling Other advanced options

HMs, endocrine disrupting substances, and other inorganic under anaerobic conditions at temperatures between 300
pollutants (Seibert et al. 2019; Adhikari and Khanal 2015). and 650 °C (Barry et al. 2019; Kalogo 2012). During the
In addition, the locations of sanitary landfills are vulnerable process, the products obtained from the conversion of
to earthquakes, floods, and releases gases, HMs, and toxic organic ingredients include a gaseous product (syngas),
leachates (Fernandes et al. 2015). a liquid (biooil), and a solid product (biochar) (Li and
Skelly 2023; Ghodke et al. 2021). When compared to
Pyrolysis other thermochemical techniques, pyrolysis is a more eco-
friendly alternative (Elkhalifa et al. 2019) and has attracted
Pyrolysis is a viable and emerging MSW treatment more interest owing to improved economic performance,
technology (El Kourdi et al. 2023; Lu et al. 2020). It is a increased efficacy, and a higher volume decrease
thermochemical process in which waste is broken down (Mphahlele et al. 2021; Ambaye et al. 2021). The product
23376 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:23363–23392

Fig. 9  Different integrated

techniques for the sustainable
management of municipal solid
waste

quality and yield depend on waste composition, heating Incineration

rate, residence duration, and pyrolysis temperature (Song
et al. 2018; Lombardi et al. 2015). Djandja et al. (2020) Incineration is a valuable technique for managing the vast
reported that at elevated temperatures (over 600 °C), a amount of MW and can be a potential alternative to land-
substantial volume of syngas with higher proportions of filling, considering that landfilling MW is both costly and
carbon monoxide, hydrogen, methane, and carbon dioxide harmful (Alderete et al. 2021). It is a method of converting
is produced from municipal sludge pyrolysis. Barry et al. combustible fractions of waste into oxide forms like H ­ 2O,
(2019) revealed that when the pyrolysis temperature ­CO2, ­SOx, and N
­ Ox while recovering thermal energy (Havu-
increases, the oil and gas yields also increase while the kainen et al. 2017). Incineration is capable of the overall
char yield decreases. The optimal temperature for rapid destruction of a wide range of hazardous waste streams and
pyrolysis of MSWs is 510 °C with a maximum oil output is widely acknowledged as a technology for the direct recov-
of 67%, and part of this oil can be combusted back to ery of energy and converting wastes into a stabilized form. It
meet the energy requirements of the pyrolysis procedure is one of the most frequent waste-treatment methods, reduc-
(Czajczyńska et al. 2017). ing the weight and quantity of waste by 70 and 90 percent,
The key benefit of pyrolysis is that it is a low-cost respectively (Clavier et al. 2020; Lombardi et al. 2015);
technique that enables the reduction of environmental concurrently, it generates heat and electricity as well (Singh
pollution, as both liquid oil and pyrolysis gases can be used et al. 2011). Energy recovery during incineration is com-
as fuels based on their physicochemical characteristics monly used as a whole or as a partial replacement for fossil
(Ghodke et al. 2021), and biochar made from pyrolyzed fuels in cement and power plants (Lu et al. 2017). However,
waste can be used as organic manure in soils to improve by increasing the percentage of ­O2 moles in the combustion
water and nutrient retention (Elkhalifa et al. 2019; Ghodke air, oxy-combustion conditions are created, allowing for the
et al. 2021). Furthermore, biochar can be treated further to recirculation of flue gas during incineration, resulting in a
produce other higher-value products like activated carbon 3% gain in energy efficiency across the board (Vilardi and
(Elkhalifa et al. 2019). Thus, this technique of pyrolysis Verdone 2022). An important and reasonable argument for
has received a lot of interest as a means to recover the promotion of incineration is that it is a preferable treat-
sustainable energy from biowastes because of its ability ment to landfilling in densely populated areas. One of the
to transform waste into useful by-products (Gerasimov primary benefits of the incineration of MSW is the eradi-
et al. 2019). cation of all biological organisms and the mineralization
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:23363–23392 23377

of organic materials into safe by-products (Brunner and emissions (Ayilara et al. 2020; Soudejani et al. 2019). To
Rechberger 2015). For every tonne of MSW burned, a typi- overcome these shortcomings and produce a high-quality
cal incinerator produces 544 kWh of energy and 180 kg of end product, critical parameters like pH, temperature, C/N
solid residue (Zaman 2010). In addition to volume reduction ratio, and moisture must be maintained (Sánchez 2006;
and power generation, incineration by-products (bottom and Tiquia et al. 2002). The rate of the entire process and the
fly ash) can be utilized in constructing roads, manufactur- quality of the end product can also be improved by the inclu-
ing cement, and the production of other materials as they sion of microbial inoculants, which directly affect the break-
are rich in elements like silicon, aluminum, and calcium down of biowastes (Onwosi et al. 2017). Several studies at
(Marieta et al. 2021). This offers the dual benefit of lowering waste management facilities and landfills have revealed that
landfill waste while also lowering the cement percentage in around 50–70% of MW is organic and may be recycled as
cementitious products (Alderete et al. 2021). compost (Kanat and Ergüven 2020; Chatterjee et al. 2013),
thereby reducing the amount of pollution caused by inap-
Thermal‑plasma treatment propriate waste management significantly. Composting also
produces less GHGs and leachate as compared to landfilling
Plasma technology offers a viable alternative in MSW man- or open dumping (Kibler et al. 2018). Other advantages of
agement. Plasma is the fourth important state of matter composting comprise value-added product generation and
after solid, liquid, and gas and is mostly made up of ions, a reduction in environmental pollution (Wang et al. 2018b).
electrons, and neutral particles (Lane et al. 2020). For the Furthermore, the use of compost in agriculture can help to
management of SWs, plasma is considered the most feasible maintain long-term soil productivity (Kamyab et al. 2015).
solution because of its capacity to provide a high tempera- Compost also has wide applications in bioremediation (Ven-
ture. Thermal plasma treatment is believed to be the most torino et al. 2019), weed suppression (Coelho et al. 2019),
feasible solution to the escalating waste management cri- crop disease management (Sayara et al. 2020), enhancement
sis (Lombardi et al. 2015). Thermal plasma generates high of soil biota, and reduction of the environmental effects
temperatures, leading to high energy densities by plasma connected with inorganic fertilizers (Chelinho et al. 2019).
to treat MSW using the huge throughput generated in a Moreover, composting is a critical component of the circular
small-scale reactor (Ruj and Ghosh 2014). The high energy economy since it helps to close the waste management cycle
flux densities at the boundaries of reactors rely on plasma (Vaverková et al. 2020).
as an energy source rather than conventional combustion
fuels; as a result, little volume of gas is produced, making
the process inexpensive and environment friendly (Li et al. Anaerobic digestion
2016; Psaltis and Komilis 2019). Thermal plasma for waste
treatment works either through plasma pyrolysis or plasma Anaerobic digestion (AD) has attracted increased sci-
gasification. Pyrolysis through plasma gasification has the entific attention and is a promising treatment option for
potential to transform MSWs into a valuable input in the the management of MSW (Wang et al. 2023; Fan et al.
circular economy, and its commercialization can be achieved 2018). AD is a regulated microbial decomposition pro-
by the value of gas or fuel from MSW (Munir et al. 2019). cess in which a microbial consortium converts organic
The treatment efficiency of plasma treatment is very high, refuse from MSW into C ­ H4, ­CO2, inorganic nutrients, and
with a reduction of 95% in the input of MSW. humus (Macias-Corral et al. 2008). Some of the world’s
most technologically and agriculturally advanced coun-
Biological treatment of municipal solid waste tries have demonstrated AD as a viable option for waste
management (Mu et al. 2018). The biodegradable part of
Composting MSW is pre-treated by sorting, separation, and steriliza-
tion, which is considered an important move in the yield
Composting is a technique that turns complex organic mate- output (Li et al. 2017). Recently, separation of the organic
rials into a stable product (Awasthi et al. 2020). It is a low- fraction of MSW through extrusion treatment appears to
cost and eco-friendly technology to deflect organic waste be an emerging technology to separate the organic fraction
from landfills (Agapios et al. 2020). Composting can be by using a high-pressure machine equipped with gates to
done at any scale, from small-scale backyard composting to spate the organic fraction effectively (Novarino and Zan-
large MW treatment plants (Sayara et al. 2020). While com- etti 2012). AD not only recovers energy from MSW but
posting is among the green alternatives for MW treatment also produces nutrient-rich soil amendment by reducing
(Lin et al. 2018), it has some drawbacks that have limited its GHG emissions (Rogelj et al. 2016). The digestion efficacy
use and efficacy. The drawbacks include low nutrient levels, of AD depends on the mode of operation. Thermophilic
odor pollution, nitrogen loss, pathogen detection, and GHG digestion is found to be suitable with biogas production
23378 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:23363–23392

between 13.92 and 83.25% (Mu et al. 2018) and is energy Adsorption treatments
efficient if conducted in a thermophilic condition rather
than a mesophilic condition (Wu et al. 2015b). Adsorption is an extensively employed treatment to eradicate
ionic and molecular toxins suspended or dissolved in
landfill leachates through interaction between electrically
and chemically active surface-charged functional groups
Management of landfill leachate (Hedayati et al. 2021). Adsorbents’ surface characteristics
have a key role in determining the choice of adsorbent
Landfill leachates from MSWs are the most significant (Kaveeshwar et al. 2018). The most extensively used
source of environmental pollution (Teng and Chen 2023) adsorbent for the treatment of landfill leachates is activated
because they percolate through soil and reach the surface carbon, both in powdered and granulated form (Deng et al.
and groundwater (Popovych et al. 2020). Long-term risk 2018). Recently, various other substances, such as zeolites,
assessment of different sanitary landfills to the surrounding clay, and magnetic adsorbents, have been reported as
hydrological ecosystem is an extremely difficult task. To potentially effective for landfill leachate treatment compared
reduce the environmental impact of landfill leachates, a to anaerobic composting (Augusto et al. 2019). Zeolites are
variety of cost-effective solutions have been investigated made up of hydrated aluminosilicate crystals with a physical
over time suitable for a variety of contaminants (Fig. S1). configuration comprised water-filled pores (Montalvo et al.
In the realm of landfill leachate treatment, a single method 2020). The physical structure of zeolite, comprised cations
may not be able to meet all the requirements until new ­( Ca 2+, ­K +, and ­M g 2+), is easily transferable by ­NH 4+,
materials and combinations of technologies are involved and this capability of zeolites is one of its most versatile
based on feasibility (Bandala et al. 2021). The following characteristics, with demands for future investigation (Aziz
sections provide critically recent insights into the physico- et al. 2020). Previous research demonstrated that a 10-g raw
chemical and biological techniques utilized to remediate zeolite dosage can reduce N ­ H3-N, color, and COD by up to
the pollutants contained in landfill leachates: 53.1%, 46.0%, and 22.5%, respectively (Aziz et al. 2020).
This indicates that a small quantity of zeolite can achieve
optimal removal of toxins at a lower cost, making it suitable
Physico‑chemical treatment of landfill leachates for leachate treatment on a broader scale. Clay minerals are
regarded as superadsorbents and play an important role as
Coagulation‑flocculation pollutant purifiers because of their desirable features such
as mechanical and chemical stability, high specific surface
Coagulation and flocculation methods are effectively utilized area, laminar structure, and high ionic exchange capacity.
for removing suspended particulates from wastewater. The Bentonite clay (modified by L-glutamine) with a surface
process works by destabilizing suspended particles with area of 28.98 ­m2 ­g−1 reduces both COD and pH turbidity
a negative charge into large flocs (Cheng et al. 2021). in leachates, which is attributed to more adsorption sites
Nowadays, electro-coagulation (EC) and electro-oxidation (Akl et al. 2013). The exterior surface of bentonite clay has
(EO) have been considered versatile processes for landfill weaker siloxane groups (Si–O), which later get transformed
leachate treatment (Bahrodin et al. 2021; Ghanbari et al. to Si–O bands and to Si–OH with a rise in pH to alkalinity,
2020). Integration of EC and EO is a novel approach leading to a reduction in COD through precipitation
used for the successful removal of 60% organic loads and (Hajjizadeh et al. 2020).
80% discoloration in leachates, followed by degradation
of organic compounds and successful abatement of 50% Advanced oxidation processes
ammonium to minimize the organic load (Bandala et al.
2021; Adesida 2020). Although the EC-EO process is Recently, a few advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) have
pH-independent (natural-alkaline pH), consequently, pH cost been developed to efficiently treat landfill leachates. Photo-
adjustment might be lessened for commercial applications; Fenton, electro-Fenton, and Fenton are successful AOPs
however, it is highly composition-dependent (Babaei et al. and have been effectively used to treat landfill leachates
2021). The pollutant elimination efficacy is determined by by removing refractory organics (Gautam et al. 2019). The
the current density of the electrodes and the catalytic load in catalytic activity of ­Fe2SO4 during the Fenton reaction adds
the leachates. Pt and ­PbO2 electrodes for the EC process and ­H2O2 to landfill leachates (Hilles et al. 2015). This tech-
Al and Fe electrodes for the EO process are highly effective nology, because of its eco-environmental advantages, has
electrodes with COD removal efficiencies of 60% and 50%, extensively been encouraged for landfill leachate treat-
respectively, at a current dosage of 50 mA/cm2 (Ghanbari ment. Another effective and promising AOP generates in-
et al. 2020). situ coagulants and makes complex organic pollutants into
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:23363–23392 23379

simpler and nobler compounds like C ­ O2 and H­ 2O (Bashir reduced many kinds of leachate pollutants. For example,
et al. 2013). It is considered one of the greener technolo- water hyacinth has removed 24–80 percent of total HMs,
gies for the treatment of landfill leachates, and with further including Cd, Cr, Cu, and Pb (El-Gendy 2008). Abbas et al.
optimization, it may cause a COD reduction of up to 60% (2019) explored the potential of Eichhornia crassipes and
with a significant decline of metallic substances from 70 Pistia stratiotes for landfill remediation and revealed the
to 90% (Dhorabe et al. 2020). Sruthi et al. (2018) found highest HM removal rates for Zn (80 to 90 percent), Pb (76
that electro-Fenton produces the highest mineralization rate to 84 percent), and Fe (83 to 87 percent). They also observed
during 8 h of electrolysis, with a 96% removal of dissolved that both plants considerably lower the other physicochemi-
organic carbon from landfill leachates. The Fenton and ultra- cal characteristics found in landfill leachate, such as pH,
sonic flow cell method of AOP has a maximum synergetic TDS, COD, and BOD. Plants in the leachate deplete dis-
effect and biodegradability index and has been recognized solved ­CO2 during the photosynthetic phase, favoring aero-
as a viable method of leachate treatment (Joshi and Gogate bic microbes to decrease BOD and COD (Mahmood et al.
2019). AOPs offer several benefits for the prevention and 2005). Mokhtar et al. (2011) also reported a 97% decline in
remediation of landfill leachates, including treating large copper via a phyto-remediation study employing E. cras-
volumes, automation, high energy efficiency, amicability, sipes. Jerez Ch and Romero (2016) assessed the viabil-
and easy and safe handling (Ribeiro et al. 2015). However, ity of Cajanus cajan to eliminate Cr and Pb from landfill
a few main drawbacks of AOP technologies are associated leachates and found the removal of Cr and Pb by 49% and
with costs involved in electricity, low conductance, fouling 36%, respectively. They also reported nitrogen removal
that causes loss of electrode lifetime, and loss of activity by from landfill leachate, which resulted in the eradication of
high sludge formation (Sirés et al. 2014). ammonia and mixed nitrite/nitrate species by 85% and 70%,
respectively.
Biological treatment The plant system is a viable mechanism to remove
organic and inorganic pollutants using diverse mecha-
Phyto‑remediation of heavy metals from leachate nistic approaches, including phyto-degradation, phyto-
volatilization, phyto-extraction, phyto-stabilization, and
Phyto-remediation is a natural biochemical process in which rhizo-filtration (Fig. 10). Recently, Moktar and Tajuddin
plants use their root systems and rhizosphere microbes to (2019) revealed that over a 30-day experimental period,
mineralize, degrade, decrease, stabilize, and volatilize cogon grass was able to extract HMs, including Pb, Cd,
contaminants (Wibowo et al. 2023; Kristanti et al. 2023). and Zn, from landfill leachate. Plants take up most of
It is an ecologically sound technique with long-term use these HMs and other nutrients because they are neces-
for the elimination of contaminants (Ali et al. 2020). Some sary for enzyme activation for photosynthesis and plant
plant species frequently utilized for phyto-remediation have growth (Chibuike and Obiora 2014). As a result, it is

Fig. 10  Bioaccumulation of
heavy metals and other pollut-
ants from contaminated sites
by plants through different
mechanisms
23380 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:23363–23392

strongly advised that the use of plants in the vicinity leachates decreased the ammonium concentration by 88%
of leachate collection ponds be promoted in order to relative to the initial concentration (Rama et al. 2019).
avoid the seeping of HMs and other leachate toxins into
aquifers, which can pollute water bodies during over-
flow or discharge (Moktar and Tajuddin 2019; Ugya and Limitations and future perspectives
Priatamby 2016).
Municipal solid waste management (MSWM) is a complex
and multidimensional challenge that involves technical,
environmental, social, economic, and institutional aspects.
Nano‑remediation of landfill leachate MSWM aims to reduce the negative impacts of waste
generation and disposal on human health and the environment
Nano-filtration (NF) is a membrane technology first while maximizing the recovery of valuable resources (Pal and
used in the 1980s and is commonly applied for treating Bhatia 2022). However, MSWM faces several limitations and
wastewaters (Reis et al. 2020) with characteristics that future perspectives that need to be addressed. Some of these
appear between ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis are the following:
(Shahmansouri and Bellona 2015). Due to low energy
requirements and greater flux rates, NF has largely – The lack of adequate data and information on waste
been employed in place of reverse osmosis in numerous generation, composition, collection, treatment, and
applications (Shon et al. 2013). The majority of NF disposal, which hinders the planning, monitoring, and
membranes are fine film composites composed of evaluation of MSWM systems (Cayumil et al. 2021).
synthetic polymers with functional groups, allowing – The low level of public awareness and participation in
them to effectively separate charged ions from wastewater waste reduction, reuse, and recycling, which limits the
(Siddique et al. 2020). The NF process efficiently potential of waste prevention and resource recovery
separates the multivalent metal ions through sieving (Sewak et al. 2021; Almulhim and Abubakar 2021).
size and Donnan exclusion, which makes it a highly – The insufficient financial resources and institutional
suitable low-cost separation technology (Pal 2015). The capacity to implement and sustain effective MSWM
mechanism of filtration is based on screening and charge systems, especially in developing countries and low-income
action in wastewater (Agboola et al. 2015). The NF device areas (Ferronato et al. 2020; Schübeler et al. 1996).
controls the filtration process through the NF membrane – The rapid urbanization and population growth, which
by regulating the backward surge of concentrated water. increase the pressure on existing MSWM infrastructure and
With an initial inlet waste water flow of 5 ­m3/h, backward services, and pose new challenges for waste management
water flow of 4.5 m ­ 3/h, and a membrane flux of 10 L/ in peri-urban and rural areas.
m 2/h, with a transmembrane pressure of 0.222 MPa, it – The emergence of new types of waste, such as electronic
could yield a water output of 7500–8500 gallons per waste, medical waste, and hazardous waste, which require
day (Wang et al. 2020). The elimination rates of overall specific management practices and technologies to ensure
alkalinity, entire hardiness, and total soluble solids were their safe handling and disposal (Shahabuddin et al. 2023;
86%, 98%, and 91%, with a desalinization efficiency Andeobu 2023).
of 95% (Wang et al. 2020). Regular cleaning of NF – Lack of adequate infrastructure, equipment, and
membranes may well prolong their filtrating efficacy facilities for waste collection, transportation, treatment,
and serviceability. Deionized water containing HCl and and disposal (Nepal et al. 2023).
NaOH, each with a concentration of 1 mol/L, can be used – Limited integration and coordination among different
to clean and eliminate toxins from the NF membranes stakeholders and sectors involved in waste management
(Gao et al. 2011). Recently, carbon-based nano-treatments (Song et al. 2021).
and nano-vermiculite mineral (NMV) have exhibited – The high variability and uncertainty of the composition
great adsorption capacity for the exclusion of numerous and characteristics of MSW and landfill leachate,
organic pollutants from landfill leachates owing to their which makes it difficult to apply standardized or
extraordinarily precise surface area, excellent electric universal solutions for their management and treatment
chemistry, and sorption sites (Duan et al. 2020). NMV (Lindamulla et al. 2022).
is a novel material recently developed with excellent
absorption capacity for ammonium from landfill leachates. To overcome these limitations and explore future
In pilot-scale experiments, the size of the NVM particle perspectives, MSWM requires a holistic and integrated
(0.075–0.125 mm) used on ammonium-contaminated approach that considers the entire life cycle of waste, from
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:23363–23392 23381

generation to final disposal. Such an approach should integrated waste management policies that cover all aspects
involve the following: of waste generation, segregation, transport, treatment,
resource recovery, and safe disposal through an engineered
– Developing and implementing integrated and holistic landfill, as well as emphasizing effective resource alloca-
waste management plans and strategies that consider the tion. In addition, waste-to-energy technologies, for instance,
local context, needs, and priorities (Batista et al. 2021). incineration, anaerobic digestion, gasification, and pyrolysis,
– Mobilizing adequate financial resources and creating eco- have steadily gained recognition across the world as crucial
nomic incentives for waste prevention, reduction, reuse, aspects of MWM. This review suggested that if waste-to-
recycling, and recovery. energy advanced techniques are adopted, MSW might be a
– Promoting public awareness and education on the ben- key promising renewable energy source, not only reducing
efits of waste management and the responsibilities of reliance on traditional fuels to meet the ever-mounting need
waste generators and handlers (Debrah et al. 2021). for energy but also managing the waste management issue.
– Improving the data collection, monitoring, and reporting Taken together, the review concluded that integrated waste
systems for waste management using modern technologies management, together with energy and material recovery,
such as geographic information systems (GIS), remote could be the best alternative for the sustainable management
sensing, and smart sensors (Singh et al. 2023; Fang et al. of MSW, assisting in minimizing the negative consequences
2023). associated with MSW and fulfilling the aims of achieving
– Fostering the collaboration and cooperation among dif- sustainable development.
ferent stakeholders and sectors involved in waste man-
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary
agement, such as government agencies, private sector, material available at [Link]
civil society, academia, and international organizations
(Vasconcelos et al. 2022). Author contributions All authors contributed to the study conception
– The adoption of the waste hierarchy principle, which and design. Literature search was done by Ali Mohd Yatoo, Basharat
Hamid, Tahir Ahmad Sheikh, and Shafat Ali. The first draft of the
prioritizes waste prevention, minimization, reuse, and manuscript was written by Ali Mohd Yatoo, Basharat Hamid, Tahir
recycling over energy recovery and disposal. Ahmad Sheikh, and Shafat Ali. All authors, including Sudipta Ramola,
– The implementation of the circular economy concept, Sartaj Ahmad Bhat, Sunil Kumar, Md. Niamat Ali, and Zahoor Ahmad
which aims to close the loop of material flows and reduce Baba, commented on the early version of the manuscript. All authors
read and approved the final manuscript.
the dependence on virgin resources.
– The development of innovative technologies and prac- Data availability Not applicable.
tices, which enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of
MSWM systems, such as smart waste collection systems, Declarations
biodegradable packaging materials, waste-to-energy
Ethics approval and consent to participate Not applicable.
plants, and landfill gas recovery systems (Olalo et al.
2022; Kurniawan et al. 2022). Consent for publication Not applicable.

By addressing these limitations and future perspectives Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests.
related to MSWM, it is possible to achieve a sustainable
development goal that ensures a clean and healthy
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