Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

MODULE – IV
4. SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS
3. Electrical Machine:
It is a device, which converts one form of energy into another form of energy by
utilizing the force as motion of electric charge is called known as ‘electrical machine’.
3.1.1. Synchronism:
Achieved a coincidence within a point of time is known as synchronism.
3.1.2. Introduction:
AC system has a number of advantages over dc system. Now
Now-a-days
days the three phase AC
system is being used for generation,
neration, transmission and distribution of power.
 The machine which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy at particular voltage
with a fixed frequency is called an “alternator or synchronous generator or AC generator” or
a machine for generatingg alternating currents is referred to as an alternator.
 The term AC Generator is also frequently used, in place of alternator and this is often
contracted to just generator.
 The frequency is an important property of AC electrical energy. Frequency is depen
depends on
speed, therefore to achieve fixed frequency the machine must be always runs only at one
speed called synchronous speed. That’s the reason the alternator is called Synchronous
Generator.
 Alternators are the primary source of till the electrical energ
energyy which we consumed. These
machines are the largest energy converters in the world.
 The prime mover which is used for generation purpose is turbines. For commercial and
industrial purpose the four
four-stroke
stroke engines are used as prime movers to give mechanical
power to the alternators.

3.2. Operating Principle of an Alternator

Alternator:
An alternator operates on the same fundamental principle
of electro-magnetic induction as a dc generator. i.e., when
the flux cuts the conductor (or) conductor cuts the flux an
emf induced in the conductor.
The magnitude of induced emf is E = Blv sinθ
Where, θ = angle between B and direction of conductor
v = velocity of conductor (m/sec)
B = flux density (wb/m2 of Tesla)
l = length of the conductor (m)

1
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

Flemings Right Hand Rule:

The direction of induced emf or current can be finding by
applying this rule. If,
Fore finger → indicates direction of flux
Thumb → indicates direction of motion of conductor
Then,
Center finger → indicates direction of induced emf or current.

In dc generator, the field poles are stationary and the armature conductor’s rotate. The
alternating induced emf in armature conductors are converted to a dc voltage at the brushes by means
of the commutator.
In alternators, there is no commutator required to supply electrical energy with an alternating
voltage. Therefore, it is not necessary that armature be the rotating one. The alternator also has an
armature winding and a field winding. But the important difference between the two is,
For an alternator, armature winding is placed or housed in a stator instead of rotor in a dc
generator. The field winding is housed in a rotor poles. It is more usually convenient, advantageous
to place the field winding on rotating part (rotor) and armature winding on stationary part (stator).

3.2.1. Differences between DC & AC Generators:

DC GENERATOR ALTERNATOR
 Faradays law of electromagnetic induction.  Faradays law of electromagnetic induction.
 Fleming’s right hand rule.  Fleming’s right hand rule.
 Stationary field.  Rotating field.
 Rotating armature.  Stationary armature.
 Conductors cut the flux.  Flux cuts the conductor.
 Large size of brushes and brush gear required  Small size of brushes and brush gear
for rotor because armature current is high equal arrangement required for rotor because field
to the load. current is small.
 Prime mover as IC engine or fly wheels.  Prime mover as Turbines.

3.2.2. Advantages of stationary armature:

The field winding of an alternator is placed on the rotor and connected to dc supply through
the slip ring. The 3- armature winding is placed on the stator. This arrangement has the following
advantages.
1. “Easier to insulate the stationary winding” for high voltages because they are not subjected
to centrifugal force and extra space is available on stator.

2
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

2. “Stationary 3- armature winding is directly connected to the load, so current collection is
easy” without giving through large, unreliable slip-rings and brushes.
3. “One (or) two slip-rings are required for dc supply to the field winding on the rotor”. Since
exciting current is small, the slip rings and brush gear required are of light construction”.
4. “Due to simple and robust construction of the rotor”, higher speed of rotating dc filed is
possible so that output electrical power increased.
5. Stationary armature windings can be cooled more efficiently.
6. “Rigid and convenient construction” because stationary armature winding is capable of
handling high voltage and current.
7. “Reduced armature leakage reactance”, therefore better the voltage regulation.
 In addition, water cooling can be installed more conveniently on stator rather than
rotor by flexible water tube connection.
8. “Lesser rotor weight” because field winding requires less amount of copper. Reduces the
inertia due to low-priced bearings and also longer life because of “minimum wear and tear”.
The above are the major advantages of the stationary armature windings.
Note: All Alternators above 5KVA employs Stationary Armature, Rotating Field.
All synchronous generators and motors require direct current for excitation.

3.3. Construction Details:

An alternator has 3- armature winding on the stator and dc field winding on the rotor.
3.3.1. Stator:
Stator is the stationary part of the machine and is built up of sheet steel laminations having
slots on its inner periphery. The slots are laminated and are insulated from each other by a thin
coating of oxide and enamel; it is in hollow cylindrical shape.
Stator is made with Cold Rolled Non Oriented (CRNGO) steel (have similar magnetic
properties in all directions in plan of the sheet) with 3% silicon. The addition of silicon increases the
resistivity of the magnetic material so that eddy current losses will further reduce.
Open slots are used, permitting easy installation of stator coils and easy removal in case of
repair. A 3- winding is placed in these slots and serves as the armature winding of alternator.

 The armature winding is always connected in star and the neutral is connected to the load because,
for star connection,
Vl
Vph =
√3
Since the emf is proportional to number of turns, so that it requires less number of turns than
Delta. Neutral protects the system in case of ground faults.

3
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

3.3.2. Rotor:
The rotor carries a field winding which is supplied with direct current (dc) through two slip
rings by a separate dc source.
 Depending on the construction of rotor the alternators are classified into two types.
i. Salient or projecting pole type.
ii. Non-Salient or Cylindrical or Wound type.

(i). Salient or Projecting pole type:

 In this type, salient or projecting poles are mounted on a large steel (circular type) frame which
is fixed to the shaft of an alternator as shown in figure.
 The poles are made of thick steel laminations riveted together and attached to a rotor by a
dovetail joint. The individual field pole windings are connected in series in such a way that
when a field winding is energized by the dc exciter, adjacent poles have opposite polarities.
 Low and medium speed alternators (120 – 500rpm) such as those driven by diesel engines or
water turbines have salient pole rotors due to the following reasons:
a) The salient field poles would cause an excessive windage loss if driven at high speed and
would tend to produce “noise”.
b) Salient-pole construction cannot be made strong enough to withstand the mechanical
stresses to which they may be subjected at higher speeds.
 Since a frequency of 50Hz is
required, we must use a large number of
poles (P) on the rotor of slow speed (N)
alternator.

120*f 1
NS = ⇒ NS =
P P

Low speed rotors always posses a

large diameter to provide the necessary space
for the poles. Consequently, salient pole type
rotors have large diameters and short axial
lengths.
The pole face is so shaped that the radial air gap length increases from the pole centre to pole
tips. This makes the flux distribution over the armature uniform to generate sinusoidal waveform of
emf. The pole shoe covers about 2/3rd of pole pitch. Poles are laminated to reduce eddy current
losses.

4
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

(ii). Non – Salient

ient pole type or cylindrical or wound rotor:
In this type, the rotor is made of smooth solid forged steel radial cylinder of nickel, chromium
and molybdenum to increase the mechanical strength having a number of slots along the outer
periphery.
 According to design 2/3rd rotor periphery is
slotted to accommodate the field winding and
1/3rd is left, i.e., un slotted is for the formation
of poles.
 The field windings are embedded in these slots
and are connected in series to the slip
slip–rings
through which they are energized by the dc
exciter. It is clear that the
he poles formed are non
non-
salient i.e., they do not project out from the
rotor surface.
 The air gap is uniform and flux distribution is
sinusoidal.
 High-Speed
Speed alternator’s (1500 or 3000 rpm) are driven by steam turbines,, gas turbines and use of
non-salient pole rotor’s due to the following reasons:
a) The type of construction has mechanical robustness and gives noise less operation at
high speeds.
b) The flux distribution around the periphery is nearly a sine wav
wavee and hence a better emf
wave form is obtained rather than salient pole rotor.
 Since steam turbine runs at high speed and a frequency of 50Hz is required, we need a small
number of poles i.e., 2 and 4. For a 22-pole it is 3000rpm and 4-pole
pole it is 1500rpm.
 It possesses small diameter and very long axial lengths because high speed of rotation produces
strong centrifugal forces which impose an upper limit on the diameter. Therefore, high
high-power &
high speed rotors have to be very long.
 These machines are suitablee for Steam power plants, Gas power plants and Nuclear power plant.

The special features of non

non-salient
salient pole field structure are as follows.
1. Better emf waveform obtained.
2. Noiseless operation.
3. Robust construction.
4. Less windage loss.
5. Highest operating speed possible.
6. Dynamic balancing is better.

5
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

3.4.
.4. Operation of an Alternator
Alternator:
The rotor winding is energized from the dc exciter and alternate ‘N’ and ‘S’ poles are
developed on the rotor. When the rotor is rotated in anti
anti-clockwise
clockwise direction by a prime mover,
move the
stator (or) armature conductors are cut by the magnetic flux of rotor poles.
Consequently, emf is induced in the armature conductors due to electromagnetic
induction. The induced emf is alternating since ‘N’ and ‘S’ poles of rotor alternately pass the
armature conductors.
The direction of induced emf can be found by Fleming’s right hand rule and frequency is given by,

N*P
F=
120
Where, N = speed of rotor (rpm)
P = number
er of rotor poles.

 The above figure shows star

star-connected
connected armature winding and dc field winding. When the
rotor is rotated, a 3- voltage is induced in the armature winding. The magnitude of the
induced depends upon the speed of rotation and the dc exitin
exitingg current.
 The magnitude of emf in each phase of the armature winding is the same. However, they
differ in phase by 1200 electrical as shown in the phasor diagram.

3.5. Supply Frequency:

The frequency of induced emf in the armature conductors depend
dependss upon speed and number of
the poles.
Let,
N = rotor speed (rpm)
P = number of rotor poles
F = Frequency of emf (Hz)
Consider a stator conductor that is successively swept by ‘N’ and ‘S’ poles of the rotor. If a
positive voltage is induced when a N-pole
pole sweeps across the conductor, a similar negative voltage is
induced when a ‘S’ – pole sweeps by.

6
 Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

 This means that one complete cycle of emf is generated in the conductor as a pair of poles passes it.
i.e., one N-pole and the adjacent following S-pole. The same is true for every other armature
conductor.
 We know that from graphical representation of graphical plot, the rotating field travels a distance
covered by 2-poles.
P
 Number of cycles for one revolution = for ‘P’ pole machine.
2
N
Number of revolution /second = (sec)
60

no. of cycles No. of revolution

No. of cycles per second = ×
revolutions second

P N
= *
2 60
But number of cycles / second is its emf’s frequency.
PN
 F = Frequency =
120
It may be noted that ‘N’ is the synchronous speed. For a given alternator, the number
of rotor poles is fixed and therefore, the alternator must be run at synchronous speed to give an
output of desired frequency. For this reason, an alternator is sometimes called synchronous
generator.
Note:-
In other words, the synchronous machines doubly excited energy-conversion devices. In
general, the generated induced emf is depends on the relative motive between the field flux lines and
armature conductors.

 If it is working as a motor, the field winding is energized from a dc source and its armature
winding is connected to ac source.
 Finally the synchronous machine delivers or exports ac power.
3.5.1. Mechanical degrees: the degree of physical or mechanical rotation a single conductor in an
alternator.
3.5.2. Electrical degrees: the degree or the cycle of emf induced in a single conductor in an
alternator
Consider a 2- pole Alternator, when a conductor rotates in the field, the emf induced in the
conductor will be maximum when the conductor is at the center of the pole and the emf induced will
be minimum when the conductor is in the middle of the gap between the two poles.
For one complete rotation of the conductor in the field - One complete cycle of emf is generated in
the conductor (Positive half cycle at South Pole and negative half cycle at North Pole).

7
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

The same way when we consider a 4-pole alternator a single conductor when completing one
mechanical rotation will cross the four poles there by giving the induced emf graph with two positive
half cycles and two negative half cycles which gives us two complete cycles of induced emf.
So for One Mechanical rotation (360 degrees) the induced emf completes two cycles
i.e., 360 * 2 = 720 degrees in terms of the sine wave
So, the relation between Electrical and Mechanical degrees can be written as

number of poles (P)

θelectrical = * θmechanical
2

3.6. Differences between Salient and Non-Salient pole type rotors:

[Link] SALIENT POLE TYPE ROTOR NON – SALIENT POLE TYPE ROTOR

This type of rotor is having large This type of rotor is having small diameters
1.
diameters and small axial length. and long axial length.
Poles are separately projected to the large Poles are in-built to the solid forged steel
2.
cylindrical steel frame. radial cylinder.
Simple in construction, N = 150 to
3. Robust in construction, N=1500 to 3000rpm
1500rpm
Low and medium operating speed.
4. High operating speed (1500, 3000rpm)
(120 to 400rpm)
Somewhat noisy operation due to air-gap
Noiseless operation and air friction is
5. between the poles, air friction is
minimum.
maximum.
These are employed with hydraulic
6. Employed with steam turbines i.e., turbo type.
turbines and diesel engines.
The emf wave form is not a exact one, Better emf wave form will obtained, small
7.
large diameter, short axial length. diameter & large axial length.
Poles are laminated to reduce the eddy
8. Less windage (air resistance) loss.
current loss.

9. Rotor surface is not smooth. Rotor surface is smooth.

10. Dynamic balancing is less in sufficient. Dynamic balancing is better.

3.7. Basic terms related to windings:

Conductor:
A length of wire which is used for energy–conversion process is called conductor.
Turn: One turn consists of two conductors. In a figure the AB and DE is a coil side or conductors
form a turn.

8
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

Coil:
One coil consists of number of turns. One coil has one turn shown in fig. (a)
One coil has two turns shown in fig. (b)
Multi turn coil has shown in fig. (c) i.e. one coil has more than two turns.

Coil side:
One coil with any number of turns having two coil sides or conductors i.e. PQ is one coil side
one turn and ST is another will side.
Pitch:
The term pitch indicates a particular method of measurement in terms of coil sides and teeth.
Pole pitch:
A pole pitch is defined as the distance between two adjacent poles. Pole pitch is always 1800
electrical.

Coil span or coil-pitch:

The distance between two coil sides of coil is called coil-span or coil-Pitch. It is usually
measured in terms of teeth’s, slots.

9
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

Full-pitched winding:
If pole pitch is equal to coil
coil-span or coil-pitch then that type of winding is called full-pitched
full
winding.
Short-pitched winding:
If the winding has pole pitch is not equal to coil span (or) coil span is less than pole
pole-pitch is
called known as short-pitch
pitch winding.

Back-pitch (YB):
The distance measured inn between two coil sides of a turn is called known as back pitch. (YB)
Front pitch (YF):
The distance between the second conductor of one coil and first conductor of second coil is
called front pitch (YF)
Resultant Pitch (YR):
The distance between the be
beginnings
ginnings of one will and the beginning of the next coil to which it
is connected called resultant pitch. (YR)

3.8. Armature windings:

The armature windings of dc machines are usually closed circuit windings but alternators
winding may be either closed
ed gi
giving delta connections or open giving star connections. These are
classified as follows.
 Distributed and concentrated windings.
 Closed and opened windings.
 Single layer and double layer winding.
 Full--pitched and short-pitched windings.
 Integral and Fractio
Fractional-slot windings.

In general, the armature windings in Synchronous Machines are classified as follows.

10
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

Armature Winding

Concentrated Winding

Distributed Winding

Full Pitched Winding

Short Pitched Winding

Integral Slot Winding

Fractional Slot Winding

(i). Distributed and Concentrated type windings:

In concentrated type winding, all the winding turns are wound together in series to form one
multi turn coil. This type of windings is used as field windings in salient pole synchronous machine
as well as dc machines.
 In concentrated coils, all the turns have some magnetic axis. The primary and secondary
windings of transformers are of concentrated type.
 If one slot per pole (or) slots equal to number of poles are employed, then concentrated
winding in obtained.
 Concentrated windings give maximum induced emf’s for a given number of conductors but
the wave form of induced emf is not exactly of sinusoidal form.
If the conductors are placed in several slots under one pole, the type winding is called
distributed winding.
 Otherwise, all the turns are arranged in several full-pitch or fractional-pitch coils. These coils
are then housed in the slots spread around the air-gap periphery to form phase or commutator
winding.
 Stator and rotor of induction machines, the armatures of both synchronous and dc machines
have of distributed type windings.
Advantages of distributed windings:
a) The harmonic emf is reduced and so the wave form is improved.
b) It diminishes armature reaction and armature reactance.

11
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

c) The core is better utilized as a number of small slots evenly spaced.

d) Temperature rise is uniformly distributed.
e) Cooling is effective.
f) Armature winding is mechanically balanced well.
The disadvantage is small reduction in fundamental voltage.

(ii). Closed and Opened windings:

The closed windings are only used for commutator machines i.e., such as dc and ac
commutator machines. For this there is a closed path, if one starts from any point on the winding
and traverses it, one again reaches the starting point from one where had started.
 It should be housed at outset of armature always using the double layer windings. Each coil
in double layer winding has its one coilside in top layer and its other will side on bottom
layer.
 The closed type windings are two types.
a. Simplex lap winding.
b. Simplex wave winding.
The major difference between above two is depends on the manner connecting the coil ends to the
commutator segments.
For lap winding, the two coil-ends of a coil are connected to the two adjacent commutator segments.
For wave winding, the two coil-ends of a coil are bent in opposite directions and connected to
commutator segments which two pole-pitches (3600) apart.
The open-windings are used only for ac machines like synchronous machines, induction
machines, etc. open windings terminate at suitable number of slip-rings or terminals. Open windings
are always of star type connection. Close windings are of - type connection.
(iii). Single layer and Double layer windings:
If the winding of one coil-side occupies the total slot area, then it is called single layer winding.

Advantages:
The following are the advantages of single layer winding.
 Higher efficiency and quite operation because of narrow slot openings.
 Space factor for slots is higher due to absence of inter layer separator.

12
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

 The number of coils, the number of turns per coil, the coil pitch, the number of circuits and the
connection of the phases are give the desired emf wave form.
In case the slot contains even number of coil sides in two or double layers, than the winding
is called as double layer winding.

arranged to be connected either Y or ,, with leads brought out from both
 The winding may be arrange
ends of each phase to make this possible.
Advantages:
Ease in manufacture of coils and lower cost of winding.
Less number of coils is required as spare in the case of winding repairs.
Fractional slot windings, pitch coils are employed.
Lower leakage
kage reactance and therefore better performance and more economical.

 Modern practice all over the world favors use of double layer windings. Single layer winding is
only employed for small rating ac machines and where as double layer windings are more common
above 5KW machines.
(iv). Full-pitch and short-pitch
pitch or chorded windings
windings:
 If the coil-span or coil-pitch
pitch is equal to the pole-pitch
pitch then the winding is termed as “full-
“full
pitch winding” shown in fig
figure.
 If the coil-span or coil-pitch
pitch is less than the pole-
pol
pitch (1800) then the winding is termed as “short-pitch
“short
/ chorded winding” as shown in fig.
 If there are ‘S’ slots (or teeth’s) and ‘P’ poles, then
S
pole pitch = P slots per pole = 1800 electrical

α = Short-Pitch angle

S
If Coil-Pitch = P , it results in full-pitch
full winding
S
If Coil-Pitch < P , then it results in Short-pitch
Short winding

13
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

Advantages of short-pitch or Fractional

Fractional-pitch or Chorded winding:
 The ends of the coils are shorter, w
which
hich means less copper loss due to less total length.
 The end coils can be formed more compactly. The end belts will need less winding space
resulting in a shorter unit.
 Improved emf wave form due to reduction of harmonics.
 Fractional number of slots per ppole
ole in a turn reduces the tooth/teeth ripples.
 Mechanical strength of the coil is increased.
 Iron losses are reduced, efficiency will increase
increase.
 Self inductance of coil is reduced. Therefore inductive reactance drop is less, Regulation is
good.
Since all acc equipments are designed to operate on a pure sine wave, the generation of
harmonics is to be avoided. This is especially so when the factor that achieves it is otherwise
desirable.
 The major disadvantage of short
short-pitch
pitch coils are, the total voltage around the coil is somewhat
reduced. Because the voltages induced in the two sides of the short
short-pitched
pitched coil are slightly out of
phase, their resultant vectorial sum is less than their arithmetic sum.
(v). Integral slot windings: (m = integer value)
To maintain uniform magnetic reaction throughout the surface of armature, the armature
conductors should be properly distributed.
 Integral means forming a whole. If the number of slots/phase/pole (m) is a while or integer
number then that type of winding is said to bbe integral slot winding.
 The number of slots in an ac machine should always be integral multiples of three. However,
the number of slots per po
pole per phase may be integer or a fraction. The winding may be
single layer or double layer.

14
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

 Assure that the full-pitch or pole-pitch of a winding is 6 slots per pole.

 If the coil-pitch is taken to be equal to pole-pitch, then the upper coil-side in slot-1 should be
connected to bottom coil side in slot ‘7’(=1+6).
1800
 Since there are 6 slots per pole of 1800, the slot angular pitch =  = 6
= 300

 Upper coil-side in slot-2 must be connected to bottom coil-side in slot-8 (2+6 = 8). The
winding is further completed for phase-‘R’ only shown in figure.
 For a 3- machine, from the above figure the slots 7, 8, 13, 14 contain coil sides belonging to
the same phase-‘R’. In general, it can be stated that for full-pitch integral slot winding, each
slot contains coil-sides belonging to the same phase.

Fractional slot winding: (m = fractional value)

The number of slots per phase per pole is a fractional then it is known as “fractional-slot
winding”. But the total number of slots must be multiples three (3). This helps to maintain
symmetrical winding.

The advantages of these windings are,

 Reduces the high-frequency harmonics in the emf and mmf wave forms.
 This winding permits the use of already existing slotting nos. for the armature
laminations.
 Allows choice of coil-pitch.

The restrictions of this winding are,

 It can be used only with double-layer windings.
 The number of parallel circuits is limited .
Let ‘S’ be the total number of slots and ‘P’ be the number of poles. Then slot
per pole per phase, for a 3- winding are ‘(S/3)/P’. If ‘K’ is highest common factor between S/3 and
‘P’ the slots / pole/ phase can be,
S/3 K * SK SK
=
P K * PK P K

S/3
Where, SK = K
P
PK = K

The ratio of Sk / Pk is called the ‘characteristic ratio’ of the fractional slot winding.

15
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

3.9. Difference between Fractional and Integral Slot winding:

S. No INTEGRAL SLOT WINDING FRACTIONAL SLOT WINDING

Number of Slots/Phase/Pole (m) should Number of Slots/Phase/Pole (m) should be an

1.
whole / integral number. fractional number.
Number of slots is integral multiples of
2. Number of slots is integral multiples of three.
three.
Applicable for both single and double Practicable only with double layer
3.
layer winding. arrangement.
Integral slot winding may not appear to be
4. It may appear to be little complicated.
complicated.

5. Manufacturing in little complicated. Easier to manufacture and the cost is low.

Obtained lesser power density compared

6. It is obtained higher power density.
to fractional slot winding.

7. Longer non-over-lapping emf turns. Shorter non over-lapping emf turns.

3.10. Pitch factor or Chording factor: (KP or KC)

Pitch factor is defined as the ratio of “emf with short-pitch coil to the emf with full-pitch
coil”.
 Already we know that, pole-pitch is the distance between the centre lines of adjacent ‘N’ and
‘S’ pole measured along the circumference of armature
surface. When two sides of a coil are full pole pitch
apart, it is called “full-pitched coil”. The emf in coil
side of a full-pitched coil is in phase.
 In practice, coil pitch is less than pole pitch and hence
emf’s in the coil sides have a phase difference. The
resultant emf in the coil will be less than that of full-
pitched coil. Therefore, for full-pitch coil,
KP = 1 while for short-pitch coil, KP<1.
Let us consider the coil sides are housed in slots ‘1’ and ‘7’ gives the full-pitched coil. If the
coil-sides are placed in slots ‘1’ and ‘6’ gives short/fractional pitched winding because coil span less
than pole-pitch (<1800 ) or equal to 5/6th pole-pitch.
1800
It falls short by pole-pitch or by = 300 (or) 5/6 × one pole pitch
6
 5/6 × 1800 = 1500 (coil span)
Short pitch angle = Pole pitch – coil span = 1800 - 1500 = 300

16
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

The advantages and disadvantages are already discussed in previous section.

Therefore,
Vector sum of the induced emfs per coil
KP or KC =
arithmatic sum of the induced emfs per coil

 It is always less than unity.

Let ‘Es’ be the induced emf in each side of the coil. If the coil were full-pitched i.e., its two
coil sides were one-pole pitch (1800 ) apart.

Then total induced emf of arithmetic sum is 2Es ………………………. (1)

If it is short pitched by 300 (∝), their resultant ‘Er’ which is the vector sum of two
voltages with 300 electrical (ES)

17
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

From the Vector diagram,

∠OQR = 1800 - 300
1
∠OQS = [∠OQR]
2
1
= (1800 - 300 ) = 750 .
2
or
∠OQS = 900 - 150 = 750

Er = OR = OS + SR
300 300
= OQ cos + QR cos
2 2
= Es cos 150 + Es cos 150

Er = 2Es cos 150 …………………..(2)

emf with short-pitched coil

 KP or KC =
emf with full-pitched coil
2Es cos 150
=
2Es

KP = cos 150 = 0.966

In general, if the coil span falls short of full pitch by angle ‘α’ i.e., short-pitch angle is denoted
‘α’ (electrical).

α
∴ KP or KC = cos
2

18
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

3.11. Distribution / Breadth / Belt / Spread factor

factor: (Kd)
Distribution factor is defined as th
thee “ratio of emf with distributed winding to the emf with
concentrated winding” denoted by ‘Kd’.
R, Y, B, R1, Y1, B1 are three
three-phase windings displaced by 1200 electrical.
From the diagram we can say that it is having 36 slots,
3- winding with distributed
uted winding because coils
are not concentrated or bunched in one slot, but are
distributed in a no. of slots to form a polar groups
under each pole.

Obviously it is having 3 slots/pole/phase because it is

3- winding, single layer winding, 4-pole
4 machine.
Now, these three coils which regress one polar group
are not bunched in one slot but in three different slots.
36
9 = no. of slots per pole =9
4

1800
Angular
Angular displacement between any two adjacent slots
slots= = 200
9

If the 3-coils
coils are bunched in one slot (concentrated winding), then the total induced emf
induced in the three coil sides of the coil is arithmetic sum of three emf’s. Let ‘ES’ be magnitude of
each coil side.
de.
i.e., 3ES …………………….. (1)
For distributed winding the three coils are displaced
200 in three different slots. Then the vector sum is,
OC = Er = OE cos 200 + ED + DC cos 200
= Es cos 200 + Es + Es cos 200
= 2Es cos 200 + Es
= 2Es 0.9397 + Es
Er = 2.88Es ………………… (2)
(2

19
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

(2) emf with distributed winding

∴ Kd = =
(1) emf with concentrated winding

2.88 Es
=
3Es
Kd = 0.96 ≤1
General case:
Let ‘β’ be angular displacement between the slots.
Its value,
1800 1800
β= =
no. of slots / pole n
m = no. of slots/pole/phase.
m = spread angle.
Then the resultant emf in one polar group is
‘mES’
(i.e., m × AE)
ES = voltage induced in one coil side.

The method for finding the vector sum of ‘m’ voltages each of value ‘Es’ and having mutual
phase difference of ‘’. (If m is large, then the curve ABCDE will become part of a circle of radius –
r)
β
∴ AB = ES = 2r sin
2
β
Arithmetic sum = mES = m × 2r sin ………………………….(1)
2
mβ
∴ Vector sum = AE = Er = 2r sin ………………………..(2)
2

Vector sum of emfs in a coil

∴ Kd =
arithmatic sum of emfs in a coil
mβ
(2) 2r sin 2
= = β
(1) m × 2r sin
2

mβ
sin 2
∴ Kd = β
m sin 2

20
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

3.12. Induced emf equation of a 3-Alternator:

Let,
 = flux per pole (wb)
N = rotor speed (rpm)
F = frequency of induced emf (Hz)
P = no. of poles
Z = no. of conductors/coil sides in series / phase
= 2T
T = no. of turns [one turn = 2coil sides or conductors]

mβ
sin 2
Kd =Distribution factor= β
m sin 2
α
KP = Pitch factor = cos 2

Kf = form factor = 1.11 for sinusoidal

60
For one revolution of the rotor it takes a time of N
sec

Each stator conductor cut by flux of ‘’.

∴ Change in flux / pole = d = p
60
Change in time = dt = N

d P NP
∴ = = = Average induced emf / conductor …………………… (1)
dt 60 60
N
Now,
PN 120 f
we know that, f = N= ……………………………… (2)
120 P
(2) in (1) as
NP
Avg. emf per conductor =
60
P 120 f
= .
60 P
= 2f (volts)
If there are ‘z’ conductors in series / phase,
Then average induced emf/conductor = 2fz = 2f(2T) = 4fT
We know,
rms
Form factor = Kf = = 1.11
avg
Then,
RMS value of emf/ph = 1.11 × avg.

21
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

= 1.11 × 4fT
Eg(rms) = 4.44fT volts.

But the above equation is not being so, the actual available voltage is reduced in the ratio of
two factors i.e., KP and Kd.

∴ Actual available voltage/ph = 4.44 Kp Kd  f T (volts)

If alternator is star connected, then emf is √3 times of phase emf.

Winding factor (Kw):-

It is the product of the distribution and pitch factors.
i.e., Kw = KP × Kd
It is denoted by ‘Kw’

3.13. Rating of Alternator’s:

All power equipments or apparatus whether it is steam engine or gas engine or electric
machine have power ratings defined as the power which can be safely and efficiently delivered by a
machine under some specific conditions or the rating of AC machinery such as alternators,
transformers and cables are determined by their heating and hence by losses them.
 Electrical apparatus or machine is usually rated at the load, which it can carry without over-
heating and damage to insulation i.e., rating of electric machine is governed by the temperature
rise caused by the internal losses of the machine. The copper loss in the armature (I2R) depends
upon the strength of the armature current and core loss on voltage and these losses are
independent of power factor.
 The output in KW is proportional to power factor for the alternator of a given KVA. For
example output of 1000 KVA alternator will be of full load is 200, 500, 800 and 1000 KW at
power factor of 0.2, 0.5,0.8 and unity respectively, but copper losses in armature will remain
same regardless of power factor.
 The prime mover which drives the alternator, have a rating independent of power factor and it
depends on kW output.
 Finally we can say that the alternators are rated in kVA or kW at specified power factor.
 Other name plate details include:
1. Voltage 2. Current
3. Frequency 4. Speed
5. Number of Poles 6. Field current & Voltage
7. Maximum Temperature rise 8. Number of Phases

22
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

3.14. Leakage Reactance or armature leakage reactance (XL):

Leakage reactance is an inductive reactance formed due to air
air-gap
gap in between armature
armatu
“conductor’s and field poles”
 In an a.c. machine, any flux set up by the load current which does not contribute to the useful
flux or main flux of the machine is a leakage flux.
 This leakage fluxes may be classified as
1. Slot leakage
2. Tooth head leakage
3. Coil-end
end or overhang leakage
When a current flow through
hrough the armature conductors or stator conductors, the flux is set up a portion
of this flux does not cross the air
air-gap, but completes its path in stator as shown in figure. Such a flux
is known as “leakage flux”.

 This effect gives the armature a reactance

which is numerically equal to 2Π f L. L, in
henries, is the leakage inductance of winding
 This leakage flux is proportional to stator or
armature current, since the magnetic path it
covers is not normally saturated. It also
depends on the phase angle between the stator
current and voltage
age applied across the stator.
 The leakage flux sets up an emf of self
π
inductance leading the load current ‘I’ by 2 and

proportional to load current ‘I’ in magnitude.

Hence armature winding is assumed to possess leakage reactance ((XL) such that the voltage
vo drop
due to it, I XL is equal to an emf set by leakage flux. A part of the generated emf is used up to
overcome this leakage reactance drop in addition to armature drop.
i.e., Generated emf = phasor sum of terminal voltage, armature resistance drop.

23
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

3.15. Armature Reaction:

The action of armature flux on main flux is called known as “Armature Reaction”.
 In dc machine, the armature mmf (ampere-turns) acts on the magnetic circuit of the machine in
such a way as to distort the air-gap flux and to charge its magnitude. For a given armature
current, the direction and magnitude of armature reaction depends on the ‘position of brushes’.
 In an alternator, somewhat similar conditions exist. For a given armature current, the magnitude
and direction of the armature reaction cannot depends on the brush position as in case of dc
machine, but depends on phase displacement of stator current ‘I’ with respect to emf ‘E’ induced
in the stator winding by the field winding flux.
i.e., for,
DC Machine Armature Reaction depends on position of brushes.
Alternator Armature Reaction depends on phase angle displacement of load current ‘I’ and
induced emf ‘E’.
In an alternator the phase displacement or phase angle -  between current ‘I’ and emf ‘E’ can
be within the limits of,
π π
≤≤
2 2
We will consider three cases,
i.e.,
i. When  = 0 i.e., when the power factor of load is unity.
π
ii. When  = +2 i.e., when the power factor is ‘zero’ and lagging.
π
iii. When  = -2 i.e., when the power factor of load is ‘zero’ and leading.

3.15.1. At unity power factor:

The distribution of the stator currents and fluxes of an alternator with zero phase displacement
between current ‘I’ and emf ‘E’ (i.e., when pf is unity) Assuming the rotation of the poles to be
clockwise is shown in above figure.
The crosses (+) and dots (.) appeasing in the conductor cross sections indicate the
instantaneous direction of the emf’s induced and currents flowing.
 Cross indicating the inward direction and dot indicating the outward direction. The maximum of
the fundamental wave of the field will be opposite to the pole centers and at the same points the
conductors have their maximum induced emf.
 With =0 the conductors carrying the maximum current will also be at the same points, as shown
in the figure. The armature reaction mmf is perpendicular to the main field mmf, as in case of a
dc machine with brushes on the neutral axis.

24
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

 This causes the distortion of the flux due to main field and asymmetrical distribution of the flux
density under the pole shoe. The flux density under the trailing pole tips increases somewhat,
while under the leading pole lips it decreases.
 The axis of the resultant field is displaced under the action of armature reaction mmf in a
direction opposite to that of rotation of the rotor.
Hence armature reaction at unity power factor has got distorting effect.
effect

3.15.2. At lagging zero power factor

factor:

π
The distribution of currents and fluxes with phase angle  = +2 radians i.e., for a purely
pure

inductive load is shown above.. The current maximum will be shifted in space by an angle 900 from
the emf maximum, which coincides with the centre of the poles. This shift will be opposite to
direction of rotation, because the
he fundamental armature reaction wave rotates in step with the field
poles.

25
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

π
While when  = +2, current wave lags behind the emf wave by an angle 900. The field created by the

armature reaction mmf will be in opposite to main field flux and will,
Therefore,
refore, have a wholly de-magnetizing effect.

3.15.3. At leading zero power factor

factor:
π
The distribution of currents and fluxes with phase angle -2 i.e., for a purely capacitive load is

shown below.
The maximum current will be shifted to the right from tthe
he maximum emf, which remains as before
under the pole centre’s and the armature reaction will,
Therefore have a wholly magnetizing effect on the main field.

26
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

 For any power factor cos of load, the armature reaction has cross-magnetizing component
proportional I cos and demagnetizing component proportional to I sin, and is taken +ve for
lagging power and –ve for leading power factor.
 The phasor sum of the fundamental armature winding and field winding mmf waves constitutes,
in a synchronous machine, the mmf creating the resultant magnetic flux.

3.16. Nature of Armature Reaction:

The nature of the armature reaction is dependent on the power factor at which the machine is
operating and upon the operating mode of synchronous machine. For simplicity of explanation, it will
be assumed that the armature resistance (Ra) and leakage reactance (XL) are negligible so that,
Vt = Eg
The below phasor diagrams, with component fluxes indicated therein for an alternator for
zero power factor lagging, zero power factor leading, unity power factor. The following observations
are immediately made from the phasor diagrams.

27
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

Where, ar = armature flux component

f = field flux component
r = resultant flux component
 Armature reaction is demagnetizing (ar opposes f) when a alternator supplies zero power factor
lagging current.
 Armature reaction is magnetizing (ar aids f) when a alternator supplies zero power factor
leading current.
 Armature reaction is mostly cross-magnetizing (i.e., at 900 to f) though it has a small
demagnetizing component shown when an alternator supplies a unity power factor current.
From the above discussion, we conclude that for an alternator,
 Itt supplies a lagging power factor current; the armature reaction has both demagnetizing and
cross-magnetizing components.
 It supplies leading power factor current, the armature reaction has both magnetizing and cross-
magnetizing components.
Power Factor Armature Reaction
Unity Purely Cross Magnetization or Distortion
Zero Power Factor (ZPF) Lagging Purely Demagnetization
Zero Power Factor (ZPF) Leading Purely Magnetization
0.8, Lagging Partly demagnetization & Partly Cross Magnetization
0.8, Leading Partly Magnetization & Partly Cross Magnetization

3.17. SYNCHRONOUS IMPEDANCE

IMPEDANCE:
3.17.1. Synchronous Reactance:: (XS) [XS = XL + Xa]
The armature reactance is the reactance which is due to “armature reaction”.

28
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

 The emf set up due to armature reaction mmf is always quadrature with load current ‘IL’ and is
proportional to it. Thus it is equivalent to an emf induced in an inductive coil and the effect of
armature reaction can, therefore, be considered equivalent to reactance drop ‘IXa’. Where Xa
which takes care of the armature reaction effect.
 The armature winding possess a certain leakage reactance (XL) already discussed. The sum of
‘XL’ and ‘Xa’ is called the synchronous reactance.
XS = XL + Xa

3.17.2. Effective Resistance: (Re)

The effective resistance of the armature winding is somewhat greater than the conductor
resistance called the dc resistance. This is due to additional loss, over the purely I2R loss, inside and
sometimes outside the conductor due to alternating current (AC). The main sources of this additional
loss are,
i. Eddy current in the outer periphery.
ii. Magnetic hysteresis in the surrounding material.
iii. Eddy currents or unequal current distribution in the conductor itself.
 In many cases it is sufficiently accurate to measure armature resistance by dc called the effective
resistance (Re) which is large enough to take care of these additional losses. ‘Re’ can vary widely
from 1.25 to 1.75 or more times to dc resistance depending upon design.

3.17.3. Synchronous impedance: (ZS)

When the synchronous reactance (XS) is combined with the armature resistance (Re), then the
quantity obtained is called the “Synchronous impedance” (ZS).

i.e., ZS = Re + jXS

Armature winding effective resistance (Re) in alternators usually very small in comparison to
synchronous reactance (XS) and therefore ‘ZS’ may be assumed to XS.

3.18. Alternator ON-LOAD:

If the excitation of an alternator adjusted to give normal voltage at no-load and then a load is
applied, the terminal voltage of an alternator changes, even though the speed is kept constant. The
voltage usually falls, but in certain circumstances it may rise even.
The change in terminal voltage of an alternator with the change in load supplied by it is due to
the following reasons.
i. Voltage drop account of armature effective resistance (Re).

29
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

ii. Voltage drop on account of leakage reactance (XL).

iii. Voltage drop on account of armature reaction.

D
E0

Ia Xa
From the Phasor diagram of
lagging power factor,

Ia XS
Ia is taken as reference vector

Ia Xl
OD2 = OB2 + BD2

V E02 = OD2 = (OA + AB)2 + (BC + CD)2

Ia Re C

V sin 
E0 = (V cos  + Ia Re )2 +(V sin  + Ia Xs )2

O Ia A B
V cos Ia Re

Lagging Power Factor

Ia
D
From the Phasor diagram of leading power
factor,
E0 C
V is taken as reference vector E
OC2 = OD2 + DC2
E02 = OC2 = (OE + ED)2 + (BD - BC)2
B

2 V
E0 = (V cos  + Ia Re )2 + V sin  - Ia Xs
O A
Leading Power Factor

D
E0 From the Phasor diagram of unity
Ia Xa

power factor,
OD2 = OC2 + CD2
Ia XS

E02 = OD2 = (OB + BC)2 + (CD)2

Ia Xl

Ia V Ia Re E0 = ( V +Ia Re )2 +(Ia Xs )2
O A B C
Unity Power Factor

30
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

3.19. Equivalent Circuit:

When the alternator is operating aat no-load
load (i.e., rotor is rotating and energized and stator is
open-circuited)
circuited) its circuit diagram is shown below.

Each phase generates an emf E0 per phase as shown. The equivalent circuit of an alternator for
one phase is shown.

At no-load,
load, the terminal voltage ‘V’ per phase is equal to excitation (or) generated emf E0 per phase
i.e., V = E0
terminal voltage and Zs is the synchronous impedance.

3.20. Experimental determination of Zs:

3.20.1. Open circuit test:
 The connection
ection for open circuit test is shown in the above circuit diagram. The armature
winding i.e., load terminals are opened and machine should be run at rated or synchronous
speed. The field winding is connected to dc source in series with a field rheostat an
and an
ammeter.
 By adjusting the field rheostat to maximum to minimum the field current If is taken from
ammeter in steps minimum to maximum respectively. Then Eg0 is also minimum to maximum
taken from voltmeter in steps up to rated value.

31
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

 Draw the open circuit

ircuit characteristic curve ((OCC curve) from the above readings. i.e., ‘If’ on x-
axis and Eg on y-axis.
axis. The Ego which we obtained from voltmeter is line value that should be
Ego /line
representing in a graph as phase value. i.e., [For a star Ego/ph = √3
].

3.20.2. Short circuit test:

 The connection for the short circuit test is shown in the below circuit diagram. In this test also
the machine should be maintained at constant speed by the prime mover.
 All the 3- load terminals of 3- alternator as shorted.
orted. Rheostat of sufficiently high ohmic value
is inserted in the dc field circuit to keep the current in the circuit very low.
 Now the field current ‘If’ is adjusted to Isc or Irated of 3- alternator by varying the field rheostat.
From the If and Isc the SCC curve (Short Circuit Characteristic) is obtained.

32
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

3.20.3. OC & SC Characteristic curves

curves:

The synchronous impedance ‘Zs’ can be obtained by above graphical representation of occ
and scc curve.
Open circuit induced emf
i..e., ZS =
Short circuit current

Eoc
∴ Zs =
Isc
3.21. Determination of effective armature resistance
resistance: (Re)
The effective armature resistance (Re) per phase can be measured directly by Ammeter-
Ammeter
Voltmeter (A-V method) or by using Wheatstone bridge
bridge.

 The above circuit is used to measure the effective armature resistance per phase. The DC supply
is connected to the any one phase of armature winding through rheostat, ammeter in series and
voltmeters to parallel.
 Then the rheostat can be varied from maximum to mini
minimum
mum in steps the Va and Ia values are
Va
noted by voltmeter and ammeter respectively and taken average with gives ‘Re’. i.e. Ra = Ia
.

 The ‘Re’ value which we obtained is dc by converting it to AC value is multiplied 1.5 due to skin
effect.
i.e., RAC = 1.5 RDC

33
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

Finally, we obtained the synchronous impedance ‘Zs’ from OC and SC test, ‘Re’ obtained by A-V
method then ‘Xs’ as,

Synchronous Reactance =XS = Z2S - R2e

3.22. Winding factor: (Harmonics Consideration)

The productt of distribution factor (Kd) and the pitch factor (Kp) is referred as the winding
factor (Kw).
Kw = Kd *Kp

star-connected to eliminate 3rd and 9th harmonics (i.e. multiples of 3,

3- alternators are invariably star
through 5th and 7th harmonic emf’s of reduced magnitude are present
called triplen) from line emf’s thro
in the lines.
Already we know the emf equation of 3- alternator,
E
i.e. ph
= 4.44 Kp Kd ∅ f T volts.

From the above equation, the fundamental emf per phase is,
Ep1 = 4.444 * Kw1 * 1 * (1f) * T ………………….. (1)
For 3rd harmonic, emf per phase is
Ep3 = 4.44 * Kw3 * 3 * (3f) * T ………………….. (2)
In general, for hth harmonic, emf per phase is
Eph = 4.44 * Kwh * h * (hf) * T ………………….. (3
3)
tes fundamental, third and hth harmonics respectively.
expressions, the hth harmonic and fundamental rms phase emf’s are related

34
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

(3) Eph Kwh h h

= = * …………………..(3a)
(1) Ep1 Kw1 1
Also,
1= total value of fundamental flux per pole
= (Avg. Flux density) . (Area under pole)
2 πDL
= B1 *
π P
2DL
= .B1 ………………..(4)
P

Where,
B1 = peak value of fundamental component of flux density.
D = Air-gap diameter of armature.
L = Core Length of armature.

Similarly, 3 from equ, (4) as

2DL
3 = B
3P 3
In general,
2DL
h = B
hP h

From the above,

h 1 Bh Bh hh
= .  =
1 h B1 B1 1

From equation – 3a
Eph Kwh hh
 = .
Ep1 Kw1 1
Eph Kwh 1 Bh
= .h. .
Ep1 Kw1 h B1

Eph Kwh Bh
= .
Ep1 Kw1 B1

The rms phase emf is,

Eph =[Ep1 2 +Ep3 2 + ---+Eph 2 ]1/2

35
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

3.22. Voltage Regulation:

The variation in the voltage between no-load and full-load is called the voltage regulation.
 As we know that the voltage regulation of dc generator should depends on,
i. the resistance the main or armature circuit
ii. the magnitude of the armature current
iii. the armature reaction (i.e., the effect of the armature flux on main flux)
 In case of the synchronous generator or alternator, in addition to above 3 factors in dc generator,
the voltage regulation depends upon the power factor and armature leakage reactance also.

Voltage Regulation of an alternator is defined as the ratio of “rise in voltage (E0-V) when full-

load is suddenly removed (field excitation and speed remaining the same) to the rated terminal voltage.

Rise in voltage = ‘E0-V’ is the arithmetic difference not the vector difference.
E0 = Maximum no-load induced emf magnitude
V = Terminal voltage of an alternator.
 Voltage regulation depends on power factor ‘cos ’

E0 - V
∴ % Regulation 'up' = × 100
V

 If we can change the load of an alternator, there is a change in terminal voltage (V). The
magnitude of terminal voltage change depends on,
i. load can changes, the terminal voltage magnitude changes and the power factor (cos ∅)
also. [ since V = E - Ia (Re + j Xs) ]
ii. excitation can changes, the magnitude of terminal voltage changes (V).
 In case of leading load power factor, terminal voltage (V) will fall on removing full-load. At
lower leading load power factor ‘v ‘ rises with the increase of load, and hence the regulation is
‘-ve’.
 For unity and lagging power factors, there is always a voltage drop with increase of load.
 The rise in voltage when full-load is removed is not same when full-load is applied.
Note:
1) V < E0, i.e., the voltage regulation is POSITIVE for LAGGING & UNITY power factor
loads.
2) V > E0, i.e., the voltage regulation is NEGATIVE for LEADING power factor loads.
3) A normal alternator has a regulation of about 8-10% at unity power factor (UPF), but the
voltage rise is considerably increased at lagging power factors. The regulation is about 23-
35%, or even more

36
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

3.23. Determination of voltage regulation:

The following methods which are used to determine the voltage regulation i.e.,
I. Direct loading method (small rating machines i.e., ≤ 5 KVA)
II. Indirect loading method ( >5 KVA )

3.23.1. Direct loading method:

This method is applicable only for the alternators, which their rating is ≤ 5 KVA. Because for
medium and large rating alternators, it requires more power and more losses were occurred.
 In this, the alternator is runs at synchronous speed (Ns) and its terminal voltage is adjusted to its
rated value (V). The load is varied until the ammeter, wattmeter indicates the rated values at
given power factor.
 Then the load removed, the speed and excitation at kept at constant. The open circuit or no-load
induced emf recorded ‘E0’.

E0 - V
∴ % Voltage Regulation = × 100
V

3.23.2. Indirect loading method:

For large and medium rating (> 5 KVA) alternators, the regulation which can be determine by
using indirect loading method. Here the load is not applied directly but rated values are given to
alternator. There are various methods to determine the voltage regulation. Some of them ignore the
effect of saturation and some do consider. The following methods are used to obtain the voltage
regulation.
They are,
1. EMF or Synchronous Impedance or Pessimistic or Unsaturated Synchronous Impedance method

2. MMF or Ampere-Turns or ROTHERT’S Ampere-Turns or Optimistic method

3. Zero Power Factor or ZPF or Potier Triangle method

4. ASA (American Standards Association) method

 All the above methods require,
a) Open Circuit or No-Load Characteristic Curve (OCC Curve)
b) Short Circuit Characteristic Curve (SCC Curve)
c) Armature effective resistance or Stator resistance (Re)

37
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

3.23.3. Open Circuit or No-Load

Load Test: (To obtain OCC Curve)

 The connection
ion for Open C
Circuit test or No-Load test is shown in above circuit diagram. The
armature winding i.e., load terminals are opened and machine should be run at rated or
synchronous speed. The field winding is connected to dc source in series with a field rh
rheostat
and an ammeter.
 By adjusting the field rheostat from maximum to minimum, the field current If is taken through
ammeter in steps minimum to maximum respectively. Then Ego or no-load
load generated emf is also
reads minimum to maximum taken from voltmeter in steps up to rated value.
 Draw the Open Circuit Characteristic Curve (OCC Curve) from the above readings. i.e., ‘If’ on
x-axis and Ego on y-axis.
axis. The Ego which we obtained from voltmeter is line value that should be
Ego /line
value. i.e., [For a star connected armature, Ego/ph =
representing in a graph as phase value ].
√3

3.23.4. Short Circuit Test: (To obtain SCC Curve)

38
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

The connection for the short circuit test is shown in the above circuit diagram. In this test also
the machine should be maintained aat constant speed by the prime mover.
 alternator as shorted. Rheostat of sufficiently high ohmic value is
All the 3- load terminals of 3-
inserted in the dc field circuit to keep the current in the circuit very low.

 Now the field current ‘If’ is adjusted to Isc or Irated of 3- alternator by varying the field rheostat.
From the If and Isc the SCC Curve (Short Circuit Characteristic) is obtained.
 The OCC Curve and SCC Curve can be plotted with the common field current axis as shown
below. From these, the value
alue of Synchronous Impedance (Zs) will be calculated.

 The Synchronous Impedance ‘Zs’ can be obtained by above graphical representation of OCC and
SCC Curve.

Open circuit induced emf

i.e., Zs = at constant excitation
n or same field current axis
Short circuit current

Eoc
Zs =
Isc

39
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

3.23.5. Ammeter – Voltmeter Method

Method: (To obtain the value of Re)

 The effective armature resistance (Re) per phase can be measured directly by Ammeter-
Ammeter
Voltmeter method (AV-method)
method) or by usin
using Wheatstone bridge.
 The above circuit is used to measure the effective armature resistance per phase. The DC supply
is connected to the any one phase of armature winding through rheostat, ammeter in series and
voltmeter to parallel.
 Then the rheostat can be varied from maximum to minimum in steps the Va and Ia values are
Va
noted by voltmeter and ammeter respectively and taken average with gives ‘Ra’. i.e., Ra = .
Ia

 The ‘Ra’ value which we obtained is DC so by converting it to AC value is multiplied

mult 1.5 due to
skin effect and the other losses.
i.e., RAC = 1.5* RDC

 Re = RAC
 Finally, we obtained the Synchronous Impedance ‘Zs’ from OC and SC test, ‘Re’ obtained by A-
V method then ‘Xs’ as,

Synchronous Reactance = Xs = Zs 2 - Re 2

40
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

3.24. EMF method or Synchronous impedance method:

This method is also called as “Pessimistic or unsaturated synchronous impedance method.”
Assumptions:
In this method the assumptions are,
 The drop due to armature reaction is considered as drop due to additional leakage reactance
means the entire drop assumed as drop due to leakage reactance (XL). IXL which depends on
voltage so that it can be represented as “Voltage Vectors or EMF Vectors”. That’s the reason
why this method is called as ‘EMF’ method.
 The flux under test conditions is the same as that under load conditions.
 The synchronous impedance (Zs) is constant. The Zs is determined by the OCC & SCC. At all
times, the Zs is the ratio of the open-circuit voltage to the short-circuit current. When the OCC
curve & SCC curve are linear, the synchronous impedance is constant. Above the knee of the
OCC when the saturation starts, the Zs decreases due to fact that both OCC & SCC approaches
to each other. The Zs obtained test condition is below saturation is larger than the normal (when
the magnetic circuit becomes saturated). Thus we do not take the effect of saturation. This is the
greatest source of error in the synchronous impedance method.
 The magnetic reluctance to the armature flux is constant regardless of the power factor. For a
cylindrical rotor machine this assumption is true because of the uniform air-gap. In salient-pole
machines, the position of the armature flux relative to the field poles varies with the power
factor.
 There is no saturation effect.

Steps to find the regulation:

i. OCC curve is plotted from the OC test. (refer OC test)
ii. SCC curve is drawn from the short-circuit test data (refer SC test). It is a straight line
passing through the origin.
Both these curve are drawn on a common field current (If) axis.
iii. Consider a field current (If) with respective to the short circuit current or full load current
‘Isc’ and draw a dotted line to that If which cuts occ at Eoc, the terminal voltage zero when
it is in short-circuit.
Eoc
 Zs =
Isc
iv. Armature effective resistance can be obtained by A-V method (refer A-V method).
v. The synchronous reactance can be determined by,

Xs = Zs 2 - Re 2

41
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

 This emf method is not accurate

accurate, because the value of ‘Zs’ is always more than its actual value
under normal voltage and saturation condition.
 From the above, the If is same for both OC and SC test. It is observed from the graph it cann
cannot
cross the saturation of OCC curve. So that the ‘Zs’ is also called as “Unsaturated
Unsaturated synchronous
impedance”.
Eoc
i.e., Zs(unsaturated) = (If is at Isc or Ifl)
Isc

Zs(un sat) > Zs(sat) (or) Zs(un sat) > Zs(actual)

 So that this method is also called as “Unsaturated

Unsaturated synchronous impedance method”. Hence, the
value of regulation obtained is more than its actual value.

i.e., Reg(emf) > Reg(act)

That’s the reason why it is called ““Pessimistic method”.

42
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

 The value of ‘Zs’ is not constant; it can be varied with saturation. At low saturation or un
saturation its value is larger because then the effect of a given ampere
ampere--turns is more than that
high saturation.
 Under short circuit condition, sat
saturation
uration is very low, because armature mmf is directly
demagnetizing.
 In this method, the value of ‘Zs’ is usually obtained from full
full-load
load current in the short-circuit
short
test. Here, armature reactance ‘Xa’ has not been treated separately but taken along with leakage
reactance ‘XL’.

Value of ‘E0’ (for lagging load)

Considering load current (Ia) as a
reference, lagging load current ‘Ia’ is lags behind
the voltage (V) by an angle ‘‘.

From the Phasor diagram of lagging power

factor,
OD2 = OB2 + BD2
E02 = OD2 = (OA + AB)2 + (BC + CD)2

E0 = (V cos  + Ia Re )2 +(V sin  + Ia Xs )2

For leading load:

Consider terminal voltage (V) as a
reference, load current (Ia) leads terminal voltage
‘V’ by an angle ‘‘.

From the Phasor diagram of leading power factor,

OC2 = OD2 + DC2

E02 = OC2 = (OE + ED)2 + (BD - BC)2

2
E0 = (V cos  + Ia Re )2 + V sin  - Ia Xs

43
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

For Unity Power factor load:

Consider terminal voltage (V) and load
current (Ia) both are in phase i.e., ‘ = 00‘.

From the Phasor diagram of unity power

factor,
OD2 = OC2 + CD2
E02 = OD2 = (OB + BC)2 + (CD)2

E0 = (V+ Ia Re )2 + (Ia Xs )2

E0 - V
 regulation =
% Voltage regulati × 100 about 30%
V

Where, V = terminal voltage obtained by rating of an alternator.

3.25.. MMF method or Ampere

Ampere-Turn method:
This method is also called as “ROTHERT
“ROTHERT’S MMF or Optimistic method”.
Assumptions:
The drop due
ue to leakage reactance is considered as drop due to additional armature reaction
means entire drop is assumed to be drop due to armature reaction (IXa).
Since armature reaction is flux phenomena, so drop due to armature reaction is represented with a
“field current vectors (or) mmf vector
vectors”.
”. That is the reason why it is called as “MMF method”.

Steps to find the regulation:

i. OCC curve is obtained by conduction of OC test.
ii. SCC curve is obtained by conducting SC test i.e., field excitation is adjusted to full
full-load
current or short circuit current flows through short circuit path of an alternator load
terminals.
From the below,
Ifm  is the main field current required to generate rated induced emf under Open
Open-Circuit condition

is the main field current required

quired to produce the armature or full load current under Short-
Short

44
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

Ift  iss the main field current which gives the m

maximum
aximum open circuit induced EMF

Ift , Ifm and Ifr are also represented in terms of ∅fm , ∅fr and ∅ft respectively.

Ift = Ifm + Ifr

 Ifm is required to compensate the armature reaction under various load conditions.

For Lagging power factor load:

Here Ifm and ‘E’ are taken as reference
refere vectors
Ifr lags behind E by ‘’

Ifr1 and Ift1 are actual values i.e., obtained by

direct load method
For lagging, Ift angle  900 + 

45
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

For Leading power factor load:

Ifr leads E by ‘’

 = Load power factor angle
For leading, Ift angle  900 - 

For Unity power factor load:

Ifr and E are reference vectors

Ifr and E both are in phase, because  = 0
 cos  = 1

For unity, Ift angle  900

 Ifm which gives the induced EMF at rated value. (i.e., E)

 Ift which gives the maximum no-load or open-circuit induced emf (i.e., E0) measure ‘E0’ value
corresponding to Ift from OCC curve.
 Ifr is not sufficient to give the required field flux lines, because the field poles are saturated. So
more field current required.
E0 -V
 % Voltage regulation = *100
V

 In this method, the field current is to overcome the armature reaction is measured from short
circuit condition where the field poles are active.
 But under running condition or actual load condition more field current (Ifr1) required. Since
the field poles are little saturated. Therefore ‘E0’ is more.
 So that actual regulation is less than ‘mmf’ regulation. That’s why it is also named as
“Optimistic method”

i.e., Reg(mmf) < Reg(actual) about 15%

This method is also not an accurate method.

46
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

3.26. Zero Power Factor (ZPF) or Potier Triangle or Power Triangle method:
It makes use of the first two methods to some extent.
Assumptions:
In this method the assumptions taken are as follows i.e.,
 Here the drop due to armature reactance (Xa) and leakage reactance (XL) are taken as
separately. Hence it gives the more accurate results.
 The effective armature resistance (Re) is neglected.
 The leakage reactance drop IaXL is independent of excitation.
 The armature reaction mmf is constant.
 The OCC taken on no-load accurately represents the relation between mmf and voltage on
load.
Steps to find the regulation:
1. No-Load or Open Circuit Characteristic curve (OCC curve) obtained by OC test.
2. Full-Load zero power factor curve (not the SCC curve) also called the wattless load
characteristic. It is the curve of terminal voltage against excitation when armature is
delivering full-load current at zero power factor.
 In this method, the drop due to armature reactance and leakage reactance combinely gives the
maximum open circuit induced emf (E0). It should be noted that if we vectorially add to ‘V’, the
drop due to leakage reactance (XL) and effective resistance (Re) we get ‘E’. if further added the
drop due to ‘Xa’ gives the ‘E0’.

47
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

 The zero power factor full-load lagging curve can be obtained from,
a. If a similar machine is available, which may be driven at no-load as a synchronous motor
at practically zero power factor
b. Loading the alternators with pure reactors.
c. Connecting the alternators to a 3- line with ammeters and wattmeter’s connected for
measuring current and power, by so adjusting the field current that we get full-load
armature current with zero wattmeter reading.

 ‘P’ point was obtained when wattmeter was reading zero.

‘A’ point was obtained from a short-circuit test field current with a full-load armature current.
(i.e., Ifr)
‘OA’ represents field current which is equal and opposite to the demagnetizing armature
reaction and balancing leakage reactance drop at full-load.
 By knowing ‘P’ and ‘A’ points, the full-load curve at zero power factor ‘A P’ is drawn.
 From ’P’, PQ is drawn equal to and parallel to OA. From point –‘Q’, QR is drawn parallel to
OE i.e., tangential or air-gap line. Hence we get ‘R’ point on No-Load or OCC curve, which
corresponds to point ‘P’ on full-load zero power factor curve. The triangle ‘∆PRS’ called
known as potier triangle. This triangle is constant for a given armature current.
 Draw RS perpendicular to PQ. The length RS represents the drop in voltage due to armature
leakage reactance XL.
i.e., RS = IXL & PT = Ia(Xa + X L)
PS = field current necessary to overcome demagnetizing effect of armature reaction at full-load.
SQ = the field current required to balance the armature leakage reactance drop RS.
Vector diagram for lagging load:

D
Ifr
Ift
900+

B
Ifm
E0 T

IaXa
900 E
R
0
90
S IaXL
O
 V
IaRe
Ia

48
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

 The ∆OBD which is obtained from the graphical representation. For that,

Ift D

Ifr

900

O Ifm B C

 OD2 = (OB+BC)2 + CD2

Ift = (Ifm + Ifr sin )2 + (Ifr cos )2

E0 -V
% Voltage regulation = *100 about 20%
V

Similarly the vector or phasor diagrams for leading and unity power factor loads as mentioned in
MMF method. The value of E0 can be obtained with respective to Ift for voltage regulation.

3.27. ASA (American Standards Association) method:

It is the combination of MMF and ZPF method and is a most accurate method. The drop
due to saturation also considered. In the EMF, MMF, ZPF methods the saturation is not considered.
Steps to find the regulation:
1. No-Load or Open Circuit Characteristic curve (OCC curve) obtained by OC test.
2. Full-Load zero power factor curve (not the SCC curve) also called the wattless load
characteristic considering saturation. It is the curve of terminal voltage against excitation
when armature is delivering current at zero power factor (Ia or IL = Constant).
 In this method, the drop due to armature reactance and leakage reactance combinely gives the
maximum open circuit induced emf (E0). It should be noted that if we vectorially add to ‘V’,
the drop due to leakage reactance (XL) and effective resistance (Re) we get ‘E’. if further added
the drop due to ‘Xa’ gives the ‘E0’.

 ‘P’ point was obtained when wattmeter was reading zero.

‘A’ point was obtained from a short-circuit test field current with a full-load armature current.
(i.e., Ifr)

49
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

‘OA’ represents field current which is equal and opposite to the demagnetizing armature
reaction and balancing leakage reactance drop at full-load.
 By knowing ‘P’ and ‘A’ points, the full-load curve at zero power factor ‘A P’ is drawn.
 From ’P’, PQ is drawn equal to and parallel to OA. From point –‘Q’, QR is drawn parallel to
OE i.e., tangential or air-gap line. Hence we get ‘R’ point on No-Load or OCC curve, which
corresponds to point ‘P’ on full-load zero power factor curve. The triangle ‘∆PRS’ called
known as potier triangle. This triangle is constant for a given armature current.
 Draw RS perpendicular to PQ. The length RS represents the drop in voltage due to armature
leakage reactance XL.

i.e., RS = IXL & PT = Ia(Xa + X L)

PS = field current necessary to overcome demagnetizing effect of armature reaction at full-load.
SQ = balancing the armature leakage reactance drop RS.

50
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

Vector diagram for lagging load:

Ift1 = field current to compensate drop due to saturation and is added in phase with Ift
Measure ‘E0’ corresponding to Ift1 .

E0 -V
% Voltage regulation = *100 about 25% to 28%
V

 Similarly the vector or phasor diagrams for leading and unity power factor loads as
mentioned in MMF method. The value of E0 can be obtained with respective to Ift1 for voltage
regulation.

Note: Finally the Voltage Regulation of an Alternator as,

EMF method > ASA method > ZPF method > MMF method

i.e., we concluded that among the four methods the ASA & ZPF method will gives accurate
regulation compared to EMF & MMF

51
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

3.28. Introduction to Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators

Electric power systems are interconnected for economy for and reliable operation.
Interconnection of ac power requires synchronous generators to operate in a parallel. In a generating
station two or more generators are connected in parallel.
 In an interconnected system forming a grid the alternators are located are at different places. They
are connected in parallel by means of transformers and transmission lines. Under normal operating
conditions all the generators and synchronous with each other.
Bus-Bars
R

To Load
Y

I1 I2 I3 In

Alternator Alternator Alternator Alternator

1 2 3 n

∴ Iload = I1+ I2+ I3+ --------------- + In

 An arrangement of generators for parallel operation enables a plant engineer to adjust the
machines for optimum operating efficiency and greater reliability.
 As the load increases beyond the generated capacity of the connected units, additional generators
are paralleled to carry the load. Similarly, as the load demand falls off, one or more of the
machines are generally taken off the line to allow the units to operate at higher efficiency.

3.29. Reasons for Parallel operation:

Alternators are operated in a parallel for the following reasons.
1. Several alternators can supply a bigger load than a single alternator.
2. During periods of light load, one or more alternators may be shutdown and those remaining
operate at or near full-load and thus more efficiently.
3. When one machine is taken out of service for its scheduled maintenance and inspection, the
remaining machines maintain the continuity of supply.
4. If there is breakdown of a generator, there is no interruption of the power supply.

52
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

5. In order to meet the increasing future demand of load, more machines can be added without
disturbing the original installation.
6. The operating cost and cost of energy generated are reduced when several generators operate
in parallel.
Thus, parallel operation of alternators ensures higher security of supply and enables
overall economic generation.

3.30. Necessary Conditions for Paralleling Alternators:

Most synchronous machines will operate in parallel with other synchronous machines and the
process of connecting one machine in parallel with another machine or with an infinite bus bar
system is known as “synchronizing”.
 Those machine already carrying load are known as “running machines”, while the alternator
which is to be connected in parallel with the system is known as “incoming machine”. Before
the incoming machine is to be connected to the system, the following conditions should be
satisfied.
1. The phase sequence of the bus-bar voltages and the incoming machine voltage must be the
same.
2. The bus-bar voltage and the incoming machine terminal voltage must be in-phase.
3. The terminal voltage of the incoming machine should be equal to that of the alternator with
which is to be run in parallel or with the bus-bar voltage.
4. The frequency of the generated voltage of the incoming machine must be equal to the
frequency of the voltage of the line bus-bar.
5. The prime movers must have relatively similar and drooping speed-load characteristics. This
is to prevent a machine with a rising speed load characteristic from taking more and more of
the load.
For paralleling a new alternator to already load carrying the above conditions must be
fulfilled before. Varying of these requirements for paralleling would result in circulating currents
between the machines varying from uneconomic, to serious, to disastrous.

3.31. Synchronizing Procedure:

A stationary alternator must not be connected to live bus-bars because the induced emf is
zero at stand still and a short circuit will result.
The synchronizing procedure and the equipment for checking it are the same whether one
alternator is to be connected in parallel with another alternator or an alternator is to be connected to
the infinite bus.
The following methods are used for synchronization.

53
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

Synchronizing Methods

Synchronizing Lamps Synchroscope Computer Systems

Three Dark Lamp method Two Bright One Dark Lamp method

3.32. Synchronizing lamps:

For parallel operation, a set of three synchronizing lamps can be used to check the conditions
for paralleling the incoming machine with running or other machines. The dark lamp method along
with a voltmeter used for synchronizing as shown above.
It is used for synchronizing low-power machines.

54
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

 The prime mover of the incoming machine is started and brought up to near its rated speed. The
field current of incoming machine is adjusted so that it becomes equal to bus voltage.
 The three lamps L1, L2 and L3 flicker at a rate equal to the difference in the frequencies of the
incoming machine andd the bus.
 If the phases are properly connected, all the lamps will be glows bright and dark at the same
time. If this is not the case, then it means that the phase sequences are not correct. In order to
correct the phase sequence, two leads of the line of the incoming machine should be
interchanged.
 After finally adjusting the incoming voltage, the synchronizing switch is closed in the middle of
their dark period (i.e., glows half of the dark). Since the voltage across the lamps varies from
zero to twice the
he phase voltage, the lamps of suitable rating (usually two in series) must be used.

Advantages of the dark-lamp

lamp method:
1. This method is cheap in cost.
2. The proper phase sequence is easily determined.
De-merits:
1. Since the lamp becomes dark at about half the
their
ir rated voltage, it is possible that the
synchronizing switch might be closed when there is a considerable phase difference between
the machines. This may result in high circulating current to damage the machine.
2. The lamp filaments might burn
burn-out.
3. The flicker
cker of the lamp does not indicate which machine has the higher frequency.

3.32.1. Three Bright Lamp method:

In this method, the lamps are connected across the phase that is ‘R1 is connected to Y2’, ‘Y1 is
connected to B2’ and ‘B1 is connected to R2’. If all the three lamps get bright and dark together, then
the phase sequences are the same. The correct instant of closing the synchronizing switch is the
middle of the bright period.
 The brightest point in the cycle is easier to distinguish than the middle of the dark period and
avoids the confusing later with a lamp filament failure.
 This method is adopted for low voltage alternators
only.
Note:
1. To vary the frequency, vary the speed of the
alternator.
2. To vary the voltage, very field excitation of the
alternator.

55
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

3.32.2. Two-Bright
Bright One Dark Lamp method:
In this method one lamp is connected between corresponding phases while the two others are
cross-connected
connected between the other two phases. That is, R1 is connected to R2, Y1 to B2 and B1 to Y2
as follows.
 Thee prime mover of the incoming machine is started and the alternator is brought up to
near its speed.
 The incoming machine excitation is now adjusted until the incoming machine induced
voltage ER2, EY2, EB2 are equal to the bus-bar
bus voltages
VR, VY, VB. The correct moment to close the switch is
obtained at the instant when the straight connected (L1)
lamp is dark and cross-connected
connected lamps are equal
bright.

 If the phase sequence is not correct, no such

instant will occur as the cross-connected
connected lamps will, in
effect, be straight connected and all the lamps will be
dark simultaneously.
 At this case, the direction of the rotating of the incoming machine should be reversed by
interchanging the two lines of the machine.
Note:
 For paralleling smaller machines in
inn power stations three-lamps
lamps along with the synchroscope
is used.
 For synchronizing very large machines in power stations the whole procedure is done
automatically by computer. Thus, the risk of error is judgement of the operator is eliminated.

3.33. Synchronizing
hronizing by a Synchroscope:
In large power station installations, an additional device called a synchroscope is used. It has
a rotating hand or needle or pointer and a dial labeled with slow & fast direction arrows to show the
incoming machine speed relation.
ion.
A Synchroscope is an instrument for indicating the correct time for switching on. For
operation of large machines, it is a suitable device. It consists of a small motor with stator and rotor
windings of both wound for two phases.
Its working is basedd on the rotating magnetic field principle. A Potential Transformer (PT)
connected to two of the main bus
bus-bars,
bars, gives supply to the stator and another PT, connected to the

56
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

corresponding terminals of the incoming machine, supplies the rotor shown below. The phase
sequence of the generator is usually checked at the time of its installation.

Main Bus-Bars

Synchronizing Bus-Bars

PT

Synchroscope
Machine Incoming
On Load Machine

PT
PT - Potential Transformer

SYNCHRONIZING BY SYNCHROSCOPE

57
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

 Synchroscope which compares the voltage from one phase of the incoming machine with that of
the corresponding phase in a three-phase system.
 The pointer position of the synchroscope indicates the phase difference between the voltages of
the incoming machine and the infinite bus.
 When the frequencies are equal, the pointer is stationary. When the frequencies differ, the pointer
rotates in one direction or other.
 The direction of motion of the pointer shows that whether the incoming machine is running too
fast or too slow, that is whether the frequency of the incoming machine is higher or lower than
that of the infinite bus.
 The speed of the rotation of pointer is equal to the difference between frequency of incoming
machine and infinite bus frequency. The frequency and phase positions of incoming machine
can be adjusted by varying the speed of the prime mover. (N=120 F / P)
 When the pointer moves very slowly (i.e., the frequencies are almost same and passes through
the zero-phase point.
 It is noted that a synchroscope checks the relationships only on one phase. It does not gives the
information about phase sequence.
 The procedure is the same for synchronizing large synchronous motors.

3.34. Machine floating on Bus-Bars:

When at the time of synchronization, the generated emf of the incoming coming machine is
just equal to the bus-bar voltage. The incoming machine is then said to be “floating on bus-bars”.
At this instant, the prime mover driving the incoming machine will be supplying the no-load
losses only.
3.34.1. Infinite Bus:
In general, the power system normally having more than one alternator operates in a parallel.
The machines may be located in different places. A group of machines located at one place may be
treated as a single large machine. Also, the machines connected to the same bus but separated by
transmission lines of low reactance, may be grouped into are large machine.
 The capacity of large machine is so large that its voltage and frequency may be taken constant.
The connection of disconnection of a single small machine or a small load on a such system
would not effect the magnitude and phase of the voltage and frequency.
 The machine behaves like a large generator having virtually zero internal impedance and infinite
rotational inertia.
 Such a system of constant voltage and constant frequency regardless of how much real and
reactive power is drawn from or supplied to it is simply “ infinite bus-bar system” (or) ‘infinite
bus’.

58
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

The characteristics of an infinite bus as follows:

i. The terminal voltage remains constant, because the incoming machine is too large to increase
or decrease it.
ii. The frequency remains constant, because the rotational inertia is too large to enable the
incoming machine to alter the speed.
iii. The synchronous impedance is very small since the system has a large number of alternate
operating in parallel.
In isolated operation if the excitation is changes the power factor and terminal voltage
changes. But, when an alternator operating in parallel with an infinite bus and its excitation is
changed, the power factor of the machine also changes only. However, does not change the terminal
voltage which is held constant in the system
The operating characteristics when an alternator is connected to infinite bus as follows.
i. The terminal voltage and frequency of the generated controlled by the system.
ii. The governor set points of the alternator control the real power supplied by the alternator.
iii. The field current in the alternator controls relative power supplied by the alternator to the
infinite bus. But increasing the field current in the alternator operating in parallel with an
infinite bus increase the reactive power output of the alternator.

[Link]. Obtaining an infinite bus:

Consider ’n’ generator G1, G2,……,Gn connected to an infinite bus as shown in below.

INFINITE BUS

I1 I2 I3 In

G1 G2 G3 Gn

[Link]. Proof of voltage remaining constant:

Let,
V = terminal voltage of the bus.
E = induced emf of each generator.
Zs = synchronous impedance of each generator.
N = no. of generators in parallel.
 V = E – I Zseq

59
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

Zs
Zseq = for parallel connection.
n
When ‘n’ is very large, Zseq  0
and therefore I Zseq  0

 V = E [constant]

 If the number of alternators operating in parallel is infinite only then Zs = 0.

[Link]. Proof of frequency remaining constant:

Let
J = moment of inertia of each alternator.
Total moment of inertia of all ‘n’ alternators = J + J + J + ------ + J(n times) = nJ
accelerating torque
Acceleration of alternator =
moment of inertia
Ta Ta
= =
∑J nJ
If ‘n’ is very large, nJ is very large.
Acceleration  0 and speed is constant.
Consequently, frequency is constant.
Therefore, in order to obtain a constant voltage, constant-frequency of a practical bus-bar
system, the no. of alternators connected in parallel should be as large as possible.

3.35. Load sharing between alternators:

Let us consider two alternators with identical speed characteristics running in parallel with a
common terminal voltage – ‘V’ and load impedance ‘Z’ as follows. (per phase)
I = I1+I2 …………. (1)
V
I=
Z
The equation for alternator is,
V=E+IZ
E-V
I=
Z
Current in alternator – 1 is,
E1 - V
I1 = ……….. (2)
Z1

Current in alternator – 2 is,

60
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

E2 - V
I2 = …………. (3)
Z2
From above equations, we know that,
V = I Z = (I1+I2) Z
E1 - V E2 - V
= + Z
Z1 Z2
E 1 V1 E 2 V2
= - + - Z
Z1 Z1 Z2 Z2
E1 E 1 1
= Z1
+ Z2 Z -V Z1
+Z Z
2 2

V E1 E2 1 1
= + -V +
Z Z1 Z2 Z1 Z2
1 1 1 E E
V Z
+Z +Z = Z1 + Z2
1 2 1 2

E1 E
Z1
+ Z2
2
V= 1 1 1 ………… (4)
Z
+Z +Z
1 2

From the 4th equation we can able to find out the load sharing between two alternators.

61
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

3.36. Effect of change in excitation of an alternator:

If the excitation of an alternator operating in parallel with other alternators is increased to
above its normal value of excitation, its power factor changes in the lagging direction and its current
output increases with no appreciable change in its KW load.
 When the alternator is under excited its power factor becomes more leading and its output current
increases with no change in KW output.
 It is desirable in most cases, therefore, to operate at the same factor at or near the load power
factor, keeping the circulating currents to
the minimum. E2 0 E1

 The proper amount of excitation for alternators operating in parallel, in general, is the amount of
excitation each alternator would need if it were carrying its load alone at the same frequency and
voltage.
 The voltage of the system in which several alternators are operating in parallel may be raised or
lowered by varying the excitation of all the machines up or down as needed is accomplished by
automatically through the voltage regulators.

3.37. Effect of change of mechanical power input or speed in alternator:

When in exact synchronism, the two alternators have equal induced emf’s and are in exact
phase opposition as shown below (like + ve & - ve is connected to + ve & - ve respectively in case
of DC machines).
No circulating current flows around the load circuit.
When the speed of any one alternator is reduced or alternator-2 is reduced, E2 falls back a phase
angle ‘α’ electrical degrees as shown below.
The magnitude of induced emf’s E1 and E2 remaining the same. It will cause the resulting
emf Er acting in the circuit, which will cause a flow of synchronizing current- ISY.
This synchronizing current sets up a
E2 0 E1 synchronizing torque tending to retard the
generating alternator-1 and accelerating the
motoring alternator – 2. Thus two alternators come again in synchronism.
Thus by increasing or reducing the speed of all the alternators simultaneously, the frequency
of the system can be raised or lowered.

E2 Er

α 2 θ
E1
1

ISY
62
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

When the induced emf’s, of the two alternators are equal but not in exact phase opposition as
shown below, the resultant emfs acts around the circuit and causes flow of current called
‘Synchronizing current’ ISY.
Let,
1800 - α = angular phase displacement between the two induced emf E1 and E2.
E = each alternator emf (per phase)
180° - α
Resultant emf = Er = 2 E cos
2
α
= 2 E cos 90° -
2
α
= 2 E sin
2
α
=2E× = E α [ ∴ α is very small ]
2

Er = E α

E2 Er

α 2 θ
E1
1

ISY

Er Eα
Synchronizing current = ISY = = lagging behind the resultant emf Er by θ, where,
Z Z

Xs
θ = tan-1
R

Z = combined impedance per phase of the two alternators or of one alternator only if, it is
connected to infinite bus-bar.
 If the resistance is very small as compared to synchronous reactance of the alternator, then

Eα
ISY = ………………. (1) [lagging behind Er by 900]
Xs

63
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

3.37.2. Synchronizing power: (PSY)

Power supplied by machine – 1 = E1 ISY cos 1
Power supplied by machine – 2 = E2 ISY cos 2
Also, power supplied by machine -1 = power supplied by machine -2 + ‘cu’ losses.
(or)
E1, ISY cos 1 = E2 ISY cos 2 + copper losses.
The power supplied by machine – 1 is called synchronizing power and is given by the expression
PSY = E1 ISY cos 1
= E1 ISY (since 1 is very small and E1 = E)
Eα
=E×
Xs

α E2
PSY = ………………… (2)
Xs

Total synchronizing power for 3- phases

3αE2
PSY3- = 3 PSY =
Xs

3.37.3. Synchronizing torque (TSY):

If TSY is the synchronizing torque in N-m, the total synchronizing power,
2πNs
3 PSY = Tsy ×
60
3PSY ×60
TSY = ………………… (3)
2πNs
120f
Ns = synchronous speed =
P

64
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

3.38. Determination of Xd and Xq of a Salient pole synchronous machine:

The direct axis synchronous reactance (Xd) can be determined from OC and SC tests and
quadrature or interpolar axis synchronous reactance can be obtained from following three methods.
i.e., 1. Slip-test
2. Maximum – lagging current test
3. Reluctance motor.

3.38.1. Slip Test:

From the slip-test,
test, the values of Xq and Xd can be determined. The synchronous machine is
driven by a separate prime-mover
mover at a speed slightly different from synchronous speed (Ns).
 The field winding is left open and +ve sequence balanced voltages of reduced magnitude
(around 25% of rated value) and if rated frequency are impressed across the armature
terminals.

 Under these conditions, the relative velocity between the field poles and the rotating armature
mmf wave is equal to the difference betw
between
een synchronous speed and the rotor speed, i.e., slip
speed.
 A small ac voltage across the open field winding indicates that the fi
field poles and rotating
mmf wave is revolving in the same direction then that should be required for slip test.
 If field poles revolve in a direction opposite to the rotating mmf wave –ve sequence reactance
would be measured.

 At one instant, the peak of armature mmf wave is in line with the filed pole or direct axis, the

65
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

reluctance offered by the small air gap is minimum as shown in above figure. At this instant,
the terminal voltage per phase divided by the corresponding armature current per phase gives
d-axis synchronous reactance. (Xd).
Vmax
Xd = because air-gap is minimum
Imin
After one – quarter (1/4) of slip cycle, the peak of armature mmf wave acts on the inter polar
or q-axis of the magnetic circuit, and reluctance offered by long air-gap is maximum. At this
instant,
Vmin
Xq = because reluctance in air-gap is maximum
Imax
During this test, the induced emf in open field winding is AC Sinusoidal at Slip-frequency.
 Rotating field is driven at less than Ns because when the rotor is driven at Ns, the flux linkages
are maximum, so Ia is minimum always. So we want to get maximum values of Ia i.e., field is in
locking with the stator poles.
 Oscillograms of armature current and terminal voltage and the emf induced in open circuit field
winding is shown below.
 When performing this test, the slip should by small as possible, otherwise the currents induced
in the magnetic circuits would cause large errors in the measurement of Xd and Xq. The
advantages of oscillographic method over Voltmeter – Ammeter method are,

i. elimination of the inertia effects of voltmeter and ammeter.

ii. the possibility of large slip-speed.

66
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

Formulae’s

1. % age voltage Regulation

E0 - V
% Regulation = × 100
V
where,
Rise in voltage = ‘E0-V’ is the arithmetic difference not the vector difference.
E0 = Maximum no-load induced emf magnitude
V = Terminal voltage of an alternator.

2. Terminal Voltage of an alternator

V = E - Ia (Re + j Xs)
where,
E = induced emf of an alternator (volts)
Ia = load or armature current (Amps)
Re = effective armature resistance [i.e., Re = RAC = 1.5 * RDC] (Ω)
Xs = Synchronous Reactance [Xs = Xa + XL] (Ω) or

Xs = Zs 2 - Re 2

Zs = Synchronous impedance (Ω)

Open circuit induced emf
i.e., Zs = at constant excitation or same field current axis
Short circuit current
Eoc
Zs =
Isc

3. EMF method (30% regulation)

Value of E0 for lagging power factor, from phasor diagram

E0 = (V cos  + Ia Re )2 +(V sin  + Ia Xs )2

Value of E0 for leading power factor, from phasor diagram

E0 = (V cos  + Ia Re )2 +(V sin  - Ia Xs )2

Value of E0 for unity power factor, from phasor diagram

E0 = (V+ Ia Re )2 + (Ia Xs )2

67
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

4. MMF method (15% regulation)

Value of Ift for lagging power factor, from phasor diagram (Ift angle  900 + )

Ift = (Ifm + Ifr sin )2 + (Ifr cos )2

Value of Ift for leading power factor, from phasor diagram (Ift angle  900 - )

Ift = (Ifm - Ifr sin )2 + (Ifr cos )2

Value of Ift for unity power factor, from phasor diagram (Ift angle  900)

Ift = (Ifm )2 + (Ifr )2

Where,
Ifm = field current at rated induced emf (E)
Ifr = field current at rated or Full Load or short circuit current (Irated or IFL or Isc)
Ift = field current at maximum open circuit induced emf (E0)

5. ZPF method (20% regulation)

Value of Ift for lagging power factor, from phasor diagram (Ift angle  900 + )

Ift = (Ifm + Ifr sin )2 + (Ifr cos )2

Value of Ift for leading power factor, from phasor diagram (Ift angle  900 - )

Ift = (Ifm - Ifr sin )2 + (Ifr cos )2

Value of Ift for unity power factor, from phasor diagram (Ift angle  900)

Ift = (Ifm )2 + (Ifr )2

Where,
Ifm = field current at rated induced emf (E)
Ifr = field current at rated or Full Load or short circuit current (Irated or IFL or Isc)
Ift = field current at maximum open circuit induced emf (E0)
PRS = Potier triangle
RS = IaXL drop
E = V + Ia (Re + j XL) = rated induced emf
E0 = V + Ia [Re + j (XL+ Xa)] = maximum open circuit induced emf

Angle between Ifm and E is 900

Angle between Ift and E0 is 900

68
Induction Motors & Synchronous Machines Synchronous Generators

6. ASA method (25% regulation)

All calculations same as ZPF method but saturation of current is considered .

Ift1 = field current at maximum open circuit induced emf (E0) when saturation considered.

7. from two reaction analysis

Xd = Xad + XL
Xq = Xaq + XL
Xd = direct or pole axis reactance (Ω)
Xq = quadrature or interpole axis reactance (Ω)
XL = Leakage reactance (Ω)
Xad = direct or pole axis armature reactance (Ω)
Xaq = quadrature or interpole axis armature reactance (Ω)

8. from slip test

Vmax
Xd = because air-gap is minimum
Imin
Vmin
Xq = because reluctance in air-gap is maximum
Imax
1 1
i.e., Air-Gap Length ∝ ∝
armature reaction Xa

69