Chapter 2 Groups
Jonathan Bray
5 April 2026
§1 Laws of Composition
Problem 1.1. Let S be a set. Prove that the law of composition defined by ab = a for
all a and b in S is associative. For which sets does this law have an identity?
Proof. For any a, b, and c in S we have
a(bc) = ab = a = ac = (ab)c.
So the law of composition is associative. Suppose this law has an identity 1, then by
definition we have
a1 = 1a = a
for every a. However the law of composition says 1a = 1 so 1 = a and the set S = {1}.
Similarly if S has only one element then the element satisfies the identity property and
is therefore 1.
Problem 1.2. Let N denote the set {1, 2, 3, . . . } of natural numbers, and let s : N → N
be the shift map, defined by s(n) = n + 1. Prove that s has no right inverse, but that it
has infinitely many left inverses.
Proof. Consider the function t : N → N defined as
(
n − 1, n > 1
t(n) =
a, n=1
for arbitrary a, then we have t ◦ s = I. On the other hand, consider the function s ◦ t.
We have s(t(1)) > 1 for any function t, so s has no right inverse.
§2 Groups and Subgroups
Problem 2.1. Make a multiplication table for the symmetric group S3
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Jonathan Bray — 5 April 2026 Chapter 2 Groups
Proof.
1 x x2 y xy x2 y
1 1 x x2 y xy x2 y
x x x2 1 xy x2 y y
x2 x2 1 x x2 y y xy
y y x2 y xy 1 x2 x
xy xy y x2 y x 1 x2
x2 y x2 y xy y x2 x 1
Problem 2.2. Let S be a set with an associative law of composition and with an identity
element. Prove that the subset consisting of the invertible elements in S is a group.
Proof. Let T be the subset consisting of the invertible elements in S. The inverse of
the identity is itself so 1 ∈ T and associativity carries over to T . Assume a ∈ T , then
a is invertible and let its inverse be b. Since ab = ba = 1 this means that the b is also
invertible with inverse a so a−1 = b ∈ T . The product of two invertible elements is also
invertible so closure holds and T is a group.
Problem 2.3. Let x, y, z, and w be elements of a group G.
(a) Solve for y, given that xyz −1 w = 1.
(b) Suppose that xyz = 1. Does it follow that yzx = 1? Does it follow that yxz = 1?
Proof.
y = x−1 w−1 z (1)
For the first question yes since x(yz) = 1 so yz is the inverse of x so (yz)x = 1 as well.
For the second equation to be true x and y must commute which isn’t true in general.
Problem 2.4. In which of the following cases is H a subgroup of G?
(a) G = GLn (C) and H = GLn (R).
(b) G = R× and H = {1, −1}.
(c) G = Z+ and H is the set of positive integers.
(d) G = R× and H is the set of positive reals.
a 0
(e) G = GL2 (R) and H is the set of matrices. , with a ̸= 0.
0 0
Proof. (a) yes since GLn (R) is a group and is a subset of GLn (C) (b) yes. (c) no since H
has no identity element. (d) yes because the product of two positive numbers is positive,
the inverse of a positive number is positive, and the identity is positive. (e) H satisfies
closure but the H lacks an identity and inverse elements.
Problem 2.5. In the definition of a subgroup, the identity element in H is required to
be the identity of G. One might require only that H have an identity element, not that
it need be the same as the identity in G. Show that if H has an identity at all, then it is
the identity in G. Show that the analogous statement is true for inverses.
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Jonathan Bray — 5 April 2026 Chapter 2 Groups
Proof. For the first statement, let 1H be the identity element for H, then 1H · 1H = 1H
which implies 1H = 1 by the cancellation law. Now assume every element h ∈ H has an
inverse h−1 ∈ H so that hh−1 = h−1 h = 1G = 1. Now since the inverse of an element is
unique, h−1 is the inverse for h in G.
Problem 2.6. Let G be a group. Define an opposite group G◦ with law of composition
a ∗ b as follows: The underlying set is the same as G, but the law of composition is
a ∗ b = ba. Prove that G◦ is a group.
Proof.
1. Associativity: a ∗ (b ∗ c) = a ∗ (cb) = cba = (ba) ∗ c = (a ∗ b) ∗ c.
2. Identity: a ∗ 1 = 1a = a and 1 ∗ a = a1 = a for all a. So the identity of G◦ is the
same as the identity of G.
3. Inverse elements: a ∗ a−1 = a−1 a = 1 and a−1 ∗ a = aa−1 = 1 for all a.
§3 Subgroups of the Additive Group of Integers
Problem 3.1. (a) Define the greatest common divisor of a set {a1 , . . . , an } of n integers.
Prove that it exists, and that it is an integer combination of a, . . . , an .
(b) Prove that if the greatest common divisor of {a1 , . . . , an } is d, then the greatest
common divisor of all {a1 /d, . . . , an /d} is 1.
Proof. We define gcd(a1 , . . . , an ) to be the unique positive integer d such that the
subgroup S generated by all the linear combinations of a, . . . , an is of the form Zd. Note
that this definition makes sence due to theorem 2.3.3. Since d ∈ Zd = S, d is a linear
combination of a, . . . , an . For part (b) if we divide every element of S = Zd by d we just
get S ′ = Z, so d′ = 1.
§4 Cyclic Groups
Problem 4.1. Let a and b be elements of a group G. Assume that a has order 7 and
that a3 b = ba3 . Prove that ab = ba.
Proof.
a3 b = ba3
a12 (a3 b) = a12 ba3
a15 b = ba15
ab = ba
Problem 4.2. An nth root of unity is a complex number z such that z n = 1.
(a) Prove that the nth roots of unity form a cyclic subgroup of C× of order n.
(b) Determine the product of all the nth roots of unity.
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Jonathan Bray — 5 April 2026 Chapter 2 Groups
Proof. The identity is clearly an nth root of unity and the product of two nth roots of
unity is a root of unity. Let z be an nth root of unity. Its inverse is z̄ and (z̄)n = z n = 1,
so its inverse is also an nth root of unity. This shows that the set of nth roots of unity
2iπ
is a group. Now consider the nth root of unity z = e n . This z generates the cyclic
group ⟨z⟩ of order n. Since every nth root of unity must be of the form cis(k 2iπ n )=z ,
k
⟨z⟩ contains all the roots of unity. If n is even every element z can be paired with its
conjugate other than 1 and -1, so the product is -1. For the odd n only the 1 is left out,
hence product is 1.
§5 Isomorphisms
Problem 5.1. Let a be an element of a group G. Prove that if the set {1, a} is a normal
subgroup of G, then a is in the center of G.
Proof. Since {1, a} is a normal subgroup of G we have
gag −1 ∈ G for every g in G.
There are two cases
a) gag −1 = 1 =⇒ a = 1,
b) gag −1 = a =⇒ ga = ag for every g in G.
In either case a is in the center of G.
§6 Equivalence Relations and Partitions
Problem 6.1. Let G be a group. Prove that the relation a ∼ b if b = gag −1 for some g
in G is an equivalence relation on G.
Proof. Two group elements are conjugate, a ∼ b, if b = gag −1 for some group element
g. Clearly a = gag −1 for every a when g = 1 so a ∼ a for every a. To prove symmetry
we have b = gag −1 =⇒ g −1 bg = a so a ∼ b =⇒ b ∼ a. Now we check transitivity:
Suppose that a ∼ b and b ∼ c. This means that b = g1 ag1−1 and c = g2 bg2−1 for some
group elements g1 and g2 . Then c = g2 (g1 ag1−1 )g2−1 = (g2 g1 )a(g2 g1 )−1 , so a ∼ c.
Problem 6.2. An equivalence relation on S is determined by the subset R of the set
S × S consisting of those pairs (a, b) such that a ∼ b. Write the axioms for an equivalence
relation in terms of the subset R.
Proof. a ∼ a for every a in S becomes
(a, a) ∈ R for every a ∈ S.
Symmetry becomes
(a, b) ∈ R =⇒ (b, a) ∈ R.
Transitivity becomes
(a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R =⇒ (a, c) ∈ R.
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Jonathan Bray — 5 April 2026 Chapter 2 Groups
§7 Cosets
Problem 7.1. Let H be the cyclic subgroup of the alternating group A4 generated by
the permutation (123). Exhibit the left and the right cosets of H explicitly.
Problem 7.2. In the additive group Rm of vectors, let W be the set of solutions of a
system of homogeneous linear equations AX = 0. Show that the set of solutions of an
inhomogeneous system AX = B is either empty, or else it is an (additive) coset of W .
Proof. Suppose
AX = B (2)
has a solution X = X0 , then for any w in W we have
A(X0 + w) = AX0 + Aw = AX0 = B
so every element of X0 + W is a solution to (2). Now suppose X1 is a solution to (2),
then
A(X1 − X0 ) = AX1 − AX0 = 0
which shows that X1 is in X0 + W . Therefore X0 + W is the set of solutions to (2).