MATTER AND RADIATION

ADVANCED LEVEL – PHYSICS

The physics professor Philipp Von Jolly (University of Munich, Germany) advised Max
Planck against going into physics, saying, "in this field, almost everything is already
discovered, and all that remains is to fill a few holes." Max Planck replied that he did not
wish to discover new things, but only to understand the known fundamentals of the field,
and so began his studies in 1874 at the University of Munich. Finally, he contributed to
lead the field of physics to a new era, currently known as “Modern Physics”.

Source: Wikipedia

CHALITH PASINDU.
[Link]. Engineering (Hons), [Link]. (EI). MBA (UK)

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A little bit of History with a video evidence……

“There is always a great deal to conceal. If you take the typical great man of our historic
epoch, and suppose that I had to rise here tonight to propose a toast on Napoleon. Well,
undoubtedly, I could say many very flattering things about Napoleon. But the one thing
which I should not be able to say about him would be perhaps the most important thing.
And that was that it would perhaps have been better for the human race if he had never been
born….

Napoleon, and other great men of his type, they were makers of empire. But there is an order
of men who get beyond that. They are not makers of empire, but they are makers of
universe…. And when they have made those universes, their hands are unstained by the
blood of any human being on Earth….

Ptolemy made a universe which lasted 1400 years. Newton also made a universe which has
lasted 300 years. Einstein has made a universe and I can’t tell you how long that will last….”

By Literature Laureate George Bernard Shaw on Physics Laureate

Albert Einstein. (In his speech to pay Tribute to Einstein at the Savoy
Hotel in London, England on 27 October 1930.)

(Video source: [Link]

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 Matter and Radiation

A hot body emits thermal radiations. The amount of radiation emitted by a hot body depends on,
1. The composition of the outer surface of the body
2. The temperature of the body
3. Surface area of the body

Black Body
A body which is capable of absorbing the entire radiation incident on it is called a black body.
Further a black body can radiate electromagnetic energy corresponding to all the wavelengths
depending on its temperature. The maximum wavelength emitted by a black body radiator is
infinite.
The amount of radiation emitted by a hot black body depends on,
1. The temperature of the body
2. Surface area of the body

A cavity with a small hole in it acts as a black body.

Any ray incident upon the hole goes into the cavity. It never reflects
out since it would have to undergo a very large number of reflections
off walls of the cavity (After a number of reflections, the total energy
of the ray is absorbed by the cavity).
1. The walls should be made absorptive by painting them black.
2. The sharp edge pointing towards the hole reduces the
probability of escaping of an entered ray.

Consider a case where the cavity is heated to a high temperature. The

walls of the cavity are very hot and are also emitting thermal radiation. This may be absorbed by
another part of the cavity wall or it may escape through the hole. This radiation that escapes may
contain any wavelength. Therefore it can be considered as black body radiation.
Also, it has been experimentally found that the amount of radiation emitted by the cavity does
not depend on the composition of the material, of which the cavity is made.

Black body radiation is also called cavity radiation

Stefan-Boltzmann Law (Also known as Stefan Law)

The energy radiated by a blackbody radiator per second per unit area is proportional to the
fourth power of the absolute temperature of the black body.
𝐸 ∝ 𝑇4
𝐸 = 𝜎𝑇 4
Where E = the energy radiated by a blackbody radiator per second per unit area.
T = the absolute temperature of the black body
σ = Stefan Constant (5.67 x 10-8 Wm-2K-4)
Where P = the energy radiated by a blackbody radiator per second,
𝑃 = 𝐴𝜎𝑇 4 , where A = Surface area of the body

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If the surroundings are at a higher temperature (TC> T) then,
The energy radiated by the blackbody radiator per second per unit area = EE
The energy absorbed by the blackbody radiator per second per unit area = EA
The net energy radiated by the blackbody radiator per second per unit area = ENet
ENet= EE - EA
ENet= σ(T4 – TC4)

Gray Bodies and Emissivity/Absorptivity Coefficients

For a gray body, the incident radiation is partly absorbed; rest is reflected. Also grey bodies are
not perfect emitters.

e= emissivity

The energy radiated by the body per second per unit area, at a certain temperature
𝑒=
The energy radiated by a blackbody per second per unit area, at the same temperature

a = absorptivity

The energy absorbed by the body

𝑎=
The total radiant energy incident on it

Kirchhoff’s Law states that for a certain body/surface, emissivity = absorptivity. (That is, a good
emitter is a good absorber and vice versa.)
Therefore for a grey body,
𝐸 = 𝑒𝜎𝑇 4
𝑃 = 𝐴𝑒𝜎𝑇 4
ENet= eσ(T4 – TC4)

A good emitter is a good absorber; e = a; Why??

Consider a hot object placed in a room must ultimately come to thermal equilibrium with the
room. Initially, the hot object will emit more energy into the room than it absorbs from the room.
Then that will cause the temperature of the room to rise and the temperature of the object to
drop. When the object and the room reach the same temperature, the amount of energy absorbed
on average should be exactly the same as the energy emitted. That is, the expression above for
net energy radiated to the environment must give us zero when T=TC

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Black Body Radiation Spectrum
Graph, Energy intensity (radiant energy per unit area per second) per a small wavelength band
vs. wavelength of the radiation is known as the Black Body Radiation Spectrum. A typical curve
is shown in the figure below. (At constant temperature)
Here Wλ = Energy Intensity(Wm-2nm-1)
λ = Wavelength (nm).

The Black Body Radiation Spectrum shows that the black body does radiate energy at every
wavelength. (The curve gets infinitely close to the x-axis but never touches it) It also shows that
the energy intensity peaks at a certain wavelength (known as λMax). It is the wavelength, at which
most of the radiant energy is emitted. The energy density distribution in the spectrum is not
uniform.
The amount of radiant energy emitted per second per unit area, within the wavelength range λ1 to
λ2 is represented by the colored area. Similarly the total amount of radiant energy emitted per
second per unit area is represented by the area under the curve. (The Stefan’s Law)
Following figure shows the Black Body Radiation Spectrum curves for different temperatures.

Following facts can be found:

1. As temperature increases the wavelength
corresponding to the maximum energy density
(λMax), shifts towards shorter wavelength side. This
relationship is given in Wein’s Displacement Law.

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Wein’s Displacement Law (Wein’s Law)
The wavelength corresponding to the maximum energy density is inversely proportional to the
absolute temperature of the body.
1
𝜆𝑀𝑎𝑥 ∝
𝑇
1
𝜆𝑀𝑎𝑥 = 𝑐
𝑇
𝜆𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑇 = 𝑐
Here c = Wein’s Constant
c = 2.898 x 10-3 mK

Further when the temperature increases, the total area under the curve too increases. It is in
accordance with Stefan’s law.

Explanation of Black Body Radiation Spectrum

The theories based on classical physics failed to describe/clarify the Black body radiation
spectrum. However two theories based on classical physics could describe it partially.

1. Wein’s Distribution Law

This law sucessfully explains the energy distributionof the black body radiation in the longer
wavelength region. However it fails to explain the curve in the shorter wavelength region.

2. Rayleigh – Jeans Law

This law sucessfully explains the energy distribution of the black body radiation in the shorter
wavelength region. However it fails to explain the curve in the longer wavelength region.

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Planck’s Law of Radiation
Max Planck could successfully explain the energy distribution in the black body radiation based
on the following assumptions. This explanation is not in accordance with basics of classical
physics.
1. The surface of the blackbody contains oscillators. Energy of such oscillator is given by
E=nhf.
2. These oscillators absorb or emit energy in terms of integral multiples of discrete packets
(known as quanta/photons). The energy “E of photons is proportional to the frequency of
the radiation (f). Mathematically,
E = nhf
where h = Planck’s constant; h = 6.625 x 10-34Js.
n= an integer
Further, Planck’s formula can be reduced to Wein’s law in the shorter wavelength region
and to Rayleigh-Jeans law in the longer wavelength region.

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Photo – Electric effect

The emission of electrons from the surface of certain materials when radiation of suitable
frequency is incident on it is called the phenomenon of Photo-Electric effect. The emitted
electrons are called “photo electrons”. Also the material in said to be photo sensitive.
Following setup can be used to study about the photo electric effect.

1. Voltage vs. Photo current; (At constant frequency, At constant intensity)

The photo current does not show a significant increase with increasing voltage; rather it tends
to remain at a constant value which is known as the saturation current. However, when the
voltage is reversed, the photo current begins to reduce and ultimately attain zero. The voltage
at which the photo current becomes zero is known as the Stopping Voltage.

This observation suggests that even when the applied voltage is zero (Cells are replaced by a
conductor); there is a certain photo current.
The photo electrons emitted by the cathode, travel towards the anode. They have kinetic
energies ranging from zero to a maximum. When the voltage is reversed, it opposes the
movement electrons. At low reverse voltages some of the electrons (with low kinetic energy)
are stopped before they reach the anode (Current reduces). As the reverse voltage increases,
the electrons with higher kinetic energies are also stopped (Current reduces further). At
stopping voltage (Vs) the electron with maximum kinetic energy too, is stopped before it
reaches the anode. Therefore,

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 The maximum kinetic energy of a photo electron = Work done by Vs
Kmax = eVs

(½) m u2max = eVs

2. Varying the intensity of incident light; (At constant frequency)

a. When the intensity of incident light is increased, the saturation current increases. Further
the magnitude of the photo current is proportional to the intensity of incident light.
When the intensity of increased, more radiation is hit on the cathode allowing more
electrons to be emitted from the cathode. Then the magnitude of the photo current too
increases proportionally. (This was the only observation which could be described with
the principles of classical physics.)
b. The number of photo electrons emitted depends on the intensity of the incident radiation.
It is independent of the frequency.

3. Varying the frequency of the incident light.

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 a. When the frequency of the incident light is increased, the stopping voltage is also
increased. Therefore it is clear that there is a relationship between the frequency of the
incident light and the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photo electrons.
b. The kinetic energy acquired by the photo electrons is directly proportional to the
frequency of the incident radiation. It is independent of the intensity if incident radiation.
c. Photo electric emission occurs only if the frequency of the incident radiation is greater
than a certain value called threshold frequency. (Respective wave length is called the
threshold wavelength and it is a maximum value).
d. If the frequency is greater than the threshold frequency, photo electrons are emitted
instantaneously as soon as the radiation is incident. (If there is any delay it is less than10-8
seconds)

Einstien’s Hypothesis on Photo Electric Effect.

Einstein extended Planck's quantum theory to light. According to Einstien’s hypothesis, since all
light ultimately comes from a radiating source, light may be transmitted as tiny packets
(photons), each with an energy of hf.
Einstein's Photoelectric Theory
• One electron can be emitted upon collision with one photon, with the photon losing all of
its energy
• Some minimum energy φ (called the work function of the metal) is required to release the
electron
• If hf >φ, the electron will be released. Themaximum energy of the electron can be given
by
Kmax = hf – φ

That means the energy acquired by the electron from the photon is made use in two stages. A
part of the energy is used by the electron to free itself from the metal (Work Function) since it is
bound within the metal.
Thus the photon should have at least an amount of energy equal to work function of the metal for
the electron to be escaped from the metal. The rest of the energy is carried by the emitted
electron as kinetic energy.

The threshold frequency relates to the work function. That is, a photon with threshold frequency
carries an amount of energy exactly equal to the work function of the metal.

φ = hf0, where f0 is the threshold frequency of the metal.

Kmax = hf – hf0
Kmax = h(c/λ) – h(c/λ0), where λ is the wave length of the incident radiation and λ0 is the
threshold wavelength of the metal.

Consider an electron buried deeper in the metal. It may need more energy than φ to be escaped
from the metal. Therefore (hf – φ) refers to maximum kinetic energy of an emitted electron, not
the kinetic energy of an emitted electron.

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Duel Nature of Radiation and de Broglie’s Hypothesis

The photo electric effect describes the particle nature of radiation. Thus the radiation behaves
like waves and like particles under different suitable circumstances. Therefore the radiation
exhibits dual nature.

Given below is the suggestion given by Louis de Broglie on dual nature of particles.

If radiant energy could behave like waves in some experiments and particles/photons in others
and since the nature loves symmetry, then one can expect the particles like protons and
electrons to exhibit wave nature under suitable circumstances.

According to de Broglie, the wavelength associated with matter is given by the following
equation.

λ = h/mv, where m is the mass of the particle and v is the velocity of the particle. h is the well
known Planck’s constant.

Example: Consider an electron accelerated using a potential difference of V.

E = eV = (1/2)mu2
ℎ
𝜆 =
√(2𝑚𝑒𝑉)

e.g.:

Therefore the wave length of an electron beam accelerated using the above potential difference,
is extremely lower than the wavelength of visible light. (about 1/30000). Therefore the
wavelength of an electron can be made much smaller than the wavelength of visible light. Thus
the probability to exhibit diffraction by an electron is very low compared to that by visible light.
Therefore the electron microscope allows much higher resolution powers than the normal optical
microscope.

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Electron vs. Optical Microscopes

Electron microscopes have certain advantages over optical microscopes:

• The biggest advantage is that they have a higher resolution and are therefore also able of
a higher magnification (up to 2 million times). Light microscopes can show a useful
magnification only up to 1000-2000 times. This is a physical limit imposed by the
wavelength of the light. Electron microscopes therefore allow for the visualization of
structures that would normally be not visible by optical microscopy.
• Depending on the type of electron microscope, it is possible to view the three
dimensional external shape of an object (Scanning Electron Microscope, SEM).

Electron microscopes have a range of disadvantages as well:

• They are extremely expensive.
• Sample preparation is often much more elaborate. It is often necessary to coat the
specimen with a very thin layer of metal (such as gold). The metal is able to reflect the
electrons.
• The sample must be completely dry. This makes it impossible to observe living
specimens.
• It is not possible to observe moving specimens (they are dead).
• It is not possible to observe color. Electrons do not possess a color. The image is only
black/white. Sometimes the image is colored artificially to give a better visual
impression.
• They require more training and experience in identifying artifacts that may have been
introduced during the sample preparation process.
• The energy of the electron beam is very high. The sample is therefore exposed to high
radiation, and therefore not able to live.
• The space requirements are high. They may need a whole room.
• Maintenance costs are high.

When should one use optical (light) microscopes?

One big advantage of light microscopes is the ability to observe living cells. It is possible to
observe a wide range of biological activity, such as the uptake of food, cell division and
movement. These processes cannot be observed in real time using electron microscopes, as the
specimen has to be fixed, and completely dehydrated (and is therefore dead). The low cost of
optical microscopes makes them useful in a wide range of different areas, such as education, the
medical sector or for hobbyists.

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Page 13 of 40
X – Rays

X-rays are short wavelength electromagnetic waves. Production of X rays can be done using the
following setup.

The filament supply (about 10V) produces electrons by heating the filament. A focused beam of
electrons is accelerated towards the target metal (Tungsten or Molybdenum; high melting point).
Acceleration of electrons is done by the high voltage supply applied between anode and the
cathode (about 100kV).
After colliding with the anode, the electrons undergo a rapid deceleration, and X rays are
produced. About 99% of the kinetic energy of the colliding electrons is converted to heat. The
target metal is embedded in a copper rod and the copper rod is cooled continuously to control the
increase in temperature of the system. (Can use circulation of oil)
If the filament current is increased, the number of emitted electrons too increases. Therefore the
intensity of produced the X ray beam also increases. (The intensity of X ray beam increases with
the number of electrons colliding the target metal.) Further, increasing the potential difference
across the tube will also increase the intensity of the X ray beam (It increases the energy with
which the electrons hit the target metal and so makes more energy available for X ray
production).
The quality of X rays (Penetrating power) increases with the potential difference across the tube.
X rays with low penetrating power are called soft X rays and those with high penetrating power
are called hard X rays.

Properties of X rays
• They travel in straight lines at velocity of light.
• Are not deflected by electric / magnetic fields. (Contain no charged particles)
• They penetrate matter. (Less penetration with denser materials)
• Can be diffracted.
• Can ionize gases while passing through.
• they cause fluorescence in some materials
• they affect photographic plates, causing fogging
• they can cause photoelectric emission

Uses of X rays
• Used in medicine to locate bone fractures, destroy cancer cells, etc.
• Used in engineering to locate internal imperfections in welded joints, castings
• Analysis of X ray diffraction patterns provides information about the crystal structure of
materials.

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Discovery of X - Rays

In late 1895, a German physicist, W. C. Roentgen was working with a cathode ray tube in his
laboratory. He was working with tubes similar to our fluorescent light bulbs. He evacuated the
tube of all air, filled it with a special gas, and passed a high electric voltage through it. When he
did this, the tube would produce a fluorescent glow. Roentgen shielded the tube with heavy black
paper, and found that a green colored fluorescent light could be seen coming from a screen
setting a few feet away from the tube. He realized that he had produced a previously unknown
"invisible light," or ray, that was being emitted from the tube; a ray that was capable of passing
through the heavy paper covering the tube. Through additional experiments, he also found that
the new ray would pass through most substances casting shadows of solid objects on pieces of
film. He named the new ray X-ray, because in mathematics "X" is used to indicated the unknown
quantity.
In his discovery Roentgen found that the X-ray would pass through the tissue of humans leaving
the bones and metals visible. One of Roentgen’s first experiments late in 1895 was a film of his
wife Bertha's hand with a ring on her finger (shown below on right). The news of Roentgen’s
discovery spread quickly throughout the world. Scientists everywhere could duplicate his
experiment because the cathode tube was very well known during this period. In early 1896, X-
rays were being utilized clinically in the United States for such things as bone fractures and
gunshot wounds.

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Radioactivity

Radioactive decay is the process in which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting
radiation in the form of particles or electromagnetic waves. An unstable nucleus releases energy
to become more stable.

Radioactive Material is any material that contains radioactive atoms.

Scientists have found three distinct forms of radiation, originally divided up based on their
ability to pass through certain materials and their deflection in magnetic fields.

Alpha (α): These rays could barely pass through a single sheet of paper. They deflect as positive
particles in a magnetic field.

Beta (β): These rays can pass through about 3mm of aluminum. They deflect as negative
particles in a magnetic field.

Gamma (γ): These rays can pass through several centimeters of LEAD! Further they do not
deflect in a magnetic field.

Radioactivity can be categorized in to basic two types.

1. Natural radioactivity:
Natural radioactivity comes from radioactive elements present in nature. (e.g.: uranium,
radium)
2. Artificial radioactivity:
Artificial radioactivity comes from elements created in nuclear reactors and accelerators.
Non-radioactive (isotope) elements can be changed into radioactivity ones by bombardment
of subatomic particles (protons, neutrons, electrons, or alpha particles).

Alpha Decay ( )
Alpha particle is the nuclei of a helium atom He24. During an alpha decay, a nucleus is able to
reach a more stable state be allowing 2 protons and 2 neutrons to leave the nucleus.
After an alpha decay the resulting nucleus (daughter nucleus) is smaller, but more stable than the
original parent nucleus.
Since this emitted He atom is not just regular helium floating around in the air, but is “born”
from a nuclear decay, we usually don't call it a helium atom. Instead we call it an alpha particle.
Alpha particles come out of the nucleus as just nucleons without any electrons. Therefore, each
alpha particle has a charge of +2e.
When an atom undergoes an Alpha decay, its atomic number changes. Therefore the Alpha
decay changes the identity of the parent atom.

Basic Equation:

Example:

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Beta Decay ( )
Beta decay happens during a process where a neutron falls apart and becomes a proton and an
electron.
In the beta decay, the neutron becomes a proton (which stays in the nucleus) and an electron that
goes flying out (called the beta particle).
1 1 0
0𝑛 → 1𝑝 + −1𝛽 + 𝑣̅
In order to have conservation laws obeyed, it was realized that a very small, neutral particle must
also be emitted from the nucleus during beta decay. That particle is known as an antineutrino
(𝑣̅ ).

Beta decay changes the identity of the parent atom.

Basic Equation:

Example:

Beta Positive Decays (Positron/ Antielectron)

Beta positive is known as the antimatter version of an electron.
Positrons have the same mass as an electron, but their charge is +1e. (Symbol: β+)
1 1 0
1𝑝 → 0𝑛 + 1𝛽 + 𝑣
Beta positive decays involve a proton decaying into a neutron and a positron, while also
releasing a neutrino (v) for conservation of momentum to be followed.
Further positron emission involves only in artificial radioactivity.

Gamma Decay ( )
Unlike the other two forms of decay, gamma decays emit a form of Electro Magnetic Radiation,
not a particle. γ has an excellent ability to penetrated matter.
Gamma decays happen most often after an alpha or beta decay. After an Alpha or Beta decay,
the resulting daughter atom goes to an excited state. Therefore it needs to release some energy to
gain its ground state, somehow.
The energy is released as a γ photon and the nucleus gains its ground state. Gamma decay does
not change the identity of the atom.
Basic Equation:

Example:

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Summary

Type of Nature of the Penetrating power, and what Ionizing power - the ability to
radiation radiation will block it (more dense remove electrons from atoms
emitted material, more radiation is to form positive ions
& absorbed BUT smaller mass or
symbol charge of particle, more
penetrating)
a helium nucleus of Low penetration, biggest mass Very high ionizing power, the
2 protons and 2 and charge, stopped by a few biggest mass and charge of the
neutrons, mass = 4, cm of air or thin sheet of paper three radiation's, the biggest
Alpha charge = +2 'punch'!
high kinetic energy Moderate penetration, 'middle' Moderate ionizing power, with
electrons, mass = values of charge and mass, most a smaller mass and charge than
1/1850, charge = -1 stopped by a few mm of metals the alpha particle
Beta like aluminium
very high frequency Very highly penetrating, The lowest ionizing power of
electromagnetic smallest mass and charge, most the three, gamma radiation
radiation, mass = 0, stopped by a thick layer of steel carries no electric charge and
Gamma charge = 0 or concrete, but even a few cm has virtually no mass, so not
of dense lead doesn't stop all of much of a 'punch' when
it! colliding with an atom

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Radioactive Half-Life:

When the nuclei of a radioactive substance decay, they emit radiation (alpha, beta, or gamma
rays). The radioactive decay is associated with a term called half – life.

The radioactive half-life of a substance is the period of time over which the number of
radioactive nuclei decreases by a factor of one-half. It is a constant for a certain radioactive
substance.

After two half-lives, there will be one fourth the original sample, after three half-lives one eight
the original sample, and so forth.

The half-life is independent of the physical state (solid, liquid, and gas), temperature, pressure,
the chemical compound in which the nucleus finds itself, and essentially any other outside
influence. It is independent of the chemistry of the atomic surface, and independent of the
ordinary physical factors of the outside world.

Radioactive Decay Constant (λ) (disintegration constant)

The decay constant gives information about half life. The half-life and the decay constant follow
the relationship given below.
0.693
𝑇1 =
2 λ

Activity of a radioactive sample (R)

In radioactive-decay processes, Activity means the number of disintegrations per second, (Or the
number of unstable atomic nuclei that decay per second in a given sample)

𝑑𝑁
𝑅=−
𝑑𝑡
Unit of Activity is becquerel (Bq). 1 Bq is exactly equal to one disintegration per second.
The old standard unit was the curie (Ci), which is equal to 3.7 × 1010Bq.

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Law of Radioactive Disintegration
The number of atoms disintegrated per second at any instant is directly proportional to the
number of radioactive atoms actually present in the sample at that instant.

𝑑𝑁
− ∝ 𝑁
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁
− =λ𝑁
𝑑𝑡
𝑅 =λ𝑁

Since R is proportional to N, the half-life can be introduced as follows too.

The radioactive half-life of a substance is the period of time over which the activity of the
sample decreases by a factor of one-half.

Carbon Dating
Carbon is a naturally abundant element found in the atmosphere, in the earth, in the oceans, and
in every living creature. C-12 is by far the most common isotope, while only about one in a
trillion carbon atoms is C-14. C-14 is produced in the upper atmosphere when nitrogen-14 (N-
14) is altered through the effects of cosmic radiation bombardment (a proton is displaced by a
neutron effectively changing the nitrogen atom into a carbon isotope).

The new isotope is called "radiocarbon" because it is radioactive, though it is not dangerous. It is
naturally unstable and so it will spontaneously decay back into N-14 after a period of time. It
takes about 5,730 years for half of a sample of radiocarbon to decay back into nitrogen.

Radiocarbon oxidizes (that is, it combines with oxygen) and enters the biosphere through natural
processes like breathing and eating. Plants and animals naturally incorporate both the abundant
C-12 isotope and the much rarer radiocarbon isotope into their tissues in about the same
proportions as the two occur in the atmosphere during their lifetimes. When a creature dies, it
ceases to consume more radiocarbon while the C-14 already in its body continues to decay back
into nitrogen. So, if we find the remains of a dead creature whose C-12 to C-14 ratio is half of
what it's supposed to be (that is, one C-14 atom for every two trillion C-12 atoms instead of one
in every trillion) we can assume the creature has been dead for about 5,730 years (since half of
the radiocarbon is missing, it takes about 5,730 years for half of it to decay back into nitrogen). If
the ratio is a quarter of what it should be (one in every four trillion) we can assume the creature
has been dead for 11,460 year (two half-lives). After about 10 half-lives, the amount of
radiocarbon left becomes too miniscule to measure and so this technique isn't useful for dating
specimens which died more than 60,000 years ago. Another limitation is that this technique can
only be applied to organic material such as bone, flesh, or wood. It can't be used to date rocks
directly.

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Radioactivity – Applications

1. Treating cancer
A range of radioactive elements are used in the fight against cancer. The key factor is to
accurately target the cancer cells and destroy them, while as far as possible avoiding
exposing the rest of the body to radiation. For example, samarium-153 is used to treat
prostate cancer. A very high dose of radiation can be given to just the prostate gland by
inserting little grains of radioactive material into it in a relatively simple operation,
sometimes carried out under local anaesthetic. It exposes the rest of the body to only a very
low dose of radiation.
Another common element used in cancer treatment is iodine-131, which is used to tackle
cancers and other disorders of the thyroid - both the former US President George Bush and
his wife were both treated for Grave's disease with radioactive iodine.

2. Medical diagnosis
Some radioactive elements can be used as "tracers" - they are injected into the bloodstream
so that its flow can be tracked and the function of various organs monitored. For example, in
Parkinson's disease, technetium-99m is injected and follows the dopamine pathway in the
brain, so that doctors can determine whether it is working normally.
Similar techniques can be used to monitor blood flow to the heart. If there are any blockages
inhibiting the flow, these can be detected before they cause a heart-attack.

3. Pain relief
It is typically very difficult to control the pain for patients who have tumours that have spread
into bone tissue. But by using a radioactive material such as samarium-153 or strontium-89,
high doses of radiotherapy can be delivered just to the bone tumours and relieve the pain. In
trials, the treatment has been shown to be effective.

4. Food preservation
Passing food through a beam of gamma rays given off by the element cobalt-60 can extend
the shelf life of meat, poultry, vegetables and fruit by inhibiting bacteria. It cannot be used on
produce that has high water content, because the food would explode. It was first used in
spices, as they were kept for a long period of time between uses.

5. Power generation
Uranium-235 is the isotope of uranium widely used in nuclear power stations, which generate
20 per cent of the electricity used in Britain. When the atom breaks apart it gives off a huge
amount of energy in the form of heat. The heat is transferred to water, and the resulting steam
is used to run a turbine generator.

Further, the applications mentioned under X-Rays are examples for applications of
radioactivity.

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Radioactivity - Health Effects

Symptoms
Nausea and vomiting often begin within hours of exposure, followed by diarrhea, headaches and
fever.
Since radiation destroys infection-fighting white blood cells, the greatest short-term risk after
exposure is infection and the spread of infectious diseases.

Health impacts
Ionizing radiation can damage the body's internal chemistry. When damage is severe, the body's
natural repair systems can be overwhelmed.
Vulnerable areas include:
• Thyroid gland.
• Bone marrow.
• Cells lining the intestine and stomach.
In the long-term, cancer is the biggest risk of radiation poisoning. When the body loses its ability
to repair itself and replace damaged tissue, the environment is ripe for cancer cells to grow.
Mutations to genetic material are associated with cancer and may also be passed on to future
generations.
Children can be more sensitive to radiation exposure because their cells typically divide faster
than an adult's, thereby increasing their risk of developing a radiation-related cancer later in life.

Treatment
Drugs can stimulate the growth of white blood cells and help people fight off infections. Exposed
individuals can also be given capsules containing a dye that binds to thallium and cesium and
helps the body get rid of these radioactive elements.

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The Geiger-Muller tube or Geiger counter
Alpha, Beta and Gamma are all ionizing radiations. They have enough energy to ionize atoms.
The Geiger-Muller tube works on this principle.

A Geiger-Muller tube consists of a sealed metallic tube (metal plated glass) filled with a noble
gas (Ar). Also a small amount of Br gas is mixed in to it. The Ar gas is called “the detecting gas”
and the Br gas is called the “quenching gas”.

The pressure inside the tube is maintained below atmospheric pressure. A thin metal wire is kept
along the axis of the tube. A potential (of up to 1 kV) is maintained between the metal wire (the
anode) and the cylinder (the cathode). In the absence of any radiation no current flows between
the wire and the cylinder.

When a radioactive particle enters the tube it ionizes an Ar atom. The resulting electron is
accelerated towards the metal wire, the anode.

As the electron approaches the metal wire it experiences an increasing electric

fieldintensity(Think about the electric field lines inside the tube). Therefore the electron
experiences a greater accelerating force. The accelerating force becomes so strong that on
collision with other Ar atoms the electron can ionize them. The electrons from these ionizations
generate a cascade of further electrons, an effect called the avalanche effect. The ionization by
one particle can result in millions of electrons striking the metal wire.

This movement of electrons inside the tube results in an electric discharge. This gives a
measurable voltage pulse in the external circuit of the Geiger-Muller tube. The counter registers
the number of pulses and converts them into sound signals.

Quenching Gas
The purpose of the quenching gas is to absorb the positive argon ions as they accelerate to the
cathode. Without the quenching gas these positive ions will be neutralized at the cathode in an
exited state or could even also remove electrons from the cathode. These removed electrons or
excited atoms could trigger further ionization creating a further voltage discharge. Therefore the
quenching gas ensures only one count per one ionizing particle entering the tube (Eliminates
multiple counts).

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Radiation Dosimetry Quantities and Units
The objective of radiation dosimetry is to quantify the amount of energy deposited in matter
upon interaction with radiation.

• Exposure: (Usually used for X and γ in medicine)

Exposure describes the amount of radiation traveling through the air. Many radiation
monitors measure exposure. The units for exposure are the roentgen (R)
and coulomb/kilogram (C/kg). The Exposure of X or γ that can produce 1.6 x 1012 of
couples of ion (positive ions and electrons) in dry air at STP is defined as 1 roentgen.

• Absorbed dose:
The unit to measure the radiation dose (as energyabsorbed per unit mass) called absorbed
dose. Absorbed dose describes the amount of radiation absorbed by an object or person
(the amount of energy that radioactive sources deposit in materials through which they
pass).
The units for absorbed dose are the radiation absorbed dose (rad) and gray (Gy).
A dose of 1 Gy means that each kilogram of object absorbs 1joule of energy.
Older units rad (radiation absorbed dose), 1 Gy = 1 J kg-1 = 100 rad.
To be meaningful, absorbed dose should be expressed with the respective type of
radiation.

• Effective dose (Dose equivalent) – Used for any kind of radiation

Effective dose combines the amount of radiation absorbed and the medical effects of that
type of radiation.
a. For beta and gamma radiation, the dose equivalent is the same as the absorbed dose.
b. The dose equivalent is larger than the absorbed dose for alpha and neutron radiation,
because these types of radiation are more damaging to the human body.

Effective dose = Radiation dose x Q-Factor

Radiation Value of Q-Factor

X, γ, β 1
n 5 - 20
α 20

• The SI unit of equivalent dose for human is the sievert(Sv), older unit is rem,
1 Sv = 100 rem (roentgen equivalent man)
• Biological dose equivalents are commonly measured in 1/1000th of a rem (known as a
millirem or mrem).
• Quality Factor (Q-Factor) is also called Relative Biological Effectiveness(RBE)

Example 1: A 5 Mev alpha particle is absorbed by 1 gram of water.

Absorbed Dose in = (5 x 1.6 x 10-19x 106) / (1 x 10-3) = 8 x 10-10 J/kg
= 8 x 10-10Gy
= 8 x 10-8 rad

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Nuclear Physics

Nuclear Binding Energy (B)

Nuclei are made up of protons and neutron, but the mass of a nucleus is always less than the sum
of the individual masses of the protons and neutrons which constitute it. The difference is a
measure of the nuclear binding energy which holds the nucleus together.

Nuclear binding energy is the energy required to break up the nucleus into its separate nucleons
(OR the energy released when the nucleus is formed from separate nucleons)

e.g.: He nucleus

This binding energy can be calculated from the Einstein relationship, E = mc2.

Binding Energy per Nucleon (B/A)

If we know the binding energy in a nucleus, and the number of nucleons, we can work out the
binding energy per nucleon, which is the average energy needed to remove each nucleon.

The higher the binding energy per nucleon, the more stable is the nucleus.

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 • Iron has the one of the highest binding energy per nucleon values - so the graph peaks
around A=58 (Around A = 60, we find the most stable nuclei).
• If we look at large nuclei (much greater than iron), we find that the further to the right
(greater nucleon number) the less stable the nuclei. This is because the binding energy
per nucleon is getting less. These nuclei undergo fission.(Split to produce products with
higher binding energy per nucleon values - more stable products)
• If we look at nuclei of much smaller mass than iron we find they have a lower binding
energy per nucleon. Therefore when they fuse to produce a heavier nucleus it is more
stable, calledfusion.

Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion

Definition: Fission is the splitting of a large Fusion is the fusing of two or more
atom into two or more smaller ones. lighter atoms into a larger one.
Byproducts of the Fission produces many highly Few radioactive particles are
reaction: radioactive particles. produced by fusion reaction, but if
a fission "trigger" is used,
radioactive particles will result
from that.
Conditions: Critical mass of the substance and High density, high temperature
high-speed neutrons are required. environment is required.
Energy Takes little energy to split two Extremely high energy is required
Requirement: atoms in a fission reaction. to bring two or more protons close
enough that nuclear forces
overcome their electrostatic
repulsion.
Energy Released: The energy released by fission is a The energy released by fusion is
million times greater than that three to four times greater than the
released in chemical reactions; but energy released by fission.
lower than the energy released by
nuclear fusion.
Nuclear weapon: One class of nuclear weapon is a One class of nuclear weapon is the
fission bomb, also known as an hydrogen bomb, which uses a
atomic bomb or atom bomb. fission reaction to "trigger" a fusion
reaction.

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Nuclear Reactions
• In these reactions (fusion and fission) the chemical element changes to a different
element.
• These reactions emit an enormous amount of energy (~ 10 million times more than
chemical reaction, per kilogram)
Fission
• Fission can be induced by an incoming neutron.
• Fission reaction releases a lot of energy.
• Fission often creates new neutrons
• Fission releases neutrons. These neutrons cause new fission reactions in surrounding
Uranium, creating more neutrons. (Chain reaction, a huge explosion)

One of the products of nuclear fission reactions are neutrons. But these are free to hit other nuclei
of U-235 nearby, causing these to fission as well as releasing additional neutrons. As this process
carries on, huge amount energy is released. In fact, each generation of fission neutrons takes only
a fraction of second to be produced. This is what happens in an uncontrolled chain reaction such
as the nuclear bomb.

Controlling chain reactions

Once the nuclear fission reaction has started, it can keep going. The neutrons released in the
induced reaction can then trigger more reactions on other uranium-235 atoms. This chain
reaction can quickly get out of control. Fermi realized that materials that could absorb some

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neutrons could help to control the chain reaction. Nuclear reactors have complex systems to
ensure the chain reaction stays at safe levels.

Control rods are inserted into the uranium to slow the chain reaction down. These absorber rods
contain atoms of Boron or Cadmium that can absorb the fission neutrons without undergoing a
fission reaction themselves.
These rods ensure that an average of one further fission occurs after every nucleus that splits. So,
only one of the 2-3 neutrons produced in the fission of a nucleus will hit another U-235 nucleus.
The other(s) will be absorbed by atoms in the rods.

Controlled nuclear reactions (add material that slows down reaction) are used in nuclear reactors
to create energy.
As a means of generating the energy, fission has following advantages.
• Its immediate environmental impact is small. (Zero CO2 emissions).
• The supply of uranium is not unlimited, but it is also not threatened either, unlike the
supply of oil.
• All reactors thus far are fission reactors. (The technology exists and works well.)

Further, fission has following disadvantages

• Fission produces waste, and that waste is difficult to handle, and to store. The waste is
radioactive, and has to be stored in safe secure facilities.

Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear fusion = joining of two light nuclei into one heavier nucleus. In the core of the Sun, two
hydrogen nuclei join under tremendous heat and pressure to form a helium nucleus. When the
helium atom is formed, huge amounts of energy are released.
Scientists cannot yet find a safe, manageable method to harness the energy of nuclear fusion.
Fusion reactions cannot be controlled yet (just bomb). Active research is underway to control
fusion reactions.

e.g.: If two 2H nuclei (two deuterons) can be made to come together they can form He and a
neutron.
2
H + 2H → 3He + n

Fusion has following advantages.

• Uranium (for fission plants) is a finite resource, we must eventually exhaust it. However,
the supply of deuterium is essentially inexhaustible. Deuterium is a naturally occurring
isotope of hydrogen, and they can be found in sea water. (Can be extracted by
electrolysis)
• Nuclear fusion is clean (No harmful waste). There is virtually a limitless supply of
fusionable material. (Isotopes of hydrogen).

Further, fusion has following disadvantages

• The technology doesn't exist and some think it never will.

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In order to combine two deuterons they should be taken into contact with each other. (Their
separation must be of the order the size of an atomic nucleus, about 10-15 m.)
As the two deuterons approach each other there is a strong electrostatic repulsion between them.
The only method available to solve this problem is to have the deuterons moving very fast, so
that they can touch before the repulsion is able to force them apart. It requires a temperature in
excess of 10,000,000 K at high enough pressure and for long enough duration for the fusion
process to get started. At present this is too severe of a technological problem to construct a
commercially viable fusion power plant.

Fusion and the Sun

Inside the sun, the conditions for fusion exist. (High pressures and temperatures)
Nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium provides the energy which drives the star, including the
light that it eventually emits.
In its simplest form, the process which drives the star is the fusion of four hydrogen nuclei to
form one helium nucleus.

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Particle Physics - Fundamental Constituents of Matter and Their Interactions
Particle Physics is the branch of physics that deals with the properties, relationships, and
interactions of subatomic particles. It is the modern version of and age- old – quest to find the
smallest entities of matter.

Rutherford’s Experiment (Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden)

Ernest Rutherford, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden performed experiments that provided strong
evidence concerning the internal structure of an atom.

They took a very thin metal foil, such as gold or platinum, and aimed a beam of alpha particles
from a radioactive source toward the foil. Surrounding the foil was a detector of alpha particles.

The detector allowed the scientists to determine the distribution of the alpha particles after they
interacted with the foil.

Rutherford explained the results of the metal-foil experiments by proposing that most of the mass
and the positive charge of an atom are located in its nucleus, while the relatively low-mass
electrons orbit about the nucleus. Most alpha particles go straight through the empty space, a few

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particles are deflected, and fewer still rebound back toward the source. The nucleus is much
smaller proportionately than depicted here.

Why high momentum particles are required to investigate structure of matter?

The probing beam which is made to incident on the structure consists of particles like electrons
and protons. The resolution is then limited by the de Broglie wavelength of these particles,
which is λ=h/p. Thus, beams of high momentum have short wavelengths and can have high
resolution.

Cosmic Rays

Cosmic rays are atom fragments that rain down on the Earth from outside of the solar system.
These high-energy particles arriving from outer space are mainly (89%) protons, but they also
include nuclei of helium (10%) and heavier nuclei (1%), all the way up to uranium.

Discovered in 1912, many things about cosmic rays remain a mystery more than a century later.
One prime example is exactly where they are coming from. Most scientists suspect their origins
are related to supernovas (star explosions), but the challenge is that for many years cosmic ray
origins appeared uniform to observatories examining the entire sky.

Cosmic rays as the natural source of high momentum particles.

Particle Accelerators

Particle Accelerator is an apparatus for accelerating subatomic particles to high velocities by

means of electric or electromagnetic fields. The accelerated particles (with high momentum) are
generally made to collide with other particles, either as a research technique or for the generation
of high-energy X-rays and gamma rays.

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Detectors

Just as hunters can identify animals from tracks in mud or snow, physicists identify subatomic
particles from the traces they leave in detectors.

Accelerators boost particles to high energies before they are made to collide inside detectors. The
detectors gather clues about the particles – including their speed, mass and charge – from which
physicists can work out a particle's identity. The process requires accelerators, powerful
electromagnets, and layer upon layer of complex subdetectors.

Particles produced in collisions normally travel in straight lines, but in the presence of a
magnetic field their paths become curved. Electromagnets around particle detectors generate
magnetic fields to exploit this effect. Physicists can calculate the momentum of a particle – a
clue to its identity – from the curvature of its path: particles with high momentum travel in
almost straight lines, whereas those with very low momentum move forward in tight spirals
inside the detector.

Modern particle detectors consist of layers of subdetectors, each designed to look for particular
properties, or specific types of particle. Tracking devices reveal the path of a particle;
calorimeters stop, absorb and measure a particle’s energy; and particle-identification detectors
use a range of techniques to pin down a particle's identity.

1. Tracking devices

Tracking devices reveal the paths of electrically charged particles as they pass through and
interact with suitable substances. Most tracking devices do not make particle tracks directly
visible, but record tiny electrical signals that particles trigger as they move through the
device. A computer program then reconstructs the recorded patterns of tracks.

One type of particle, the muon, interacts very little with matter – it can travel through metres
of dense material before it is stopped. For this reason, muon chambers – tracking devices
specialized for detecting muons – usually make up the outermost layer of a detector.

2. Calorimeters

A calorimeter measures the energy a particle loses as it passes through. It is usually designed
to stop entirely or “absorb” most of the particles coming from a collision, forcing them to
deposit all of their energy within the detector. Calorimeters typically consist of layers of
“passive” or “absorbing” high-density material – for example, lead – interleaved with layers
of an “active” medium such as solid lead-glass or liquid argon.

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 Electromagnetic calorimeters measure the energy of electrons and photons as they interact
with the electrically charged particles in matter. Hadronic calorimeters sample the energy of
hadrons (particles containing quarks, such as protons and neutrons) as they interact with
atomic nuclei. Calorimeters can stop most known particles except muons and neutrinos.

3. Particle-identification detectors

Once a particle has passed through the tracking devices and the calorimeters, physicists have
two further methods of narrowing down its identity. Both methods work by detecting
radiation emitted by charged particles.

When a charged particle travels faster than light does through a given medium, it emits
Cherenkov radiation at an angle that depends on its velocity. The particle's velocity can be
calculated from this angle. Velocity can then be combined with a measure of the particle's
momentum to determine its mass, and therefore its identity.

When a fast-charged particle crosses the boundary between two electrical insulators with
different resistances to electric currents, it emits transition radiation. The phenomenon is
related to the energy of the particle and so can distinguish different particle types.

Collating all these clues from different parts of the detector, physicists build up a snapshot of
what was in the detector at the moment of a collision. The next step is to scour the collisions
for unusual particles, or for results that do not fit current theories

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Elementary Particles - Leptons and Quarks

Leptons and Quarks are the basic building blocks of matter, i.e., they are seen as the "elementary
particles".

Leptons

There are six leptons in the present structure, the electron, muon, and tau particles and their
associated neutrinos.

1. Electron and Positron

The electron's antiparticle, the positron, is identical in mass but has a positive charge. If
an electron and a positron encounter each other, they will annihilate with the production
of two gamma-rays. On the other hand, one of the mechanisms for the interaction of
radiation with matter is the pair production of an electron-positron pair. Associated with
the electron is the electron neutrino.

2. Muon
The muon is a lepton which decays to form an electron or positron. Muons make up more
than half of the cosmic radiation at sea level, the remainder being mostly electrons,
positrons and photons. Associated with the muon is the muon neutrino

3. Tau
The tau is the most massive of the leptons, having a rest mass some 3490 times the mass
of the electron, also a lepton. Its mass is some 17 times that of the muon, the other
massive lepton. Associated with the tau is the tau neutrino

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Quarks

In the present standard model, there are six "flavors" of quarks.

The up and down quarks are the most common and least
massive quarks, being the constituents of protons and
neutrons and thus of most ordinary matter.

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Fundamental Forces

The four fundamental interactions or forces that govern the behavior of elementary particles are
listed below.

1. The strong force (It holds the nucleus together.)

2. The electromagnetic force (It causes interactions between charges.)
3. The weak force (It causes beta decay.)
4. The gravitational force

A given particle may not necessarily be subject to all four interactions. Neutrinos, for example,
experience only the weak and gravitational interaction.

“I would rather have questions that can't be answered than answers that
can't be questioned.”

― Richard P. Feynman

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