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SETS OPERATIONS
Sets
A set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects. It is a collection of unique objects,
known as elements or members, that can be anything (numbers, letters, people, etc.).
There are three different ways of describing a set
i. The Descriptive Method: A set may be described in words. For instance, the set of
all vowels of the English alphabets.
ii. The Tabular Method: A set may be described by listing its elements within
brackets. If A is the set mentioned above, then we may write: A = {a,e,i,o,u}.
iii. Set-builder method: It is sometimes more convenient or useful to employ the
method of set-builder notation in specifying sets. This is done by using a symbol or
letter for an arbitrary member of the set and stating the property common to all the
members. Thus the above set may be written as:
A = {x | x is a vowel of the English alphabet}
This is read as A is the set of all x such that x is a vowel of the English alphabet.
Venn Diagrams
Venn diagrams are very useful in depicting visually the basic concepts of sets and
relationships between sets. They were first used by an English logician and
mathematician John Venn (1834 to 1883 A.D).
In a Venn diagram, a rectangular region represents the universal set and regions
bounded by simple closed curves represent other sets, which are subsets of the
universal set. For the sake of beauty these regions are generally shown as circular
regions.
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1. Draw a Venn diagram that represents V, the set of vowels in the English alphabet.
Solution
We draw a rectangle to indicate the universal set U, which is the set of the 26 letters
of the English alphabet. Inside this rectangle we draw a circle to represent V. Inside
this circle we indicate the elements of V with points (see Figure).
Subset
The set A is a subset of B, and B is a superset of A, if and only if every element of A is
also an element of B. We use the notation A B to indicate that A is a subset of the set B.
If, instead, we want to stress that B is a superset of A, we use the equivalent notation
B ⊇ A.(So, A B and B ⊇ A are equivalent statements.)
For example; The set of all odd positive integers less than 10 is a subset of the set of all
positive integers less than 10, the set of rational numbers is a subset of the set of real
numbers, the set of all computer science majors at your school is a subset of the set of all
students at your school, and the set of all people in China is a subset of the set of all people
in China (that is, it is a subset of itself). Each of these facts follows immediately by noting
that an element that belongs to the first set in each pair of sets also belongs to the second
set in that pair.
2. Draw a Venn diagram showing that A is a subset of B.
Solution
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Equal Sets
To show that two sets A and B are equal, show that A B and B A.
Sets may have other sets as members. For instance, we have the sets
A ={∅, {a}, {b}, {a, b}} and B ={x ∣ x is a subset of the set {a, b}}.
Note that these two sets are equal, that is, A = B. Also note that {a} A, but a ∉ A.
The Size of a Set
Let S be a set. If there are exactly n distinct elements in S where n is a nonnegative integer,
we say that S is a finite set and that n is the cardinality of S. The cardinality of S is denoted
by |S|.
Remark
The term cardinality comes from the common usage of the term cardinal number as
the size of a finite set.
A set is said to be infinite if it is not finite.
Examples
Let A be the set of odd positive integers less than 10. Then |A| = 5.
Let S be the set of letters in the English alphabet. Then |S| = 26.
Because the null set has no elements, it follows that |∅| = 0.
The set of positive integers is infinite.
Power Set
Given a set S, the power set of S is the set of all subsets of the set S. The power set of S
is denoted by P(S).
If a set has n elements, then its power set has 2n elements.
3. What is the power set of the set {0, 1, 2}?
Solution
The power set P({0, 1, 2}) is the set of all subsets of {0, 1, 2}. Hence,
P ({0, 1, 2}) ={∅, {0}, {1}, {2}, {0, 1}, {0, 2}, {1, 2}, {0, 1, 2}}.
Note that the empty set and the set itself are members of this set of subsets.
4. What is the power set of the empty set? What is the power set of the set {∅}?
Solution
The empty set has exactly one subset, namely, itself. Consequently,
P (∅) = {∅}.
The set {∅} has exactly two subsets, namely, ∅ and the set {∅} itself. Therefore,
P ({∅}) ={∅, {∅}}.
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Union of Sets
Let A and B be sets. The union of the sets A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set that
contains those elements that are either in A or in B, or in both.
That is A ∪ B ={x ∣ x A ∨ x B}
5. Find the union of the sets {1, 3, 5} and {1, 2, 3}
Solution
{1, 3, 5}∪{1, 2, 3} = {1, 2, 3, 5}.
6. Draw a Venn diagram of union of two sets.
Solution
Intersection of Sets
Let A and B be sets. The intersection of the sets A and B, denoted by A ∩ B, is the set
containing those elements in both A and B.
That is A ∩ B ={x ∣ x A ∧ x B}
7. Find the intersection of the sets {1, 3, 5} and {1, 2, 3}
Solution
{1, 3, 5}∩{1, 2, 3} = {1, 3}
8. Draw a Venn diagram of intersection of two sets.
Solution
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Disjoint Sets
Two sets are called disjoint if their intersection is the empty set.
9. Give an example of disjoint sets.
Solution
Let A ={1, 3, 5, 7, 9} and B ={2, 4, 6, 8, 10}.
Because A ∩ B = ∅,
Therefore A and B are disjoint.
Difference of Sets
Let A and B be sets. The difference of A and B, denoted by A − B, is the set containing
those elements that are in A but not in B. The difference of A and B is also called the
complement of B with respect to A. i.e. A − B ={x ∣ x A ∧ x ∉ B}.
For example;
The difference of {1, 3, 5} and {1, 2, 3} is the set {5};
that is, {1, 3, 5}−{1, 2, 3}={5}.
This is different from the difference of {1, 2, 3} and {1, 3, 5},
which is the set {2}.
[Link] a Venn diagram of difference of two sets.
Solution
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Complement of a Set
Let U be the universal set. The complement of the set A, denoted by ̅ , is the
complement of A with respect to U. Therefore, the complement of the set A is U − A.
That is ̅ = {x U ∣ x ∉ A}.
Remember that A − B = A ∩ ̅.
[Link] two examples of complement of sets.
Solution
Let A ={a, e, i, o, u} (where the universal set is the set of letters of the English
alphabet). Then ̅ = {b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y, z}.
Let A be the set of positive integers greater than 10 (with universal set the set of
all positive integers). Then ̅ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}.
[Link] a Venn diagram of complement of a set A.
Solution
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