LECTURE NOTES BY BERNARD CHIAW

SPECIAL MACHINES
Introduction
Very small single-phase motors have been developed which run at true synchronous speed. They do not require d.c.
excitation for the rotor. Because of these characteristics, they are called unexcited single-phase synchronous motors.

The most commonly used types are:

i) Stepper motors
ii) Reluctance motors
iii) Hysteresis motors
iv) Universal Motors

The efficiency and torque-developing ability of these motors is low; the output of most of the commercial motors is only a
few watts.

Stepper Motors
 Stepper Motor –This is an electromechanical device which actuates a train of steps movements of shaft in response
to train of input pulses. Each pulse moves the shaft through a fixed angle. The angle through which the motor rotates
or shaft moves for each pulse is known as the step angle
Step angle: - The number of degrees a rotor will turn per step. It is denoted as (β, ς or ϴs). It is calculated as follows:
360° 360° Nr − NS
Step angle, ϴ S = = = x 360°
S mNr Nr NS
Where: S = mNr, m = number of phases, Nr = number of rotor teeth or poles, NS = number of stator teeth or poles

Suppose m = 3, and N = 4, then:

S = 3 x 4 = 12
And,
360°
ϴS = = 30° per step
12
NB:
i) Smaller the step angle, greater the number of steps per revolution and higher the resolution (or) accuracy of
positioning obtained.
ii) The step angle can be as small as 0.720 (or) as large as 900.
iii) Common step sizes are 1.8°, 2.5°, 7.5° & 15°.

Resolution: - The number of steps needed to complete one revolution of the rotor shaft. Higher the resolution, greater the
accuracy of positioning.
360°
Resolution =
β
Slewing: - Operation of stepper Motor at high speeds is called “Slewing”. If f is the stepping frequency (or) pulse rate in
pulses per sec (pps) and β is step angle, then:
βxf
Motor shaft speed, n =
360°

Examples:
1 A hybrid variable reluctance stepper motor has 8 main poles which have been castellated to have 5 teeth
each. If the rotor has 50 teeth, calculate the step angle.
Solution:
Step angle is,

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360°
Step angle, ϴ S =
S
Total number of stator teeth is,
NS = 5 x 8 = 40
Total number of rotor teeth Nr = 50
Hence, step angle is,
Nr − NS 50 − 40
ϴS = x 360° = x 360° = 𝟏.𝟖°
Nr NS 50 x 40
2 A single-stack, 3-Ω VR stepper motor has step angle of 15°. Find the number of its rotor and stator teeth.
Solution:
360°
Step angle, β =
mNr
Or,
360°
15° =
3 x Nr
Hence number of rotor teeth is,
Nr = 𝟖
Also,
N − NS
β= r x 360°
Nr NS
When NS > Nr,
8 − NS
15° = x 360°
8NS
Hence, number of stator teeth is,
NS = 𝟔
When NS < Nr,
N −8
15° = S x 360°
8NS
Hence,
NS = 𝟏𝟐
3 A four-stack VR stepper motor has step angle of 1.8°. Find the number of its rotor and stator teeth.
Solution:
A four stack motor has 4 phases
360°
Step angle, β =
mNr
360°
1.8° =
4 x Nr
Hence number of rotor teeth is,
Nr = 𝟓𝟎
Since in a multi-stack motor, number of rotor teeth = number of stator teeth;
NS = 𝟓𝟎
4 A stepper motor has a step angle of 2.5°. Determine:
i) Resolution
ii) Number of steps required for the shaft to make 25 revolutions
iii) Shaft speed, if the stepping frequency is 3600 pps.
Solution:
i) Resolution is given as:

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360° 360°
Resolution = = = 𝟏𝟒𝟒 𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐩𝐬/𝐫𝐞𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
β 2.5
ii) Number of steps required for the shaft to make 25 revolutions
No. of steps/revolution = 144. Hence,
Steps required for making 25 revolutions = Resolution x 25 = 144 x 25 = 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎
iii) Shaft speed, if the stepping frequency is 3600 pps.
β x f 2.5 x 3600
Shaft speed, n = = = 25 rps
360° 360°
Or,
n = 25 x 60 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝐫𝐩𝐦
Exercise:
1. What is the step angle of a 4 phase stepper motor with 12 stator teeth and 8 rotor teeth?
2. A VR stepper motor has an 8 pole in the stator and they have five teeth in each pole. If the rotor has 50 teeth,
calculate the step angle and resolution
3. Calculate the angle of a single-stack, 4-phase, 8/6-pole VR stepper motor. What is its resolution?
4. A stepper motor has a step angle of 1.8° and driven at 4000 pps. Determine:
i) Resolution
ii) Motor speed
iii) Number of pulses required to rotate the shaft through 54°.
5. Calculate the pulse rate required to obtain a rotor speed of 2400 rpm for a stepper motor having a resolution
of 200 steps/rev.
6. A stepper motor has resolution of 500 steps/rev in the 1-Φ ON mode of operation. If it is operated in half-step
mode, determine:
i) Resolution
ii) Number of steps required to turn the rotor through 72°
7. What is the required resolution for a stepper motor that is to operate at a pulse frequency of 6000 pps.?

Advantages of Stepper Motors

i) Position error is noncumulative. A high accuracy of motion is possible, even under open-loop control.
ii) Large savings in sensor (measurement system) and controller costs are possible when the open-loop mode is used.
iii) Because of the incremental nature of command and motion, stepper motors are easily adaptable to digital control
applications.
iv) No serious stability problems exist, even under open-loop control.
v) Torque capacity and power requirements can be optimized and the response can be controlled by electronic
switching. Brushless construction has obvious advantages.

Disadvantages of Stepper Motors

i) They have low torque capacity (typically less than 2,000 oz-in) compared to DC motors.
ii) They have limited speed (limited by torque capacity and by pulse-missing problems due to faulty switching systems
and drive circuits).
iii) They have high vibration levels due to stepwise motion.
iv) Large errors and oscillations can result when a pulse is missed under open-loop control.

Applications:
i) Used for operational control in computer peripherals, textile industry, IC fabrications & Robotics etc.
ii) It is also used in typewriters, line printers, tape drivers, floppy disk drives, CNC machines, X-Y plotters etc.
iii) It is also used in commercial, military & medical applications.

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Types of Stepper Motors

The performance of a stepper motor — both in terms of resolution (or step size), speed, and torque — is influenced by
construction details, which at the same time may also affect how the motor can be controlled. As a matter of fact, not all
stepper motors have the same internal structure (or construction), as there are different rotor and stator configurations.

Rotor Configuration: - For a stepper motor, there are basically three types of rotors:
i) Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor
ii) Permanent Magnet stepper Motor
iii) Hybrid stepper Motor.
 Permanent magnet rotor: The rotor is a permanent magnet that aligns with the magnetic field generated by the
stator circuit. This solution guarantees a good torque and also a detent torque. This means the motor will resist, even
if not very strongly, to a change of position regardless of whether a coil is energized. The drawbacks of this solution
is that it has a lower speed and a lower resolution compared to the other types.
 Variable reluctance rotor: The rotor is made of an iron core, and has a specific shape that allows it to align with
the magnetic field. With this solution it is easier to reach a higher speed and resolution, but the torque it develops is
often lower and it has no detent torque. It is the most basic type of stepper Motor.
 Hybrid rotor: This kind of rotor has a specific construction, and is a hybrid between permanent magnet and
variable reluctance versions. The rotor has two caps with alternating teeth, and is magnetized axially. This
configuration allows the motor to have the advantages of both the permanent magnet and variable reluctance
versions, specifically high resolution, speed, and torque. This higher performance requires a more complex
construction, and therefore a higher cost.

Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor

Construction
Two important parts of a stepper Motor are: Stator, Rotor.
 The motor has a stator which is usually wound for three phases.
 The stator consists of common outer frame which is used to enclose the stepper motor and protect it.
 The salient poles of the stator are fixed under the stator outer frame. The stator poles are laminated and assembled
in a single stack.
 The stator poles are usually made up of soft steel (or) high graded silicon content steel in order to reduce the
hysteresis losses and they are laminated to reduce the eddy current loss in the stepper Motor.
 Usually there may be six stator poles and concentrated exciting windings are placed around each pole.
 The exciting windings are usually made up of copper material and pair of exciting windings form a phase in the
stepper Motor. So there are 3 phases in the stepper Motor which is considered.
 Each phase is excited separately through a switch by the DC source, which is also shown in the Fig 2.1.
 The direction of rotation of the stepper Motor depends upon the sequence we excite the windings.
 The multi-stack type rotor gives smaller step angle.
 The Rotor also has projecting poles which may be laminated (or) solid soft steel material. It is usually made up of
ferromagnetic Material and it may be single (or) multi-stack type.
 Generally, number of stator poles will not be equal to number of rotor poles for proper operation. Here we consider
four rotor poles. The rotor pole do not have windings.

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Construction Equivalent Circuit

Principle of Operation
 The operation is based on various reluctance positions of rotor with respect to stator.
 When any one phase of the stator is excited, it produces its magnetic field whose axis lies along the poles of the
phase which is excited.
 Then the rotor moves to minimum reluctance.
 Let us see the operation of the VR stepper Motor, when the phases A, B, C are excited in sequence ie., one after the
other with the help of switches S1,S2 and S3.
 When the phase AA1 is excited with the switch S1 closed, then stator Magnet Axis exist along the poles formed due
to AA1 (ie) vertically.
 Then the rotor adjust itself in a minimum reluctance position and occupies along AA1 → 1, 3, rotor poles. This is
the initial position (ie) 0°.
 When the BB1 phase is excited with the switch S2 closed, and de-energize the AA1 phase with the switch S1 opened,
then stator magnetic axis shifts along the poles formed due to BB1 and the rotor tries to align itself in the minimum
reluctance position and turns through 30° step angle in clockwise direction.
 Open the switch S2 and de-energize the BB1 phase and close the switch S3 and energize the CC1 phase.
 So that the stator magnetic axis shifts along the poles formed due to CC1 and the rotor tries to align itself in the
minimum reluctance position and rotor rotates by a step angle of 30° in the same direction.
 The stepper motor continues to move in steps of 30 degree for each excitation either in clockwise or counter
clockwise direction. The Fig 2.2 gives the three step positions

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

If i is the current passing through the phases which are excited then the torque developed by the motor is given as:
1 dL
Tm = i2 ( )
2 dϴ

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Where L is the inductance in Henry and ϴ is the displacement angle in degree.

Advantages of VR stepper Motor:

i) High torque to inertia ratio iv) Simple & low cost
ii) High rates of acceleration. v) Rotor has no windings.
iii) Fast dynamic response

Disadvantages of VR stepper Motor:

i) No detent torque iii) Normally available in 3.6 degree to 30 degree
ii) Low Efficiency at low voltages and stepping rate

Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor

Construction
 This motor has got two important part (ie) stator & rotor.
 The stator of this type of motor is multi-polar. Assume that the stator has four poles. Its stator construction is similar
to VR stepper Motor.
 It consists of stator outer frame, stator core and stator winding. The stator core is laminated and made of soft steel
and has projecting poles.
 The stator winding is wound on each pole individually and form a phase and made of copper material.
 The rotor is also smooth cylindrical type or projecting pole type and it is made up of permanent magnet material
like hard ferrite.
Because of this construction, it is called as permanent magnet stepper Motor. Usually the rotor has only two poles. The
exciting circuit with the constructional view is shown figure 2.3.

Construction Equivalent Circuit

Working Principles
 The basic principle is when a particular stator phase is excited, the rotor magnetic poles move into alignment with
the excited stator poles.
 Consider stator has 4 phases, 4 poles and rotor has ONE poles pair then the step angle is,
360° 360
β= = = 90°
mNr 4 x 1
 The proper switching of the stator poles is controlled by the driver circuit.

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First Step Second Step Third Step 3

 When S1 is closed then phase A is excited for a particular pole and the opposite pole of rotor will come into
alignment. This is the initial (or) start position (ie) Zero degree.
 When S1 is opened and S2 is closed then phase B is excited so that the rotor adjust itself to align with the stator
magnetic axis by moving 90°.
 Similarly S1 and S1 switches are operated in such a way that the stepper motor rotates in steps by 90° for each
phase excitation. The direction of rotation depends upon the sequence of switching (ie)
A, B, C, D,................... CW rotation.
A, C, D, B,................... CCW rotation.
 Sometimes the direction of stator current also decides the direction of rotation of stepper motor.

Advantages of PM stepper Motor:

i) Low power requirement
ii) High detent torque.
iii) Rotor does not require external exciting current
iv) It produces more torque per ampere stator current

Disadvantages of PM stepper Motor:

i) Motor has high inertia
ii) Slower Acceleration
iii) Step size is from 30 degree to 90 degree
iv) The stepper motor with permanent magnet rotors with large number of poles cannot be manufactured in small size.
v) Hence small steps are not possible. Because of presence of permanent magnet, detent torque is present in the motor.

Hybrid Stepper Motor

Construction
 It uses the principles of both variable reluctance and permanent Magnet stepper motor.
 Constructionally also, it has the combination of VR & PM stepper Motor. This motor has also got two important
parts (ie) stator & Rotor.
 The stator has got outer frame, stator core, stator poles & stator pole teeths and stator winding. The outer frame
covers the entire machine and protects it.

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 Under the stator frame, stator core is fixed with solid or laminated soft steel material to reduce eddy current &
hysteresis loses.
 The stator may be single or multi-stack configuration. Usually the stator has got 8 poles and each poles has 2 to 6
teeths.
 There is only two phases winding, made of copper material. The coils on poles, 1,3,5 & 7 are connected in series
to form phase while the coils on poles 2,4,6 & 8 are connected in series to form phase B
 The winding A & B are excited alternately.
 The constructional view is shown in the figure 2.5

Fig.
 In this motor, the rotor has permanent magnet which is fixed in the middle of the rotor and it is magnetised in the
axial direction.
 Surrounding the rotor permanent magnet, rotor teeths are framed which are laminated and made up of soft steel
material.
 The rotor teeths are selected according to the step angle required.

Working Principle
 This motor uses the permanent magnet & variable reluctance principle combined.
 In this motor, the rotor flux is produced by the permanent magnet and it is directed by the rotor teeths to the
appropriate parts of the airgap.
 Consider the hybrid motor has two phase (ie) phase A & phase B. When phase A is excited by the positive stator
current then stator poles 1 and 5 becomes south and 3 and 7 becomes north.
 Now the rotor teeths with north and south polarity will come into alignment with the stator pole teeths.
 Similarly when phase B is excited and phase A is unexcited then the rotor will move by one step angle.
 Suppose the rotor has 18 teeths then the step angle is,
360° 360
β= = = 10°
m x N r 2 x 18
 The torque in a hybrid stepper motor is produced by the interaction of rotor and the stator produced fluxes.
 The rotor flux remains constant because it is produced by the permanent magnet. The motor torque Tm is
proportional to the phase current in the stator.

Advantages of Hybrid Stepper Motor

i) We can achieve very small step angle up to 1.8°.
ii) Torque per unit volume is more than VR motor.
iii) Due to permanent magnet, the motor has some detent torque.
iv) Better damping due to presence of rotor magnets
v) Higher holding torque

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Comparison between VR and PM stepper Motor

VR Stepper Motor PM Stepper Motor
The rotor is not magnetized. The rotor is magnetized.
High Torque to inertia Ratio Low torque to inertia ratio.
High rates of acceleration Acceleration is slow.
Dynamic Response is fast Very slow dynamic response.
It can be manufactured for large number of polesIt cannot be manufactured for large number of
poles due to constructional difficulties.
Very small step angle is possible Step angles are high in the range 30° to 900
It does not have detent Torque. It has got detent Torque.
Rotor has salient pole construction The rotor has mostly smooth cylindrical type of
construction
Maximum stepping rate is as high as 1200 pulses It is only 300 pulses per second.
per second

Multi-stack Stepper Motor

Basically the stepper motors which we have discussed are single stack stepper motor. In single stack motor, there will be
common stator and rotor for the poles or teeths on it. Which means that the only one stator core and rotor core on which the
poles will be placed. The single stack more will have one winding only for a phase. The cross sectional view is shown in the
figure 2.6.
The multi-stack motors are used to obtain small step size typically ranging between 2° to 15°.

Fig.
In an „m‟ stack motor, the motor is divided into an „m‟ number of magnetically isolated sections called as stacks along its
axial length. The „m‟ stacks of stator have a common outer frame while the rotors are mounted on a common shaft. The
stator and rotor have the same number poles (or) teeths. The stator poles in motor are aligned equally while the rotor poles
are shifted by 1/m of the pole pitch from one another. All the stator windings in a stack are excited simultaneously; hence
each stator forms a phase. So the number of stator phases is equal to number of stator stacks. Generally three stack stepper
motor are used. In each stack, the stator and rotor laminations are provided and they have 12 poles. The poles of the stator
are in one line while the rotor poles are aligned from each other by 1/3 of the pole pitch.
The various windings in one stack are excited simultaneously. When phase A of the stator is excited then rotor poles of
stack A get aligned with the stator poles. But the rotor poles of stack B and C do not align. Now if phase A is unexcited and
phase B is excited then rotor poles of stack B get aligned with the stator poles. Thus the rotor moves by 1/3 of pole pitch.

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Again phase B is unexcited and phase C is excited then the rotor again moves by 1/3 of the pole pitch and the process
continuous.
Where m = 3 and Nr = 12, the step angle is:
360° 360
β= = = 10°
m x N r 3 x 12
So we can achieve small step angle by the multi-stack structure.

Fig.
Characteristics of Stepper Motor
The two important characteristics of stepper motor are:
i) Static Characteristics
ii) Dynamic Characteristics.
Static Characteristics: - The characteristics relating to motors which are stationary are called static characteristics.

T/ϴ Characteristics T/I characteristics

 T/ϴ Characteristics: - The stepping motor is kept stationary at rest position by supplying a current in a specified
mode of excitation. If an external Torque is applied to the shaft, an angular displacement will occur. The relation
between the external Torque and displacement angle ϴ may be plotted as T/ϴ curve. The maximum of Static Torque
is called as Holding Torque which occurs at ϴ = ϴM. After the ϴM, the rotor moves to the next equilibrium position.
The Holding torque is defined as the maximum static Torque that can be applied to the shaft of an excited motor
without causing continuous rotation. It is shown in the figure 2.8.

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 T/I characteristics: - The Holding Torque increases with the current and the curve drawn between the Holding
Torque and the current is called T/I characteristics curve. For VR stepper motor, this curve starts from the zero
point. But for PM and Hybrid stepper motor, the curve has a slight raise in the holding Torque (ie) Y-axis. This is
due to the presence of detent Torque due to permanent magnet in the rotor when current is zero. It is shown in the
figure 2.9.
 Holding Torque: It is defined as the maximum static torque that can be applied to the shaft of an excited motor
without causing continuous rotation.
 Detent Torque or Cogging Torque: It is defined as the maximum load torque that can be applied to the shaft of
an unexcited motor without causing continuous rotation
Dynamic characteristics: - The characteristics relating to stepper motor which are in motion (or) about to start are called
dynamic characteristics. The curve drawn between the Torque & stepping rate gives the Dynamic characteristics which
shown in the figure 2.10.

Fig.
 Pull - In Torque Curve: - It is called starting characteristics and it is the range of frictional load Torque at which
the motor can start & stop without losing steps for various frequencies in a pulse train.
 Pull - Out Torque Curve: - It is called slewing characteristics. After the motor is started by giving specific
excitation, the pulse frequency is gradually increased and during this increase in frequency the motor has to
synchronize with the pulses. The relation between the frictional load Torque and max pulse rate with which the
motor can synchronize is called pull -out curve. The pullout curve is greatly affected by the driver CKT, coupling,
measuring devices and other conditions.
 Max Starting frequency: - It is defined as maximum control frequency at which the unloaded motor can start
& stop without losing steps.
 Max Pullout rate (or) Max Slewing frequency: - It is defined as max: frequency at which the unloaded motor can
run without losing steps.
 Max starting Torque: - It is also called as Max pullout Torque and it is defined as the Maximum frictional load
Torque with which motor can start and synchronize with the pulse train of a frequency as low as 10 HZ.

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Various Modes of Operation of stepper Motor

i) Single phase ON (or) Full step operation
ii) Two Phase ON Mode
iii) Half Step Operation
iv) Micro stepping Operation

Single phase ON (or) Full step operation: - In this mode of operation each phase is switched ON independently. Consider
the VR stepper motor with 6 stator poles and 4 rotor poles. The equivalent circuit of Full step operation is shown in the figure
2.13.

Fig.
360° 360
Step angle, β = = = 30°
m x Nr 3 x 4
The operation of single phase ON mode is as follows. When S1 is closed, AA1 phase is excited and the rotor will align (or)
attracted into a position of minimum reluctance (ie) 00. Then, S1 is opened and S2 is closed, the rotor rotates through a full
step angle 30° in the clockwise direction. Similarly when S2 is opened and S3 is closed, the rotor again moves by an angle
30°. So the rotor rotates by an angle of 30° for each phase when excited. The switching sequence is A, B, C, A......., the rotor
rotates in clockwise direction and when the switching sequence is A, C, B, A........., the rotor rotates in counter- clockwise
direction.
Two Phase ON Mode: - In this mode of operation, two stator phases are excited simultaneously. When S1 & S2 are closed
then phase A and B are energized together, the rotor experiences torque from both phases and comes to rest at point midway
between the two adjacent full step position. So initially the rotor position will be at 150. When sequence of switching is
carried out the rotor moves by full step angle.
The sequence of switching of clockwise rotation is AB, BC, CA................. The sequence of switching for counter clockwise
rotation is AC, CB, BA.................. The truth table is given below.
The 2 phase ON mode provides greater holding torque and a much better damped single stack response than the single phase
ON mode of operation.
Half Step Operation: - This mode of operation combines both single & two phase ON mode operation. It is also called as
wave excitation and it causes the rotor rotate in steps of 150(ie) half the full step angle. The half stepping can be obtained
by exciting the three phases in proper sequence so that the rotor rotates by half step.
The sequence of switching for clockwise rotation is A, AB, B, BC, and the sequence of switching for counter clockwise
rotation is A, AC, C, CB..........
It will be seen that in half stepping mode, the step angle is halved thereby enabling the resolution. Moreover, continuous
half stepping produces a smoother shaft rotation.

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Micro stepping Operation: - It is also known as mini - stepping. It utilizes two phases simultaneously as in 2 phase ON
mode but with the two currents deliberately made unequal. The current in phase A is held constant while that in phase B is
increased in very small increments until maximum current is reached. The current in phase A is then reduced to zero using
the same very small increments. In this way, the resultant step becomes very small and is called micro step. Stepper motors
employing micro stepping technique are used in printing and photo typesetting where very fine resolution is needed. Micro
stepping provides smooth low speed operation and high resolution.

Linear Induction Motor

A Linear Induction Motor (or LIM) is a specialized induction motor engineered for straight motion instead of the rotational
movement typical of standard motors. These motors modify the traditional design to serve unique functions while
maintaining a similar working principle, increasing their operational versatility. Next, we’ll explore the construction of a
linear induction motor.
The induction motor is used to convert the electrical energy into rotation energy. Another form of induction motor is a linear
induction motor. It is used to convert electrical energy into linear motion.
The linear induction motor is known as LIM. It operates on the principle of electromagnetic induction. This type of motor
is most popular in traction applications. Similar to the regular induction motor, the linear induction motor also has two
windings; primary winding and secondary winding. In most cases, the primary winding is made up of copper and the
secondary winding is made up of aluminum

Working Principle of Linear Induction Motor

The working principle of a linear induction motor is the same as the working principle of a conventional induction motor.
The principle is that “when the relative motions occur between the field and the short-circuit conductors, currents are
induced in the conductor. The current-carrying conductor produces EMF (electro-motive force), and due to this force, the
conductor tries to move in such a way to eliminate the induced current (according to Lenz’s law)
In a regular induction motor, an induced magnetic field is rotating in nature. Hence, the movement in a conductor is also
rotating. But in the case of a linear induction motor, the movement of a field is rectilinear. Hence, the movement of a
conductor is linear.
When a three-phase supply is connected to the primary winding, a traveling flux is produced. This flux travels along the
length of the primary part and induces EMF in the secondary. This EMF circulates currents in the secondary. This induced
current interacts with traveling flux and produces force.
If one part (primary or secondary) is the fixed and the second part (secondary or primary) can move, then force will be
produced on the moving member
Advantages and Disadvantages of LIM
Advantages
The advantages of a linear induction motor are listed below.

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i) Low initial cost v) Power to weight ratio is better than the

ii) Low maintenance conventional induction motor
iii) No overheating vi) Tractive effort does not depend on the speed
iv) No limitation of maximum speed
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of linear induction motors are listed below.
i) Low power-factor
ii) Poor efficiency
iii) In a linear induction motor, the air gap is large compared to the conventional induction motor. Therefore, a
large magnetizing current is produced.
iv) The cost of a rail fixed along the centerline of the track is very high.
v) It causes difficulties at crossings and hence other provisions are needed for crossing.

Application of Linear Induction Motor

While not as common as conventional motors due to cost and specific design features, linear induction motors are
crucial for certain specialized applications where their unique capabilities are required.
Few of such applications are listed below.
i) Automatic sliding doors in electric trains.
ii) Mechanical handling equipment, such as propulsion of a train of tubs along a certain route.
iii) Metallic conveyor belts.
iv) Pumping of liquid metal, material handling in cranes, etc.
v) This type of motor is widely used as a traction motor.
vi) For transportation (medium and high-speed vehicles)
vii) In railway yards for shunting

Exercise
1. A Linear Induction Motor (LIM) vibrates at a frequency of 60 Hz when energized. Calculate the:
i) Synchronous speed
ii) Slip when the rotor runs at 1600 rpm

Universal Motor
Generally, the electric motors are operated either in DC Power or AC Power. But for some specific applications, it is
desirable to introduce a motor that operates on either ac or dc supply. The word ‘Universal’ signifies that something which
is compatible with versatile inputs. We have built small series motors up to ½ KW rating which operates on single phase
ac supply as well as on dc. Such motors are called universal motors. A universal motor is a specifically designed series
wound motor, that operates at approximately the same speed and output on either ac or dc voltage. In case of universal
motor, the speed of rotation is slightly lesser when operating in AC. Because, the reactance voltage drop is present on ac
but not on dc. So, the motor speed is somewhat lower for same load in ac operation than dc. This takes place especially at
high loads. Most universal motors are designed to operate at speeds exceeding 3500 rpm. We will explain discuss the
construction of this type of motor.

Construction of Universal Motor

The construction of a universal motor is the same as the construction of a DC motor.
 Field coils are wound on the poles, and the core is laminated to lower the eddy currents induced while functioning
on AC.
 The rotary armature has straight or skewed slots and a commutator with brushes resting on it.
 The brushes used have high resistance due to the current caused by the coils of the armature.

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Basically, a universal motor is similar to a dc series motor in construction. However it is constructed with few series field
turns, laminated armature and field circuits, low reluctance magnetic path, increased armature conductors and commutator
segments. The frames of universal motor are usually made up of aluminum, rolled steel and cast iron. The commutation
on ac is much poorer than on dc, due to current induced in the short circuited armature coils .If we use wide brushes then
the short circuited current is excessive and motor starting torque is reduced. Brushes used are high resistance carbon ones
so as to aid commutation. Compensating windings which are used in most large rating motors to improve commutation
are not used in universal motors. In this motor armature current is quite small which cannot cause any commutation
problems.

Fig. 7.17: Universal motor

The parts of a universal motor are armature, brushes, field winding, frame, and field core.
 Frame: The frame is a rolled steel or cast-iron shell that holds the field core laminations.
 Field core: The field core is made up of laminations that contain field poles of a two-pole motor.
 Armature: The armature has a laminated core with straight or skewed slots and a commutator to which the leads
of the armature winding are connected. An armature coil is used to run the motor.
 Brushes: Brushes conduct current between stationary wires and moving parts.
 Field winding: The field winding forms an electromagnet that produces field flux within which the rotor armature
of the DC motor rotates.

Operation of Universal Motor

The operation of a universal motor is based on the interaction between a magnetic field and an electric field.
 A universal motor works on both single-phase AC and DC supply.
 When the DC motor is fed with a DC supply it works as a series DC motor.
 Current flows in the winding produce an electromagnetic field and the same current also flows through the armature
conductors.
 When it is placed in an electromagnetic field it experiences a mechanical force and due to the mechanical force
the torque starts to rotate producing a unidirectional torque.
 The armature winding and the field winding are connected in series and hence they are in the same phase.
 For an AC power supply, the direction of current in the armature and field winding reverses every time, hence, the
polarity of AC changes.

Types of Universal Motors

The two types of universal motors are compensated and non-compensated types.
 Non-compensated/Uncompensated Motor (Concentrated Field Type): - Concentrated field type is usually a
salient pole machine. This motor is built with two wide poles and laminated. The armature is wound form, and the
laminated core is skewed or straight slots or commutator are also present. The winding leads are attached to the
switch. This form of uncompensated motor uses high-resistance brushes to enable improved commutation.

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 Compensated Motor (Distributed Field Type): - This type of motor involves scattered field winding, and the
stator core has a connection with the split-phase motor. Therefore, these motors have additional winding, which
decreases the voltage of the reaction due to alternating flow. The uncompensated motor is simpler and less
expensive than compensated motor but gives poor speed regulation.

It is of again two types namely:

i) Single field compensated motor – it resembles the stator winding of 2 pole, split phase ac motor.
ii) Two-field compensated motor – it has stator winding which consists of main winding and a compensated
winding spaced 90 electrical degrees apart.

Characteristics of Universal Motor

Universal motors have high starting torque, and the speed increases with a decrease in the load.
i) Small universal motors have significant no-load losses and limit the speed to 1500 to 20000 RPM.
ii) The power factor at full load is 90%, and the power factor at the beginning or overloading is low.

Variations of Universal Motor

There are around two types of variations observed in a universal motor:
i) Shunt Winding
ii) Repulsion Start
 Shunt Winding: - Shunt Winding was experimented around 19th century but it failed due to its commutation.
Since Universal motors are series wound, various combinations of embedded resistance, inductance and antiphase
cross-coupling were attempted. The Shunt wound universal motors were preferred as they were had the property to
self-start and were replaced upon the availability of induction motors and automatic starters.
 Repulsion Start: - Repulsion start wound motors provided a high torque but were a bit more complex. Their rotors
were similar to that of universal motors but the brushes were connected only to each other.

Advantages of Universal Motor

i) Universal motors are simple, inexpensive, and high-speed-type motors.

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ii) These motors can function at a high-speed connection to a single-phase AC network. In addition, they are available
in small sizes for compact domestic devices.

Applications of Universal Motor

Universal motors find its applications in various devices. These are:
i) The very small power output rating universal motors, which usually does not exceed 5 to10 watts are employed in
equipment such as sewing machines , fans , portable hand tools, hair dryers , motion picture projectors and electric
shavers.
ii) The higher rating (5-500 W) universal motor are used as drives in vacuum cleaners, food mixers, blenders, cameras
and calculating machines.
iii) This type of machine is used in table fans, polishers, portable drills and other kitchen appliances.

Examples:
1. A 250 W, 1-Φ, 50 Hz, 220 V universal motor runs at 2000 rpm and takes 1.0 A when supplied from a 220 V
dc supply. If the motor is connected to 220 V ac supply and takes 1.0 A (r.m.s), calculate the speed, torque
and power factor. Assume Ra = 20 Ω and La =0.4 H.
Solution:
DC operation
𝐸𝑏.𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 = 220 − 20 𝑋 1 = 200 𝑉
AC operation
𝑋 𝑎 = 𝜔𝐿 𝑎 = 2𝜋 𝑋 50 𝑋 0.4 = 125.7 𝛺
Phasor diagram is:

From the phasor diagram,

2
𝑉 2 = 𝐸𝑏.𝑎𝑐 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + (𝐼𝑎 𝑋 𝑎 )²
Hence,
𝐸𝑏.𝑎𝑐 = − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑉 2 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑋 𝑎 2 = 1 𝑋 20 + 2202 − 125.7 X 1 2 = 160.5 𝑉
Since armature current is the same for both the dc and ac excitations,
𝐸𝑏.𝑑𝑐 𝑁𝑑𝑐
=
𝐸𝑏.𝑎𝑐 𝑁𝑎𝑐
Hence speed is,
𝐸 160.5
𝑁𝑎𝑐 = 𝑁𝑑𝑐 𝑏.𝑎𝑐 = 2000 𝑋 = 1605 𝑟𝑝𝑚
𝐸𝑏.𝑑𝑐 200
Power factor is,
𝐴𝐵 𝐸𝑏.𝑎𝑐 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 160.5 + 20
cosΦ = = = = 0.82 𝑙𝑎𝑔.
𝑂𝐵 𝑉 220
2. A universal series motor has resistance of 30 Ω and an inductance of 0.5 H. When connected to a 250 V dc
supply and loaded to 8 A, it runs at 2000 rpm. Estimate its speed and power factor, when connected to a 250
V, 50 Hz, ac supply and loaded to the same current.
Solution:

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AC operation
𝑋 𝑎 = 𝜔𝐿 𝑎 = 2𝜋 𝑋 50 𝑋 0.5 = 157 𝛺
𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 = 0.8 𝑋 30 = 24 𝛺 𝐼 𝑎 𝑋 𝑎 = 0.8 𝑋 157 = 125.6 𝛺
The phasor diagram is:

From the phasor diagram,

2
𝑉 2 = 𝐸𝑏.𝑎𝑐 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + (𝐼𝑎 𝑋 𝑎 )²
Hence,
2
2502 = 𝐸𝑏.𝑎𝑐 + 24 + 125.6²
𝐸𝑏.𝑎𝑐 = 192.6 𝑉
DC operation
𝐸𝑏.𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 = 250 − 0.8 𝑋 30 = 226 𝑉
Now,
𝐸𝑏.𝑎𝑐 𝑁𝑎𝑐 192.12 𝑁𝑎𝑐
= 𝑜𝑟 =
𝐸𝑏.𝑑𝑐 𝑁𝑑𝑐 226 2000
Hence speed is,
192.12
𝑁𝑎𝑐 = 2000 𝑋 = 𝟏𝟕𝟎𝟎 𝒓𝒑𝒎
226
Power factor is,
𝐸𝑏.𝑎𝑐 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 192.6 + 0.8 (30) 236.12
cosΦ = = = = 𝟎.𝟖𝟔𝟒 𝒍𝒂𝒈
𝑉 250 250
Exercise:
1. A fractional horse-power universal motor has armature circuit resistance of 20 Ω and inductance of 0.4 H.
On being connected to a 220 V dc supply, it draws 1.0 A from the mains and runs at 2000 rpm. Estimate the
speed and power factor of the motor, when connected to a 230 V, 50 Hz supply drawing the same armature
current. Draw relevant phasor diagram.
2. A universal series motor when operating on 220 V dc draws 10A and runs 1400 rpm. Find the new speed and
power factor, when connected to 220 V, 25 Hz supply, the motor current remaining the same. The motor has
total resistance of 1 Ω and total inductance of 0.1 H.
3. With the aid of a diagram, describe the principle of operation of :
i) 1-Φ Induction Regulator.
ii) 3-Φ Induction Regulator.
4. State the areas of applications of Induction Regulators

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