Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K.

Narla

Vector Calculus
Vector Differential Calculus: Gradient, Divergence, and Curl

1. Gradient of a Scalar Function

1.1 Scalar Function
A scalar field is a function that assigns a real number to each point in space:
f : Rn → R, f (x, y) or f (x, y, z).
It represents a quantity with magnitude only (no direction), such as temperature, pressure,
or density.

1.2 Gradient of a Scalar Function

Definition 1.1. Let f (x, y, z) be a scalar-valued differentiable function. The gradient of f
is the vector field:
∂f ∂f ∂f
∇f = i+ j+ k.
∂x ∂y ∂z

∇ : (Functions) −→ (Vector fields).

The gradient points in the direction of the greatest rate of increase of f , and its magnitude
gives that rate of increase.
Example 1.1. [Gradient Field]
For f (x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 + z 2 , we have
∇f = 2x i + 2y j + 2z k.
Thus, the gradient field points radially outward from the origin, and its magnitude increases
linearly with distance. The gradient ∇f is a normal vector to the surface.
Example 1.2 (Temperature Gradient Field). ∗∗∗
Supposethatamaterialisheated, andthattheresultingtemperatureT at each point (x, y, z) in
a region of space is given by
T = 100 − x2 − y 2 − z 2 ,
and that F(x, y, z) is defined to be the gradient of T . Find the vector field F.

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

Solution. The gradient field F is given by

∂T ∂T ∂T
F = ∇T = i+ j+ k.
∂x ∂y ∂z
Hence,
F = −2x i − 2y j − 2z k.
At each point in the region, the vector field F gives the direction in which the temperature
increases most rapidly. The vectors point toward the origin, where the temperature attains
its maximum value. □
p
Example 1.3 (Gradient field of f (x, y, z) = ln x2 + y 2 + z 2 ). Find ∇f .

Solution.
 
1 2 2 2 x y z
f = ln(x + y + z )
2
⇒ ∇f = , , ,
x2 + y 2 + z 2 x2 + y 2 + z 2 x2 + y 2 + z 2

valid on R3 \ {(0, 0, 0)}. □

Example 1.4 (Gradient field of g(x, y, z) = ez − ln(x2 + y 2 )). Find ∇g.

Solution.  
2x 2y z
∇g = − ,− 2 ,e ,
x2 + y 2 x + y2
valid where x2 + y 2 > 0 (i.e., off the z–axis). □

2. Line Integral of a Scalar Function

To integrate a continuous function f (x, y, z) over a curve C:

1. Find a smooth parametrization of C,

r(t) = g(t)i + h(t)j + k(t)k, a ≤ t ≤ b.

2. Evaluate the line integral using

Z Z b
f g(t), h(t), k(t) ∥r′ (t)∥ dt,


f (x, y, z) ds =
C a

where s 2  2  2
′ dg dh dk
∥r (t)∥ = + + .
dt dt dt

Example 2.1. ∗∗∗

Integrate f (x, y, z) = x − 3y 2 + z over the line segment C joining the origin to the point
(1, 1, 1).

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

Solution. A simplest parametrization of the line segment from (0, 0, 0) to (1, 1, 1) is

r(t) = ⟨t, t, t⟩, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.

Then √ √
r′ (t) = ⟨1, 1, 1⟩, ∥r′ (t)∥ = 12 + 12 + 12 = 3,
√
so ds = ∥r′ (t)∥ dt = 3 dt.
Along the curve, x = t, y = t, z = t, hence

f (r(t)) = t − 3t2 + t = 2t − 3t2 .

Therefore,
1
√ √  1 √
Z Z
f (x, y, z) ds = 2t − 3t2 3 dt = 3 t2 − t3 0 = 3(1 − 1) = 0.
C 0

Example 2.2. ∗∗∗

Figure 1 shows another path from the origin to (1, 1, 1), formed from two line segments
C1 and C2 . Integrate
f (x, y, z) = x − 3y 2 + z
over C1 ∪ C2 .

Figure 1: Path from the origin to (1, 1, 1) formed by two line segments C1 and C2 .

Solution. We choose simple parametrizations for the two segments.

Segment C1 : from (0, 0, 0) to (1, 1, 0)

r1 (t) = ⟨t, t, 0⟩, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1,

√ √
r′1 (t) = ⟨1, 1, 0⟩, ∥r′1 (t)∥ = 12 + 12 = 2.

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

Segment C2 : from (1, 1, 0) to (1, 1, 1)

r2 (t) = ⟨1, 1, t⟩, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1,
r′2 (t) = ⟨0, 0, 1⟩, ∥r′2 (t)∥ = 1.
Hence, Z Z Z
f (x, y, z) ds = f (x, y, z) ds + f (x, y, z) ds.
C1 ∪C2 C1 C2
Integral over C1 :
f (t, t, 0) = t − 3t2 + 0 = t − 3t2 ,
1 √
Z 1 √ √ Z 1 √ t2
Z 
2 2 3 2
f ds = (t − 3t ) 2 dt = 2 (t − 3t ) dt = 2 −t =− .
C1 0 0 2 0 2
Integral over C2 :
f (1, 1, t) = 1 − 3(1)2 + t = 1 − 3 + t = t − 2,
Z Z 1  2 1
t 3
f ds = (t − 2)(1) dt = − 2t = − .
C2 0 2 0 2
Therefore, √
Z
2 3
f (x, y, z) ds = − − .
C1 ∪C2 2 2
□
∗∗∗
Example 2.3. √
Find the line integral of f (x, y, z) = 2xy + z over the helix
r(t) = cos t i + sin t j + t k, 0 ≤ t ≤ π.
(See Figure 2.)
Solution. For the helix (Figure 2),
p √
r′ (t) = ⟨− sin t, cos t, 1⟩, ∥r′ (t)∥ = (− sin t)2 + (cos t)2 + 1 = 2.
Evaluating f along the curve,
√ √
f (r(t)) = f (cos t, sin t, t) = 2 cos t sin t + t = sin(2t) + t.
Hence the line integral is
Z Z π √
√ √ Z π √ Z π
f (x, y, z) ds = sin(2t) + t 2 dt = 2 sin(2t) dt + 2 t1/2 dt.
C 0 0 0
Now, π
Z π 
1
sin(2t) dt = − cos(2t) = 0,
0 2 0
Z π  π
2 2
t1/2 dt = t3/2 = π 3/2 .
0 3 0 3
Therefore, √
√
Z  
2 2 2 3/2
f (x, y, z) ds = 2 0 + π 3/2 = π ≈ 5.25.
C 3 3
□

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

Figure 2: Helix r(t) = (cos t, sin t, t) for 0 ≤ t ≤ π.

2.1 Gradient of a Scalar Function

Definition 2.1. Let f (x, y, z) be a scalar-valued differentiable function. The gradient of f
is the vector field:
∂f ∂f ∂f
∇f = i+ j+ k.
∂x ∂y ∂z

∇ : (Functions) −→ (Vector fields).

The gradient points in the direction of the greatest rate of increase of f , and its magnitude
gives that rate of increase.
Example 2.4 (Gradient Field). For f (x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 + z 2 , we have

∇f = 2x i + 2y j + 2z k.

Thus, the gradient field points radially outward from the origin, and its magnitude increases
linearly with distance. The gradient ∇f is a normal vector to the surface.
Example 2.5 (Temperature Gradient Field). ∗∗∗
Supposethatamaterialisheated, andthattheresultingtemperatureT at each point (x, y, z) in
a region of space is given by
T = 100 − x2 − y 2 − z 2 ,
and that F(x, y, z) is defined to be the gradient of T . Find the vector field F.
Solution. The gradient field F is given by
∂T ∂T ∂T
F = ∇T = i+ j+ k.
∂x ∂y ∂z

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

Hence,
F = −2x i − 2y j − 2z k.
At each point in the region, the vector field F gives the direction in which the temperature
increases most rapidly. The vectors point toward the origin, where the temperature attains
its maximum value. □
Example 2.6. ∗∗∗
Find the gradient field of the function
g(x, y, z) = xy + yz + xz.
Solution. The gradient of a scalar function g(x, y, z) is defined as
 
∂g ∂g ∂g
∇g = , , .
∂x ∂y ∂z
Compute the partial derivatives:
∂g ∂g ∂g
= y + z, = x + z, = x + y.
∂x ∂y ∂z
Hence, the gradient field is
∇g(x, y, z) = ⟨y + z, x + z, x + y⟩.
□
∗∗∗
Example 2.7.
p
Gradient field of f (x, y, z) = ln x2 + y 2 + z 2 Find ∇f .
Solution. Let
u(x, y, z) = 2x2 + y 2 + z 2 ,
so that f = ln u. Using the chain rule,
1
∇f = ∇u.
u
Now compute  
∂u ∂u ∂u
∇u = , , = ⟨4x, 2y, 2z⟩.
∂x ∂y ∂z
Therefore,
 
1 4x 2y 2z
∇f (x, y, z) = 2 ⟨4x, 2y, 2z⟩ = , , .
2x + y 2 + z 2 2x + y + z 2x + y + z 2x + y 2 + z 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

□
Example 2.8 (Gradient field of g(x, y, z) = ez − ln(x2 + y 2 )). Find ∇g.
Solution.  
2x 2y z
∇g = − ,− 2 ,e ,
x2 + y 2 x + y2
valid where x2 + y 2 > 0 (i.e., off the z–axis). □

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

3. Vector Fields and Line Integrals

A vector field assigns a vector to each point in space. For example, the velocity of a moving
fluid, such as air or water, at every point in a region can be described by a vector field. If at
a point (x, y, z) the velocity vector is v(x, y, z), then the collection of all such vectors defines
a velocity field.

Definition 3.1. A vector field in three-dimensional space is a function that assigns to each
point (x, y, z) a vector:

F(x, y, z) = M (x, y, z) i + N (x, y, z) j + P (x, y, z) k.

If the component functions M, N, P are continuous, F is a continuous vector field; if they

are differentiable, F is a differentiable vector field.

A two-dimensional vector field can similarly be written as:

F(x, y) = M (x, y) i + N (x, y) j.

Vector fields arise naturally in physics and engineering—for instance, as velocity fields in
fluids, or as force fields such as gravitational or magnetic fields.

3.1 Line Integrals (or Path Integrals) of Vector Fields

Definition 3.2 (Line Integral of a Vector Field). Let F be a vector field with continuous
components defined along a smooth curve C, parametrized by

r(t) = x(t) i + y(t) j + z(t) k, a ≤ t ≤ b.

Then the line integral of F along the curve C is defined as

Z Z Z
dr
F · T ds = F· ds = F · dr.
C C ds C

Here:
dr
ˆ T= is the unit tangent vector to the curve C,
ds
ˆ ds is the differential element of arc length along the curve,
ˆ dr = T ds is the differential displacement vector.

Equivalently, if F(x, y, z) = M i + N j + P k, then

Z Z
F · dr = M dx + N dy + P dz.
C C

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

3.2 Evaluating the Line Integral

To evaluate the line integral, follow these steps:
1. Express the vector field F along the parametrized curve C as
F(r(t)) = M (g(t), h(t), k(t)) i + N (g(t), h(t), k(t)) j + P (g(t), h(t), k(t)) k.
2. Compute the derivative (velocity vector)
dr
= g ′ (t) i + h′ (t) j + k ′ (t) k.
dt
3. Substitute and integrate with respect to t:
Z Z b
dr
F · dr = F(r(t)) · dt.
C a dt
∗∗∗
ExampleZ3.1 (Line Integral of a Vector Field).
Evaluate F · dr, where
C
F(x, y, z) = z i + xy j − y 2 k,
along the curve C given by
√
r(t) = t2 i + t j + t k, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.
Solution. We have √
F(r(t)) = t i + t3 j − t2 k,
and
dr 1
= 2t i + j + √ k.
dt 2 t
Thus, Z Z 1 Z 1  
dr 3/2 3 1 3/2
F · dr = F(r(t)) · dt = 2t + t − t dt.
C 0 dt 0 2
Simplifying, 1
Z 1   
3 3/2 3 3 2 5/2 1 4 3 1 17
t + t dt = · t + t = + = .
0 2 2 5 4 0 5 4 20
Hence,
Z
17
F · dr = .
C 20
□
∗∗∗
Example 3.2 (Line Integral Over a Helix).

Evaluate the line integral

Z
(−y dx + z dy + 2x dz),
C
where C is the helix
r(t) = (cos t) i + (sin t) j + t k, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

Solution. We express everything in terms of the parameter t. Let

x = cos t, y = sin t, z = t,

so that
dx = − sin t dt, dy = cos t dt, dz = dt.
Then,
Z Z 2π  
(−y dx + z dy + 2x dz) = (− sin t)(− sin t) + t cos t + 2 cos t dt.
C 0

Simplifying, Z 2π
[ 2 cos t + t cos t + sin2 t ] dt.
0
Now integrate term by term:
Z 2π
2 cos t dt = [ 2 sin t ]2π
0 = 0,
0
Z 2π
t cos t dt = [ t sin t + cos t ]2π
0 = (0 + 1) − (0 + 1) = 0,
0
and
2π 2π
1 − cos 2t
Z Z
2 1h sin 2t i2π
sin t dt = dt = t − = π.
0 0 2 2 2 0
Adding all parts,
Z
(−y dx + z dy + 2x dz) = π.
C

Definition 3.3 (Work Done by a Force Along a Curve). Let C be a smooth curve parametrized
by r(t), a ≤ t ≤ b, and let F be a continuous force field over a region containing C. Then
the work done in moving an object from the point A = r(a) to the point B = r(b) along C
is Z Z b Z

dr
W = F · T ds = F r(t) · dt = F · dr.
C a dt C

Physical Meaning: The expression F · T represents the component of the force vector F
acting in the direction of motion (the unit tangent T). Multiplying this component by the
small displacement ds gives the infinitesimal work done by the force over that small segment
of the curve.
By integrating F · T ds along the entire curve C, we obtain the total work done by the
force in moving a particle from the starting point to the endpoint along the path C.
If the force is directed opposite to the motion, F · T < 0, the work is negative, indicating
that energy is being taken from the particle (for example, due to friction). When F and

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

T are in the same direction, the work is positive, corresponding to a gain in energy of the
moving particle.

P = r(t) proj
θ TF
ds T

Figure 3: At a point P on C, the infinitesimal work is dW = F · T ds = ∥F∥ cos θ ds, the

tangential component of F times the arc-length increment.

∗∗∗
Example 3.3 (Work Done by a Force Field).

Find the work done by the force field

F = (y − x2 ) i + (z − y 2 ) j + (x − z 2 ) k

in moving an object along the curve

r(t) = t i + t2 j + t3 k, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1,

from (0, 0, 0) to (1, 1, 1).

Solution. First, evaluate F on the curve r(t):

F(r(t)) = (t2 − t2 ) i + (t3 − t4 ) j + (t − t6 ) k.

Then, compute the derivative:

dr d
= (t i + t2 j + t3 k) = i + 2t j + 3t2 k.
dt dt
Now evaluate the dot product:
dr
F· = (t3 − t4 )(2t) + (t − t6 )(3t2 ) = 2t4 − 2t5 + 3t3 − 3t8 .
dt
Finally, integrate from t = 0 to t = 1:
Z 1 Z 1
dr
W = F· dt = (2t4 − 2t5 + 3t3 − 3t8 ) dt.
0 dt 0

 1
2 2 3 3 29
W = t5 − t6 + t4 − t9 = .
5 6 4 9 0 60
29
Therefore, the work done is W = . □
60

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

Example 3.4 (Work Done by a Force Field). Find the work done by the force field

F = xi + yj + zk

in moving an object along the curve C parametrized by

r(t) = cos(πt) i + t2 j + sin(πt) k, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.

Solution. We begin by writing F along C as a function of t:

F(r(t)) = cos(πt) i + t2 j + sin(πt) k.

Next, compute the derivative:

dr
= −π sin(πt) i + 2t j + π cos(πt) k.
dt
Now calculate the dot product:
dr
F(r(t)) · = [cos(πt)](−π sin(πt)) + (t2 )(2t) + [sin(πt)](π cos(πt)).
dt
The first and third terms cancel, giving
dr
F(r(t)) · = 2t3 .
dt
Finally, the work done is the line integral
Z 1 Z 1  4 1
dr 3 t 1
W = F(r(t)) · dt = 2t dt = = .
0 dt 0 2 0 2

Hence, the work done is W = 12 . □

Definition 3.4 (Flow Integrals and Circulation for Velocity Fields). If r(t) parametrizes a
smooth curve C in the domain of a continuous velocity field F, then the flow of the field
along the curve from
A = r(a) to B = r(b)
is defined as Z
Flow = F · T ds,
C
where T is the unit tangent vector to the curve C.
Z
The integral F · T ds is called a flow integral. It represents the component of the velocity
C
field F along the direction of motion of the curve. If the curve starts and ends at the same
point, i.e.,
A = B,
then the flow around the closed curve C is called the circulation of F around C.

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

Physical Interpretation:
The flow integral Z
Flow = F · T ds
C
measures the amount of the vector field F that is directed along the curve C. In the case
of a velocity field, this quantity represents the rate at which fluid flows through or along the
path. If F and T point in the same direction, the integrand F · T is positive, indicating that
the flow moves in the same sense as the path. If they point in opposite directions, the dot
product becomes negative, representing flow opposing the path’s orientation.
When the curve C is closed, the integral
I
Circulation = F · T ds
C

measures the total tendency of the vector field to circulate around the loop. In
fluid mechanics, this quantity corresponds to the net rotation or swirling motion of the fluid
around the curve. A large positive circulation means the field strongly follows the curve’s
orientation, while a negative value means it circulates in the opposite sense.
Thus, the flow integral measures movement along an open path, while the circulation
describes the rotational effect of the field around a closed loop.
∗∗∗
Example 3.5 (Flow Along a Helix).
A fluid’s velocity field is given by

F = x i + z j + y k.

Find the flow along the helix

π
r(t) = (cos t) i + (sin t) j + t k, 0≤t≤ .
2
Solution. We first evaluate F on the curve r(t):

F(r(t)) = (cos t) i + t j + (sin t) k.

Then,
dr
= (− sin t) i + (cos t) j + k.
dt
dr
The dot product of F and is
dt
dr
F· = (cos t)(− sin t) + (t)(cos t) + (sin t)(1) = − sin t cos t + t cos t + sin t.
dt
Hence the flow along the curve is
Z π/2
Flow = (− sin t cos t + t cos t + sin t) dt.
0

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

Evaluating,
π/2 
cos2 t
  
π 1 π 1
Flow = + t sin t = 0+ − +0 = − .
2 0 2 2 2 2

π 1
Therefore, the flow along the helix is − . □
2 2
Example 3.6 (Circulation Around a Circle). Find the circulation of the field
F = (x − y) i + x j
around the circle
r(t) = (cos t) i + (sin t) j, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
Solution. On the circle, we substitute x = cos t and y = sin t, giving
F = (x − y) i + x j = (cos t − sin t) i + (cos t) j.
The derivative of r(t) is
dr
= (− sin t) i + (cos t) j.
dt
Then,
dr
F· = (cos t − sin t)(− sin t) + (cos t)(cos t) = − sin t cos t + sin2 t + cos2 t = 1 − sin t cos t.
dt
Therefore, the circulation is
Z 2π Z 2π 2π
sin2 t

dr
Circulation = F· dt = (1 − sin t cos t) dt = t − .
0 dt 0 2 0
Hence,
Circulation = (2π − 0) = 2π.
Therefore, the circulation of the field around the circle is 2π. □

Note:
Once we define work as Z
W = F · T ds,
C
it is natural to ask whether there exists an analogous integral that measures how much of
the vector field F passes across a curve rather than along it. This leads to the important
concept of flux.
In the work integral, F · T represents the tangential component of F along the curve. If
instead we wish to measure the component of F that is normal (perpendicular) to the curve,
we define the flux of F across C by
Z
Φ= F · n ds,
C

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

where n is the unit normal vector directed outward from the enclosed region.
For a plane curve C lying in the xy-plane, with unit tangent vector T oriented counterclock-
wise and k the unit vector in the +z-direction, the unit normal vector n is defined by the
right-hand rule as  
dx dy dy dx
n=T×k= i + j × k = i − j.
ds ds ds ds
i j k
dx dy dy dx
n= 0 = i− j.
ds ds ds ds
0 0 1
Hence, n is obtained by rotating T through 90◦ outward from the region bounded by C.
Thus, while Z
F · T ds
C
measures the tangential influence of the field (such as work done along the path), the flux
integral Z
F · n ds
C
measures the transverse influence or flow across the curve.
Definition 3.5 (Flux Across a Simple Closed Plane Curve). Let C be a smooth, simple,
closed curve in the plane that encloses a region R, and let F(x, y) = M (x, y) i+N (x, y) j be a
continuously differentiable two-dimensional vector field defined on an open region containing
R and its boundary C.
The flux of the vector field F across the curve C is defined as
I
Flux = F · n ds,
C

where n is the unit normal vector directed outward from the region R and ds is the differential
element of arc length along C.
In terms of the components M (x, y) and N (x, y), if the curve C is traversed counterclockwise
(so that the outward normal n points away from R), then
I
Flux = M dy − N dx.
C

Physical Interpretation: The flux integral measures the rate at which the vector field
passes through or escapes from the region R. If F represents a fluid velocity field, the flux
gives the net outflow of the fluid across the boundary. A positive flux indicates that the field
is, on average, directed outward from the region, whereas a negative flux corresponds to an
inward flow.
Example 3.7. Find the flux of F = (x−y)i+xj across the circle x2 +y 2 = 1 in the xy-plane.

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

Solution. The parametrization

r(t) = (cos t)i + (sin t)j, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π,

traces the circle counterclockwise exactly once. We can therefore use this parametrization
in Equation (9).
With
M = x − y = cos t − sin t, N = x = cos t,
and
dx = d(cos t) = − sin t dt, dy = d(sin t) = cos t dt,
we find
I Z 2π Z 2π
Flux = M dy − N dx = (cos t − sin t)(cos t) dt − cos t(− sin t) dt.
C 0 0

Simplifying,
Z 2π Z 2π
2
Flux = (cos t − sin t cos t + cos t sin t) dt = cos2 t dt
0 0
Z 2π  2π
1 + cos 2t t sin 2t
= dt = + = π.
0 2 2 4 0

Hence, the flux of F across the circle is π. Since the result is positive, the net flow is
outward across the curve. A negative value would indicate a net inward flow.

Practice Problems on Line Integrals of Vector Fields

∗∗∗
Example 3.8.

Find the line integrals along the given path C.

Z
(x − y) dx, where C : x = t, y = 2t + 1, 0 ≤ t ≤ 3.
C

Solution. Since x = t, we have dx = dt. Also,

x − y = t − (2t + 1) = −t − 1.

Hence,
3 3
t2
Z Z 
9 15
(x − y) dx = (−t − 1) dt = − − t =− −3=− .
C 0 2 0 2 2
□
∗∗∗
Example 3.9. Z
Find the line integrals along the given path C. (x2 + y 2 ) dy, where C is given in
C
Figure 4.

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

Figure 4: Path C from (0, 0) to (3, 0) and then to (3, 3).

Solution. The path C consists of two line segments:

C = C1 ∪ C2 .

Segment C1 : from (0, 0) to (3, 0).

Here y = 0 (constant), so dy = 0. Hence,
Z
(x2 + y 2 ) dy = 0.
C1

Segment C2 : from (3, 0) to (3, 3).

Parametrize by x = 3, y = t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 3, so dy = dt. Then

x2 + y 2 = 9 + t2 .

Thus,
3 3
t3
Z Z 
2 2 2
(x + y ) dy = (9 + t ) dt = 9t + = 27 + 9 = 36.
C2 0 3 0
Therefore, Z Z Z
2 2
(x + y ) dy = + = 0 + 36 = 36.
C C1 C2

Example 3.10. Find the line integrals of F from (0, 0, 0) to (1, 1, 1) over each of the following
paths in the accompanying Figure 5.

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

Figure 5: The paths C1 , C2 , C3 , C4 from (0, 0, 0) to (1, 1, 1)

a. The straight-line path C1 : r(t) = ti + tj + tk, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.

b. The curved path C2 : r(t) = ti + t2 j + t4 k, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.

c. The path C3 ∪ C4 consisting of the line segment from (0, 0, 0) to (1, 1, 0) followed by the
segment from (1, 1, 0) to (1, 1, 1).
Z
I. If F = 3y i + 2x j + 4z k. Find F · dr from (0, 0, 0) to (1, 1, 1) along (a) C1 , (b) C2 ,
C
(c) C3 ∪ C4 .
Z Z
Solution. General recipe: F · dr = F(r(t)) · r′ (t) dt.
C

(a) C1 : r(t) = (t, t, t), r′ (t) = (1, 1, 1).

F(r(t)) = (3t, 2t, 4t), F·r′ = 3t + 2t + 4t = 9t.

Z 1
9t dt = 92 .
0
′
(b) C2 : r(t) = (t, t , t ), r (t) = (1, 2t, 4t3 ).
2 4

F(r(t)) = (3t2 , 2t, 4t4 ), F·r′ = 3t2 + 4t2 + 16t7 = 7t2 + 16t7 .
Z 1
1
(7t2 + 16t7 ) dt = 37 t3 + 2t8 0 = 13

3
.
0

(c) C3 ∪ C4 :

C3 : r(s) = (s, s, 0), r′ (s) = (1, 1, 0), F = (3s, 2s, 0), F·r′ = 5s,
Z 1
5s ds = 25 .
0

17
Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

C4 : r(u) = (1, 1, u), r′ (u) = (0, 0, 1), F = (3, 2, 4u), F·r′ = 4u,
Z 1
4u du = 2.
0
5 9
Total = 2
+2= 2
.

□
Z
1
II. If F = j. Evaluate F · dr along (a) C1 , (b) C2 , (c) C3 ∪ C4 .
x2 + 1 C
Solution.

(a) C1 : r′ (t) = (1, 1, 1), so F(r(t)) = (0, t21+1 , 0) and

Z 1
1
′ dt π
F·r = 2 , = 4
.
t +1 0 t2 +1

(b) C2 : r′ (t) = (1, 2t, 4t3 ),

 1  2t
F(r(t)) = 0, , 0 , F·r′ = ,
t2 + 1 t2 +1
Z 1
2t 1
dt = ln(t2 + 1) 0 = ln 2 .

0 t2 +1
(c) C3 ∪ C4 :
Z 1
′ 1 ds
C3 : r (s) = (1, 1, 0), F = (0, s2 +1
, 0) ⇒ = π4 .
0 s2 +1

C4 : r′ (u) = (0, 0, 1), F = (0, 12 , 0) ⇒ F·r′ = 0.

π
Total = 4
.

□
Z
III. If F = xy i + yz j + xz k. Evaluate F · dr along (a) C1 , (b) C2 , (c) C3 ∪ C4 .
C
Solution.

(a) C1 : r′ (t) = (1, 1, 1), F(r(t)) = (t2 , t2 , t2 ), so

Z 1 Z 1
2 2 2
(t + t + t ) dt = 3t2 dt = 1 .
0 0

(b) C2 : r′ (t) = (1, 2t, 4t3 ), F(r(t)) = (t3 , t6 , t5 ),

Z 1
′ 3 7 8 17
F·r = t + 2t + 4t , (· · · ) dt = 18
.
0

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

(c) C3 ∪ C4 : Z 1
′ 2
C3 : r (s) = (1, 1, 0), F = (s , 0, 0) ⇒ s2 ds = 13 .
0
Z 1
′
C4 : r (u) = (0, 0, 1), F = (1 · 1, 1 · u, 1 · u) = (1, u, u) ⇒ u du = 12 .
0

5
Total = 6
.

□
Z
IV. If F = (3x2 − 3x) i + 3z j + k. Evaluate F · dr along (a) C1 , (b) C2 , (c) C3 ∪ C4 .
C
Solution.

(a) C1 : r′ (t) = (1, 1, 1), F(r(t)) = (3t2 − 3t, 3t, 1),

Z 1
′ 2 2
F·r = 3t − 3t + 3t + 1 = 3t + 1, (3t2 + 1) dt = 2 .
0

(b) C2 : r′ (t) = (1, 2t, 4t3 ),

F(r(t)) = (3t2 − 3t, 3t4 , 1), F·r′ = 3t2 − 3t + 6t5 + 4t3 ,

Z 1
(3t2 − 3t + 6t5 + 4t3 ) dt = 23 .
0

(c) C3 ∪ C4 :
Z 1
′ 2
C3 : r (s) = (1, 1, 0), F = (3s − 3s, 0, 1) ⇒ (3s2 − 3s) ds = − 12 .
0
Z 1
′
C4 : r (u) = (0, 0, 1), F = (0, 3u, 1) ⇒ 1 du = 1.
0

1
Total = 2
.

□
Z
V. If F = (y + z) i + (z + x) j + (x + y) k. Evaluate F · dr along (a) C1 , (b) C2 , (c)
C
C3 ∪ C4 .
Solution.

(a) C1 : r′ (t) = (1, 1, 1), F(r(t)) = (2t, 2t, 2t),

Z 1
′
F·r = 6t, 6t dt = 3 .
0

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

(b) C2 : r′ (t) = (1, 2t, 4t3 ), F(r(t)) = (t2 + t4 , t4 + t, t + t2 ),

F·r′ = (t2 + t4 ) + 2t(t4 + t) + 4t3 (t + t2 ) = 3t2 + 5t4 + 6t5 ,
Z 1
(3t2 + 5t4 + 6t5 ) dt = 3 .
0

(c) C3 ∪ C4 :
Z 1
′
C3 : r (s) = (1, 1, 0), F = (s, s, 2s) ⇒ (s + s) ds = 1.
0
Z 1
′
C4 : r (u) = (0, 0, 1), F = (1 + u, 1 + u, 2) ⇒ 2 du = 2.
0

Total = 3 .
□
Example 3.11. Evaluate the line integral
√
Z
x + y dx,
C

where C is the piecewise smooth curve shown in Figure 6: (0, 0) → (1, 3) along the line
y = 3x, then (1, 3) → (0, 3) (horizontal segment), then (0, 3) → (0, 0) (vertical segment).

Figure 6: Piecewise path C: (0, 0) → (1, 3) → (1, 3) → (0, 3) → (0, 0).

Z Z Z Z
Solution. We decompose C = C1 ∪ C2 ∪ C3 and compute = + + .
C C1 C2 C3
(i) Segment C1 : from (0, 0) to (1, 3) along y = 3x. Use x = t, y = 3t, t ∈ [0, 1]. Then
dx = dt and x + y = 4t.
Z 1√ Z 1 √
√
Z
2 1 4
x + y dx = 4t dt = 2 t dt = 2 · t3/2 = .
C1 0 0 3 0 3
(ii) Segment C2 : from (1, 3) to (0, 3) (horizontal). Here y = 3 (constant), so x decreases
from 1 to 0 and dx = dx.
1
√
Z 0
√
Z 1
√ √
Z 
2 3/2 2 2
= − 43/2 −33/2 = − (8−3 3).


x + y dx = x + 3 dx = − x + 3 dx = − (x + 3)
C2 x=1 0 3 0 3 3

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

(iii) Segment C3 : from (0, 3) to (0, 0) (vertical). Here x ≡ 0, so dx = 0 and the integral
is 0:
√
Z
x + y dx = 0.
C3
Total.
Z
√ 4 2 √ 4 16 √ √
− (8 − 3 3) + 0 = −
x + y dx = + 2 3 = 2 3 − 4.
C 3 3 3 3
Z
√ √
Answer: x + y dx = 2 3 − 4. □
C
Z
Example 3.12. Evaluate xy dx + (x + y) dy, where C is the curve y = x2 from (−1, 1)
C
to (2, 4).
Solution. Parametrize C by x = t, y = t2 with t ∈ [−1, 2]. Then dx = dt, dy = 2t dt.
Z Z 2  Z 2 Z 2
2 2
3t3 + 2t2 dt.


xy dx + (x + y) dy = t · t dt + (t + t )(2t) dt =
C −1 −1 −1
Z 2   2 52 1 69
3t3 + 2t2 dt = 43 t4 + 23 t3


= − = .
−1 −1 3 12 4
□
Z
Example 3.13. Let F = x2 i − y j. Evaluate F · T ds along the curve x = y 2 oriented
C
from (4, 2) to (1, −1).
Solution. Recall F · T ds = F · dr. Parametrize by y = t, x = t2 with t : 2 → −1. Then
dr = (2t, 1) dt and F( t2 , t ) = (t4 , −t).
F · dr = (t4 , −t) · (2t, 1) = 2t5 − t.
Hence
Z Z −1 −1
      39
F · T ds = (2t5 − t) dt = 1 6
3
t − 12 t2 = 1
3
− 1
2
− 64
3
−2 = − .
C 2 2 2
□
Z
Example 3.14. Let F = y i − x j. Evaluate F · dr counterclockwise on the unit circle
C
x2 + y 2 = 1 from (1, 0) to (0, 1).
Solution. Use r(t) = (cos t, sin t), t ∈ [0, π2 ]. Then dr = (− sin t, cos t) dt and F(r(t)) =
(sin t, − cos t).
F · dr = (sin t, − cos t) · (− sin t, cos t) = − sin2 t − cos2 t = −1.
Therefore Z Z π/2
π
F · dr = (−1) dt = − .
C 0 2
□

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

Example 3.15 (Work along a line segment). ∗∗∗

Find the work done by the force field F(x, y) = xy i + (y − x) j over the straight line from
(1, 1) to (2, 3).

Solution. Parametrize the line segment:

r(t) = (1, 1) + t (1, 2) = (1 + t, 1 + 2t), 0 ≤ t ≤ 1,

dr
so that = (1, 2).
dt
Evaluate the field along the curve:

F(r(t)) = (1 + t)(1 + 2t), (1 + 2t) − (1 + t) = 1 + 3t + 2t2 , t .

dr
Dot with and integrate:
dt
Z Z 1 Z 1
2
 1 25
1 + 5t + 2t2 dt = t + 52 t2 + 23 t3 0 = .


W = F · dr = 1 + 3t + 2t · 1 + t · 2 dt =
C 0 0 6

Thus, the work is 25/6 . □

Example 3.16 (Work by a gradient field around a circle). Find the work done by the gradient
of f (x, y) = (x + y)2 counterclockwise around the circle x2 + y 2 = 4 from (2, 0) to itself.

Solution. Since F = ∇f is conservative, the line integral over any closed curve is zero:
I
∇f · dr = 0.
C

Hence the work from (2, 0) back to (2, 0) along the circle is 0 .
(Verification by parametrization: let r(t) = (2 cos t, 2 sin t), 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π. Then ∇f =
2(x + y)⟨1, 1⟩, so along r(t), ∇f = 4(cos t + sin t)⟨1, 1⟩ and dr = (−2 sin t, 2 cos t) dt. Thus
I Z 2π Z 2π Z 2π
2 2
∇f ·dr = 4(cos t+sin t)(−2 sin t+2 cos t) dt = 8 (cos t−sin t) dt = 8 cos(2t) dt = 0.
C 0 0 0

Example 3.17. ∗∗∗

Find the circulation and flux of the vector field F = x i + y j around and across the closed
semicircular path C consisting of the semicircular arc

r1 (t) = ⟨a cos t, a sin t⟩, 0 ≤ t ≤ π,

followed by the line segment

r2 (t) = ⟨t, 0⟩, −a ≤ t ≤ a.

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

I
Solution. (A) Circulation: F · dr.
C
On C1 :
F(r1 (t)) = ⟨a cos t, a sin t⟩, r′1 (t) = ⟨−a sin t, a cos t⟩.
Hence
F · r′1 (t) = a cos t(−a sin t) + a sin t(a cos t) = 0,
so Z Z π
F · dr = 0 dt = 0.
C1 0

On C2 :
F(r2 (t)) = ⟨t, 0⟩, r′2 (t) = ⟨1, 0⟩,
so Z Z a
F· r′2 (t) = t, F · dr = t dt = 0.
C2 −a

Therefore, I
F · dr = 0.
C
□

4. Path Independence, Conservative Fields, and Po-

tential Functions
Definition 4.1. Let F be a vector field defined on an open region D in space. Suppose that
for any two points A and B in D, the line integral
Z
F · dr
C

along a path C from

Z A to B is the same for all possible paths joining A and B within D.
Then the integral F · dr is said to be path independent in D, and the field F is said to
C
be conservative on D.

Definition 4.2. If F is a vector field defined on D and F = ∇f for some scalar function f
on D, then f is called a potential function for F.

A gravitational potential is a scalar function whose gradient field is a gravitational field,

and an electric potential is a scalar function whose gradient field is an electric field. Once
a potential function f for a conservative field F is known, the line integral of F from a point
A to a point B can be evaluated directly as
Z B Z B
F · dr = ∇f · dr = f (B) − f (A).
A A

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

Remark 1. The above relation shows that the work done by a conservative force depends
only on the initial and final positions, not on the specific path taken. In physical terms:

ˆ For a gravitational field, f (x, y, z) represents the potential energy per unit mass, and
∇f gives the direction of the greatest rate of change of potential.

ˆ For an electric field, f represents electric potential (voltage), and the work done in
moving a charge between two points depends solely on the potential difference.

This property distinguishes conservative forces from non-conservative ones such as friction,
where energy is dissipated and path dependence arises.

4.1 Assumptions on Curves, Vector Fields, and Domains

4.1.1 Smooth Curves and Vector Fields
Throughout this discussion, we make the following assumptions:

ˆ A curve C in the plane or in space is said to be smooth if it can be represented by a

continuously differentiable vector function

r(t) = x(t) i + y(t) j + z(t) k, a ≤ t ≤ b,

where r′ (t) is continuous and nonzero on (a, b).

ˆ A vector field F on a domain D ⊂ R2 or R3 is assumed to have continuous first-

order partial derivatives in D. That is, F(x, y) = M (x, y)i + N (x, y)j or F(x, y, z) =
M i + N j + P k with M, N, P ∈ C 1 (D).

ˆ The domain D is an open, connected subset of R2 or R3 .

4.1.2 Simply Connected and Not Simply Connected Regions

A region D in the plane is called simply connected if every simple closed curve in D
encloses only points of D — in other words, the region has no holes.
If the region contains one or more holes, so that a closed curve can be drawn around a
portion of the plane not belonging to D, then the region is said to be not simply connected
(or multiply connected ).

(a) Simply Connected Region (b) Not Simply Connected Region

C
C

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

4.1.3 Physical Interpretation

In physical terms, a simply connected region represents a domain with no obstacles — for
example, the air in an open room or the water in a pond. A non-simply connected region
corresponds to a field surrounding a barrier, like the magnetic field around a wire or the
velocity field around an island in a river.
For conservative vector fields, simple connectivity ensures that

∇ × F = 0 implies F = ∇f,

i.e., the existence of a potential function is guaranteed. However, in regions that are not
simply connected, a zero curl field may fail to be conservative because of the presence of
holes around which circulation may exist.

4.2 Line Integrals in Conservative Fields

Gradient fields F are obtained by differentiating a scalar potential function f . A theorem
analogous to the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus gives a direct method to evaluate the
line integral of such fields without explicit parametrization.

Theorem 4.1 (Fundamental Theorem of Line Integrals). Let C be a smooth curve joining
the point A to the point B in the plane or in space, and let it be parametrized by r(t),
a ≤ t ≤ b. If f is a differentiable scalar function whose gradient vector

F = ∇f

is continuous on a domain D containing C, then

Z
F · dr = f (B) − f (A).
C

Proof. Let r(t) = g(t)i+h(t)j+k(t)k be a smooth curve in D joining A = r(a) and B = r(b).
Since F = ∇f , the line integral becomes
Z Z B Z b
F · dr = ∇f · dr = ∇f (r(t)) · r′ (t) dt.
C A a

But the derivative of f (r(t)) with respect to t is

d
f (r(t)) = ∇f (r(t)) · r′ (t).
dt
Hence,
Z b Z b
′ d
∇f (r(t)) · r (t) dt = f (r(t)) dt = f (r(b)) − f (r(a)) = f (B) − f (A).
a a dt

25
Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

Remark 2. This theorem states that the line integral of a conservative field depends only on
the endpoints of the path, not on the particular route taken between them.
ˆ In mechanics, this expresses the fact that the work done by a conservative force (such
as gravity or electrostatic force) depends only on the initial and final positions.
ˆ The theorem also implies that for a conservative field,
I
F · dr = 0
C

for every closed curve C in the domain.

Example 4.1. ∗∗∗
Suppose the force field F = ∇f is the gradient of the function
1
f (x, y, z) = − .
x2 + y2 + z2
Find the work done by F in moving an object along a smooth curve C joining (1, 0, 0) to
(0, 0, 2) that does not pass through the origin.
Solution. An application of the Fundamental Theorem of Line Integrals shows that the
work done by F along any smooth curve C joining the two points and not passing through
the origin is Z  
1 3
F · dr = f (0, 0, 2) − f (1, 0, 0) = − − (−1) = .
C 4 4
3
Thus, the work done by the field F is . □
4
Example 4.2. ∗∗∗
Find the work done by the conservative field
F = yz i + xz j + xy k, where f (x, y, z) = xyz,
in moving an object along any smooth curve C joining the point A(−1, 3, 9) to B(1, 6, −4).
Solution. Since F = ∇f , the field is conservative and hence path-independent. By the
Fundamental Theorem of Line Integrals,
Z Z B
F · dr = ∇f · dr = f (B) − f (A).
C A

With f (x, y, z) = xyz, we have

f (B) − f (A) = [xyz](1,6,−4) − [xyz](−1,3,9) = (1)(6)(−4) − (−1)(3)(9) = −24 + 27 = 3.

Therefore, the work done by F is 3 . □

Theorem 4.2 (Conservative Fields are Gradient Fields). Let F = M i + N j + P k be a vector
field whose components are continuous throughout an open connected region D in space.
Then F is conservative if and only if F is a gradient field ∇f for some differentiable
scalar function f on D.

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 Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

4.3 Component Test for Conservative Fields

Let F = M (x, y, z) i+N (x, y, z) j+P (x, y, z) k be a vector field on an open, simply connected
domain D whose component functions have continuous first partial derivatives.

Theorem 4.3 (Component Test for Conservative Fields). The vector field F is conservative
if and only if
∂P ∂N ∂M ∂P ∂N ∂M
= , = , and = .
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
Remark 3. These equalities ensure that the curl of the field F is zero:

∇ × F = 0.

Thus, a conservative field is characterized by being irrotational. In a simply connected region,

this condition is both necessary and sufficient for F to be conservative.

4.4 Finding Potentials for Conservative Fields

Once the vector field F is confirmed to be conservative, we can find a scalar potential function
f (x, y, z) such that F = ∇f . That is,

∂f ∂f ∂f
= M, = N, = P.
∂x ∂y ∂z
To determine f , we proceed as follows:

Step I. Integrate M (x, y, z) with respect to x to obtain a preliminary expression for f (x, y, z).

Step II. Include an arbitrary function of y and z, say g(y, z), to account for any terms lost
during partial differentiation.

Step III. Differentiate this expression with respect to y and compare it with N (x, y, z) to deter-
mine g(y, z).

Step IV. Repeat the process with respect to z to ensure consistency with P (x, y, z).

Remark 4. This process reconstructs the potential function f (x, y, z) whose gradient equals
F. Physically, f represents the potential energy associated with the conservative field F.
∗∗∗
Example 4.3.

Show that
F = (ex cos y + yz)i + (xz − ex sin y)j + (xy + z)k
is conservative over its natural domain, and find a potential function for it.

27
Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

Solution. The natural domain of F is all of space, which is open and simply connected.
We identify

M = ex cos y + yz, N = xz − ex sin y, P = xy + z.

We apply the component test for conservative fields:

∂P ∂N ∂M ∂P ∂N ∂M
= x, = x, = y, = y, = −ex sin y+z, = −ex sin y+z.
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
Since all equalities hold, F is conservative by Theorem 2. Thus, there exists a potential
function f such that ∇f = F.
We have
∂f ∂f ∂f
= ex cos y + yz, = xz − ex sin y, = xy + z.
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂f
We integrate ∂x
with respect to x, holding y and z fixed:

f (x, y, z) = ex cos y + xyz + g(y, z),

where g(y, z) is a function of y and z.

Differentiating this with respect to y gives
∂f ∂g
= −ex sin y + xz + .
∂y ∂y
∂f
Matching this to ∂y
= xz − ex sin y implies

∂g
= 0,
∂y
so g depends only on z; say g(y, z) = h(z). Hence,

f (x, y, z) = ex cos y + xyz + h(z).

Now we differentiate with respect to z:

∂f dh
= xy + .
∂z dz
∂f
Matching this to ∂z
= xy + z gives

dh 1
=z ⇒ h(z) = z 2 + C.
dz 2
Therefore, the potential function is

f (x, y, z) = ex cos y + xyz + 21 z 2 + C.

We found infinitely many potential functions of F, one for each value of C. □

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

Example 4.4. ∗∗∗

Show that F = (2x − 3) i − z j + (cos z) k is not conservative.
Solution. Write F = ⟨M, N, P ⟩ with M = 2x − 3, N = −z, P = cos z. Using the
component test gives the same conclusion:

∂P/∂y = 0 ̸= −1 = ∂N/∂z

Alternative: On a simply connected domain (e.g. R3 ), a C 1 vector field is conservative

iff ∇ × F = 0 (equivalently, the component test holds).
Compute the curl:
i j k  
∇×F = ∂x ∂y ∂z = ∂y P −∂z N, ∂z M −∂x P, ∂x N −∂y M = (0−(−1), 0−0, 0−0) = (1, 0, 0).
M N P
Since ∇ × F ̸= 0, the field is not conservative. □
Example 4.5. Show that the vector field
y x
F(x, y, z) = − i + 2 j + 0k
x2 +y 2 x + y2
satisfies the Component Test equalities but is not conservative on its natural domain. Explain
why this is possible.
Solution. Write F = ⟨M, N, P ⟩ with
y x
M =− , N= , P = 0.
x2 + y2 x2 + y2
Where defined, all first partials exist and are continuous. Direct differentiation gives
∂P ∂N ∂P ∂M ∂M y 2 − x2 ∂N
=0= , =0= , = 2 2 2
= .
∂y ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y (x + y ) ∂x
Hence the Component Test equalities hold everywhere in the natural domain

D = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 : x2 + y 2 ̸= 0} = R3 \ (the z-axis).

However, the test’s “if and only if” direction requires D to be simply connected. Here D
is not simply connected: any loop encircling the z–axis cannot be continuously contracted
to a point while staying in D.
To show F is not conservative, compute its line integral around the unit circle C : r(t) =
(cos t) i + (sin t) j, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π, which wraps once around the excluded z–axis. Along C,
D sin t cos t E
F(r(t)) = − 2 , , 0 = ⟨− sin t, cos t, 0⟩, r′ (t) = ⟨− sin t, cos t, 0⟩.
sin t + cos2 t sin2 t + cos2 t
Therefore
I Z 2π Z 2π Z 2π
′ 2 2


F · dr = F(r(t)) · r (t) dt = sin t + cos t dt = 1 dt = 2π ̸= 0.
C 0 0 0

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

Since the circulation around a closed loop is nonzero, F is not conservative on D.

Why possible despite the Component Test holding? Because the converse “curl
= 0 ⇒ conservative” (or the component-equalities test) is valid only on simply connected
domains. Here D = R3 \ (the z-axis) is not simply connected, so a curl-free field can still fail
to be conservative. □

Example 4.6. Determine which of the following vector fields are conservative, and find a
potential function for each conservative field.

(I) ***
F = yz i + xz j + xy k

Solution: Let M = yz, N = xz, P = xy. We check the component test:

∂M ∂N ∂N ∂P ∂P ∂M
=z= , =x= , =y= .
∂y ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂x ∂z
Hence, the field is conservative.
To find a potential f :
fx = yz, fy = xz, fz = xy.
Integrating fx with respect to x:

f (x, y, z) = xyz + C.

f (x, y, z) = xyz

(II)
F = (y sin z) i + (x sin z) j + (xy cos z) k

Solution: Let M = y sin z, N = x sin z, P = xy cos z. We check:

∂M ∂N ∂N ∂P ∂P ∂M
= sin z = , = x cos z = , = y cos z = .
∂y ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂x ∂z
So, F is conservative.
To find a potential f :

fx = y sin z, fy = x sin z, fz = xy cos z.

Integrating fx with respect to x:

f (x, y, z) = xy sin z + C.

f (x, y, z) = xy sin z

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

(III)
F = (ex cos y) i − (ex sin y) j + z k

Solution: Let M = ex cos y, N = −ex sin y, P = z. We check:

∂M ∂N ∂N ∂P ∂P ∂M
= −ex sin y = , =0= , =0= .
∂y ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂x ∂z
All equalities hold, so F is conservative.
To find a potential f :

fx = ex cos y, fy = −ex sin y, fz = z.

Integrating fx with respect to x:

z2
f (x, y, z) = ex cos y + + C.
2

f (x, y, z) = ex cos y + 21 z 2

Example 4.7. Find a potential function f for each of the following vector fields F.

(I) ***
F = 2x i + 3y j + 4z k

Solution: Let F = ⟨M, N, P ⟩, where

M = 2x, N = 3y, P = 4z.

We need a scalar function f (x, y, z) such that

∇f = F, fx = 2x, fy = 3y, fz = 4z.

Integrate fx with respect to x:

Z
f (x, y, z) = 2x dx = x2 + g(y, z).

Differentiate this with respect to y:

fy = gy (y, z) = 3y ⇒ g(y, z) = 23 y 2 + h(z).

Now differentiate with respect to z:

fz = h′ (z) = 4z ⇒ h(z) = 2z 2 + C.

Hence,
f (x, y, z) = x2 + 23 y 2 + 2z 2 + C.

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

(II)
F = (y sin z) i + (x sin z) j + (xy cos z) k

Solution: Let F = ⟨M, N, P ⟩, where

M = y sin z, N = x sin z, P = xy cos z.

We want ∇f = F:

fx = y sin z, fy = x sin z, fz = xy cos z.

Integrate fx with respect to x:

f (x, y, z) = xy sin z + g(y, z).

Differentiate with respect to y:

fy = x sin z + gy (y, z) = x sin z ⇒ gy = 0 ⇒ g(y, z) = h(z).

Differentiate with respect to z:

fz = xy cos z + h′ (z) = xy cos z ⇒ h′ (z) = 0 ⇒ h(z) = C.

Hence,
f (x, y, z) = xy sin z + C.

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

5. Green’s Theorem in the Plane

In this section, two new physical and geometric ideas related to Green’s Theorem are intro-
duced: the circulation density about an axis perpendicular to the plane and the divergence
(or flux density) of a vector field.

5.1 Divergence of a Vector Field

Definition 5.1. If F(x, y, z) = M (x, y, z) i + N (x, y, z) j + P (x, y, z) k is a differentiable
vector field, then its divergence is the scalar function:
∂M ∂N ∂P
∇·F= + + .
∂x ∂y ∂z

div : (Vector fields) −→ (Functions).

Physically, the divergence measures how much the vector field is spreading out or contracts
at a point.
Example 5.1. [Computation of Divergence]
Let F = xy i + yz j + zx k. Then
∂(xy) ∂(yz) ∂(zx)
∇·F= + + = y + z + x = x + y + z.
∂x ∂y ∂z

5.2 Curl of a Vector Field

Definition 5.2. For a differentiable vector field F(x, y, z) = M i + N j + P k, the curl of F
is the vector field:

i j k      
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂P ∂N ∂M ∂P ∂N ∂M
∇×F= = − i+ − j+ − k.
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
M N P

curl : (Vector fields) −→ (Vector fields).

The curl measures the rotation or circulation density of a vector field around a point. The
curl of a vector field measures how much the vector field is twirling or whirling or curling
about.
Example 5.2. [Computation of Curl]
Let F = yz i + zx j + xy k. Then

i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
∇×F= = (x − z) i + (y − x) j + (z − y) k.
∂x ∂y ∂z
yz zx xy

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

Example 5.3. Find the k-component of curl of each planar vector field F = M (x, y) i +
N (x, y) j, where  
∂N ∂M
curl F = − k.
∂x ∂y
1. F = (x + y)i + (2xy)j

2. F = (x2 − y)i + (y 2 )j

3. F = (xey )i + (yex )j

4. F = (x2 y)i + (xy 2 )j

5. F = (y sin x)i + (x sin y)j

x y
6. F = i− j (on xy ̸= 0)
y x
Solution.

1. M = x + y, N = 2xy.
∂N ∂M
= 2y, = 1,
∂x ∂y
curl F = 2y − 1.

2. M = x2 − y, N = y 2 .
∂N ∂M
= 0, = −1,
∂x ∂y
curl F = 0 − (−1) = 1.

3. M = xey , N = yex .
∂N ∂M
= yex , = xey ,
∂x ∂y
curl F = yex − xey .

4. M = x2 y, N = xy 2 .
∂N ∂M
= y2, = x2 ,
∂x ∂y
curl F = y 2 − x2 .

5. M = y sin x, N = x sin y.
∂N ∂M
= sin y, = sin x,
∂x ∂y
curl F = sin y − sin x.

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

x y
6. M = , N = − (for x ̸= 0, y ̸= 0).
y x
 
∂N ∂ y  y y ∂M ∂ x x
=− = − − 2 = 2, = = − 2,
∂x ∂x x x x ∂y ∂y y y
y  x y x
curl F = 2 − − 2 = 2
+ 2.
x y x y
□

Physical Interpretations
ˆ Gradient: Direction and rate of maximum change of a scalar field.

ˆ Divergence: Net rate of “outflow” of a vector field from a point.

ˆ Curl: Local rotational tendency of a vector field.

5.3 Green’s Theorem in a Plane

If a vector field F is conservative, then F = ∇f for some differentiable function f . In that
case, the line integral over a path C from A to B can be evaluated using the Fundamental
Theorem for Line Integrals:
Z
F · dr = f (B) − f (A).
C

However, when F is not conservative, we cannot find such a potential function. In this
situation, Green’s Theorem provides a powerful alternative: it converts a line integral over
a closed curve C into a double integral over the region R enclosed by C. This method is
particularly useful for computing the work or flux of a vector field around a closed boundary.
Circulation Density (Local Spin):
Let the two-dimensional vector field be

F = M (x, y) i + N (x, y) j.

The circulation density at a point (x, y) is the scalar quantity

∂N ∂M
− .
∂x ∂y
This measures how much the field “spins” or “rotates” around that point. In physical terms,
it represents the tendency of the fluid particles to rotate about the z-axis.
This scalar is also the k-component of the curl, written as

(∇ × F) · k.

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

Definition 5.3. The circulation density of a vector field F = M i + N j at the point (x, y)
is the scalar
∂N ∂M
(∇ × F) · k = − .
∂x ∂y
Remark 5. This quantity measures the local angular rotation or spin around the z-axis
produced by the field F. If the value is positive, the rotation is counterclockwise (right-handed
about the z-axis); if it is negative, the rotation is clockwise.
In Green’s Theorem, this circulation density plays a central role in relating the microscopic
rotation (curl) within a region to the macroscopic circulation around its boundary.
Example 5.4. The following vector fields represent the velocity of a gas flowing in the xy-
plane. Find the circulation density of each vector field and interpret its physical meaning.
Figure 7 displays the vector fields.

Figure 7: Vector fields for (a) uniform expansion, (b) rotation, (c) shear, and (d) whirlpool
flow.

Solution.

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

(a) Uniform expansion or compression:

F(x, y) = cxi + cyj, c = constant.

∂(cy) ∂(cx)
(∇ × F) · k = − = 0.
∂x ∂y
Interpretation: The gas expands or contracts uniformly, but there is no microscopic
rotation. Hence, the fluid is not circulating at small scales.

(b) Uniform rotation:

F(x, y) = −cyi + cxj.
∂(cx) ∂(−cy)
(∇ × F) · k = − = 2c.
∂x ∂y
Interpretation: The constant circulation density indicates uniform rotation about every
point. If c > 0, rotation is counterclockwise; if c < 0, rotation is clockwise.

(c) Shearing flow:

F(x, y) = yi.
∂(0) ∂(y)
(∇ × F) · k = − = −1.
∂x ∂y
Interpretation: The constant negative circulation density implies a clockwise rotation.
A small paddle wheel placed in the flow spins clockwise with uniform rate. This
represents a steady shear in the fluid layers.

(d) Whirlpool effect:

−y x
F(x, y) = i + j.
x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2
y 2 − x2 y 2 − x2
   
∂ x ∂ −y
(∇ × F) · k = − = − = 0.
∂x x2 + y 2 ∂y x2 + y 2 (x2 + y 2 )2 (x2 + y 2 )2
Interpretation: The circulation density is zero at every point except the origin, where
the vector field is undefined. Thus, the gas is not locally circulating, although a global
rotational motion (whirlpool) is present.

5.4 Divergence and Flux Density

Definition 5.4. The divergence (or flux density) of a vector field

F = M (x, y)i + N (x, y)j

at a point (x, y) is defined as

∂M ∂N
div F = + .
∂x ∂y

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

The divergence measures the net rate of fluid outflow per unit area at a point. If div F > 0,
the point acts like a source (outflow); if div F < 0, it acts like a sink (inflow); and if div F = 0,
the flow is said to be incompressible.

Example 5.5. Find the divergence and interpret its physical meaning for each vector field
in Example 7, which represent the velocity of a gas flowing in the xy-plane.

Solution.

(a) Uniform expansion or compression:

F = cxi + cyj

∂(cx) ∂(cy)
div F = + = 2c.
∂x ∂y
If c > 0, the gas is expanding uniformly; if c < 0, it is compressing uniformly.

(b) Uniform rotation:

F = −cyi + cxj
∂(−cy) ∂(cx)
div F = + = 0.
∂x ∂y
No expansion or compression occurs; the gas merely rotates without changing volume.

(c) Shear flow:

F = yi
∂(y) ∂(0)
div F = + = 0.
∂x ∂y
Again, there is no net outflow or inflow; the gas neither expands nor compresses.

(d) Whirlpool effect:

−y x
F= i+ 2 j
+y 2x2 x + y2
   
∂ −y ∂ x 2xy 2xy
div F = 2 2
+ 2 2
= 2 2 2
− 2 = 0.
∂x x + y ∂y x + y (x + y ) (x + y 2 )2
The divergence is zero everywhere except at the origin, where the field is undefined.
This means the gas neither expands nor compresses — it only circulates around the
center.

Physical Interpretation: Cases (b), (c), and (d) correspond to incompressible flow, a
condition satisfied by most liquids. In fluid mechanics, incompressible flow means that the
velocity field has zero divergence:
div F = 0.
□

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

5.5 Two Forms of Green’s Theorem

A simple closed curve C can be traversed in two possible directions. The curve is said to be
positively oriented (or counterclockwise) if the region it encloses always lies to the left
when moving along C. If the region lies to the right, the curve is negatively oriented (or
clockwise).
The line integral of a vector field F along C reverses sign when the orientation of C is
reversed. We use the notation I
F(x, y) · dr
C
for the line integral when C is traversed counterclockwise (positive orientation).
In one form, Green’s Theorem states that the counterclockwise circulation of a vector field
around a simple closed curve equals the double integral of the k-component of the curl of
the field over the region enclosed by the curve.
∗∗∗
Theorem 5.1 (Green’s Theorem—Circulation–Curl or Tangential Form).

Let C be a piecewise smooth, simple closed curve enclosing a region R in the plane. Let
F = M (x, y)i + N (x, y)j be a vector field with M and N having continuous first partial
derivatives in an open region containing R. Then the counterclockwise circulation of F
around C equals the double integral of (∇ × F) · k over R:
I I ZZ  
∂N ∂M
F · T ds = M dx + N dy = − dx dy. (1)
C C R ∂x ∂y

A second form of Green’s Theorem relates to the outward flux of F across C, and says that
the flux equals the double integral of the divergence of F over R.
Theorem 5.2 (Green’s Theorem—Flux–Divergence or Normal Form). Let C be a piecewise
smooth, simple closed curve enclosing a region R in the plane. Let F = M (x, y)i + N (x, y)j
be a vector field with M and N having continuous first partial derivatives in an open region
containing R. Then the outward flux of F across C equals the double integral of div F over
R: I I ZZ  
∂M ∂N
F · n ds = M dy − N dx = + dx dy. (2)
C C R ∂x ∂y
Equivalence of the Two Forms: The two forms of Green’s Theorem are equivalent.
Applying Equation (1) from Theorem 4 to the vector field G1 = −N i + M j gives Equa-
tion (2) from Theorem 5. Conversely, applying Equation (2) to G2 = N i − M j reproduces
Equation (1).
∗∗∗
Example 5.6.

Verify both forms of Green’s Theorem for the vector field

F(x, y) = (x − y)i + xj,
and the region R bounded by the unit circle
C : r(t) = (cos t)i + (sin t)j, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

Solution. Step 1: Verification of the Circulation–Curl Form (Theorem 1)

We first evaluate the counterclockwise circulation of F = M i + N j around C. On the
curve C,
x = cos t, y = sin t.
Thus,
M = x − y = cos t − sin t, N = x = cos t.
Differentials are
dx = − sin t dt, dy = cos t dt.

Then the line integral is

I I Z 2π
F · T ds = M dx + N dy = (cos t − sin t)(− sin t) dt + (cos t)(cos t) dt.
C C 0

Simplifying,
I Z 2π Z 2π
2 2
F · T ds = (− sin t cos t + sin t + cos t) dt = (− sin t cos t + 1) dt = 2π.
C 0 0

Thus, the left-hand side of Equation (3) equals 2π.

Now, compute the curl integral—the right-hand side of Equation (3):

M = x − y, N = x.

Then,
∂M ∂M ∂N ∂N
= 1, = −1, = 1, = 0.
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
Hence,
ZZ   ZZ ZZ
∂N ∂M
− dx dy = (1−(−1)) dx dy = 2 dx dy = 2(area of unit circle) = 2π.
R ∂x ∂y R R

Therefore, both sides of Equation (3) are equal, verifying the circulation–curl form of Green’s
Theorem.
Step 2: Verification of the Flux–Divergence Form (Theorem 2)
We compute the outward flux:
I I Z 2π
F · n ds = M dy − N dx = (cos t − sin t)(cos t) dt − (cos t)(− sin t) dt
C C 0
Z 2π Z 2π Z 2π Z 2π
2 1 + cos(2t) 1 1
= cos t dt = dt = 1 dt + cos(2t) dt.
0 0 2 2 0 2 0
Now compute the divergence integral:
∂M ∂N
div F = + = 1 + 0 = 1.
∂x ∂y

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

Thus, ZZ ZZ
div F dx dy = (1) dx dy = area of unit circle = π.
R R

Hence, both sides of Equation (4) equal π, confirming the flux–divergence form.
Conclusion: Both the circulation–curl and flux–divergence forms of Green’s Theorem hold
true for F(x, y) = (x − y)i + xj over the unit circle. □

Example 5.7. ∗∗∗

I
Evaluate xy dy − y 2 dx, where C is the positively oriented boundary of the square
C
R = [0, 1] × [0, 1]. ((or) Where C is the square cut from the first quadrant by the lines x = 1
and y = 1.)

Solution. (i) Circulation–curl form. Here M = −y 2 and N = xy. Then

∂N ∂M
= y, = −2y,
∂x ∂y
so Z 1Z
I ZZ ZZ 1
2

3
xy dy − y dx = y − (−2y) dA = 3y dA = 3y dx dy = .
C R R 0 0 2
(ii) Flux–divergence form. Rewrite the line integral as an outward flux by using
I I
M dx + N dy = (N, −M ) · n ds.
C C

Thus take G = (N, −M ) = (xy, y 2 ). Then

∂ ∂ 2
∇·G = (xy) + (y ) = y + 2y = 3y,
∂x ∂y
and I I ZZ ZZ
2 3
xy dy − y dx = G · n ds = ∇·G dA = 3y dA = .
C C R R 2
□

Example 5.8. Compute the outward flux of F(x, y) = 2exy i + y 3 j across the square R =
[−1, 1] × [−1, 1].

Solution. (i) Flux–divergence form.

∂ ∂ 3
∇·F = (2exy ) + (y ) = 2y exy + 3y 2 .
∂x ∂y
Hence
ZZ Z 1 Z 1  Z 1 Z 1 
xy 2 xy
Φ= (2y e + 3y ) dA = 2y e dx dy + 3y 2 dx dy.
R −1 −1 −1 −1

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

The first inner integral is

Z 1
2y exy dx = 2 (ey − e−y ) = 4 sinh y,
−1

whose outer integral vanishes by odd symmetry on [−1, 1]. The second term gives
Z 1 Z 1
2 2
y 2 dy = 6 · = 4.


3y · 2 dy = 6
−1 −1 3

Therefore Φ = 4.
(ii) Circulation–curl form. Outward flux can be written as the circulation of the
rotated field I I
F · n ds = M dy − N dx, where F = (M, N ).
C C
I
Thus evaluate 2exy dy − y 3 dx with M̃ = −N = −y 3 and Ñ = M = 2exy :
C

ZZ ! ZZ
∂ Ñ ∂ M̃
2y exy + 3y 2 dA = 4,


− dA =
R ∂x ∂y R

agreeing with part (i). □

Example 5.9. Verify Green’s Theorem for each vector field F = M (x, y) i + N (x, y) j on the
disk
R : x2 + y 2 ≤ a2 ,
with positively oriented boundary circle

C : r(t) = (a cos t) i + (a sin t) j, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.

That is, compute both sides of

I ZZ  
∂N ∂M
M dx + N dy = − dA (3)
C R ∂x ∂y
and I ZZ  
∂M ∂N
M dy − N dx = + dA. (4)
C R ∂x ∂y

1. *** F = −y i + x j

2. F = y i

3. *** F = −x2 y i + xy 2 j

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

Solution. Throughout, use x = a cos t, y = a sin t, dx = −a sin t dt, dy = a cos t dt on C,

and polar coordinates x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ on R.
1. F = −y i + x j.
M = −y, N = x.
Circulation side (3):
∂N ∂M
− = 1 − (−1) = 2.
∂x ∂y
ZZ
2 dA = 2 · (πa2 ) = 2πa2 .
R
On C,
M = −a sin t, N = a cos t,
I Z 2π  Z 2π
a2 dt = 2πa2 .

M dx + N dy = (−a sin t)(−a sin t) + (a cos t)(a cos t) dt =
C 0 0

Flux side (4): ZZ

∂M ∂N
+ = 0 + 0 = 0, 0 dA = 0.
∂x ∂y R
On C, I Z 2π  
M dy − N dx = (−a sin t)(a cos t) − (a cos t)(−a sin t) dt = 0.
C 0

2. F = y i.
M = y, N = 0.
Circulation side (3):
∂N ∂M
− = 0 − 1 = −1,
∂x ∂y
ZZ
(−1) dA = −πa2 .
R
On C, M = a sin t:
I Z 2π Z 2π
2
M dx + N dy = (a sin t)(−a sin t) dt = −a sin2 t dt = −a2 · π = −πa2 .
C 0 0

Flux side (4): ZZ

∂M ∂N
+ = 0 + 0 = 0, 0 dA = 0.
∂x ∂y R
On C, I Z 2π Z 2π
2
M dy − N dx = (a sin t)(a cos t) dt = a sin t cos t dt = 0.
C 0 0

3. F = −x2 y i + xy 2 j.
M = −x2 y, N = xy 2 .

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

Circulation side (3):

∂N ∂M
− = y 2 − (−x2 ) = x2 + y 2 .
∂x ∂y

In polar coordinates, x2 + y 2 = r2 and dA = r dr dθ:

Z 2πZ a 2π 4 a
a4
ZZ Z
2 2 2 r π
(x + y ) dA = r · r dr dθ = dθ = · 2π = a4 .
R 0 0 0 4 0 4 2

On C,
M = −a3 cos2 t sin t, N = a3 cos t sin2 t,
M dx + N dy = 2a4 cos2 t sin2 t dt,
so I Z 2π Z 2π
4 2 2 4 π 4
M dx + N dy = 2a cos t sin t dt = 2a 1
4
sin2 2t dt = a.
C 0 0 2
Flux side (4):
ZZ
∂M ∂N
+ = (−2xy) + (2xy) = 0, 0 dA = 0.
∂x ∂y R

On C, a direct computation gives

I
M dy − N dx = 0,
C

agreeing with Equation (4).

In each case, the circulation and flux forms (Equations (3) and (4)) match the corre-
sponding double integrals, confirming Green’s Theorem. □

Example 5.10. Use Green’s Theorem to find the counterclockwise circulation and the out-
ward flux for the vector field F along the curve C.

1. F = (x2 + 4y) i + (x + y 2 ) j, C: the square 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1.

2. F = (x + y) i − (x2 + y 2 ) j, C: the triangle bounded by y = 0, x = 1, and y = x

(positively oriented).

Solution. Recall Green’s Theorem in tangential and normal form:

I I ZZ  
∂N ∂M
F · T ds = M dx + N dy = − dA,
C C R ∂x ∂y
I I ZZ  
∂M ∂N
F · n ds = M dy − N dx = + dA.
C C R ∂x ∂y

1. F = (x2 + 4y, x + y 2 ), R is the unit square.

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

M = x2 + 4y, N = x + y2.
Circulation (counterclockwise):

∂N ∂M
− = 1 − 4 = −3.
∂x ∂y
I ZZ
F · T ds = (−3) dA = −3 · (1 · 1) = −3 .
C R
Outward flux:
∂M ∂N
+ = 2x + 2y.
∂x ∂y
I ZZ Z 1Z 1
F · n ds = (2x + 2y) dA = (2x + 2y) dx dy = 1 + 1 = 2 .
C R 0 0

2. F = (x + y, −(x2 + y 2 )).
Region R is the triangle with vertices (0, 0), (1, 0), (1, 1):

0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 0 ≤ y ≤ x.

M = x + y, N = −(x2 + y 2 ).
Circulation (counterclockwise):

∂N ∂M
− = (−2x) − 1 = −2x − 1.
∂x ∂y
I ZZ Z 1Z x Z 1
F · T ds = (−2x − 1) dA = (−2x − 1) dy dx = (−2x − 1)x dx
C R 0 0 0
Z 1  1
2 1 2 1 7
= (−2x2 − x) dx = − x3 − x2 =− − = − .
0 3 2 0 3 2 6
Outward flux:
∂M ∂N
+ = 1 + (−2y) = 1 − 2y.
∂x ∂y
I ZZ Z 1Z x Z 1
x − x2 dx
 
F · n ds = (1 − 2y) dA = (1 − 2y) dy dx =
C R 0 0 0
3 1
x2 x
 
1 1 1
= − = − = .
2 3 0 2 3 6
Thus Green’s Theorem gives:

(12) circ = −3, flux = 2; (14) circ = − 67 , flux = 61 .

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

6. Surface Integrals of Vector Fields

Definition 6.1. Let F be a vector field in three-dimensional space with continuous com-
ponents defined over a smooth surface S that has an assigned orientation, given by a unit
normal vector field n on S. Then the surface integral of F over S is defined as
ZZ
F · n dσ.
S

This integral is also called the flux of the vector field F across the surface S.

6.1 Interpretation
ˆ The quantity F · n is the component of the vector field F that passes through the
surface in the direction of the chosen normal.

ˆ The differential dσ is the infinitesimal surface area element.

ˆ The flux integral measures the total flow of the field across S.

ˆ Reversing the orientation (changing n to −n) reverses the sign of the flux.

6.2 Computation Methods

There are two common ways to evaluate the surface integral:

1. Parametric Surfaces. If S is parametrized by

r(u, v) = ⟨x(u, v), y(u, v), z(u, v)⟩,

then the oriented surface element is

dS = (ru × rv ) du dv,

and the flux becomes

ZZ ZZ
F · n dσ = F(r(u, v)) · (ru × rv ) du dv.
S D

2. Graph Surfaces z = f (x, y). If S is given by z = f (x, y), then the upward-oriented
surface element is
dS = ⟨−fx , −fy , 1⟩ dx dy,
so ZZ ZZ
F · n dσ = F(x, y, f (x, y)) · ⟨−fx , −fy , 1⟩ dx dy.
S R

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

Physical Meaning
ˆ In fluid flow, the integral gives the amount of fluid per unit time passing through S.

ˆ In electromagnetism, it represents electric or magnetic flux.

ˆ In heat transfer, it can represent heat flow through a surface.

∗∗∗
Example 6.1.

Find the flux of the vector field

F(x, y, z) = yz i + x j − z 2 k

through the portion of the parabolic cylinder

y = x2 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 0 ≤ z ≤ 4,

in the direction of the normal vector generated by the parametrization

r(x, z) = x i + x2 j + z k.

Solution. We use the flux (surface integral) formula

ZZ ZZ


F · n dσ = F(r(x, z)) · rx × rz dx dz,
S D

where D is the domain of the parameters (x, z).

1. Parametrization and normal vector.
The surface is already parametrized by

r(x, z) = ⟨x, x2 , z⟩, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 0 ≤ z ≤ 4.

Compute the tangent vectors

∂r ∂r
rx = = ⟨1, 2x, 0⟩, rz = = ⟨0, 0, 1⟩.
∂x ∂z
Then the oriented normal vector is
i j k
rx × rz = 1 2x 0 = ⟨2x, −1, 0⟩.
0 0 1

2. Field on the surface.

On the surface y = x2 we have

F r(x, z) = F(x, x2 , z) = ⟨x2 z, x, −z 2 ⟩.

3. Dot product F · (rx × rz ).

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

F(r(x, z)) · (rx × rz ) = ⟨x2 z, x, −z 2 ⟩ · ⟨2x, −1, 0⟩ = 2x3 z − x.

4. Set up and evaluate the integral.

The parameter domain is

D = {(x, z) | 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 0 ≤ z ≤ 4}.

Thus Z 4 Z 1
Flux = (2x3 z − x) dx dz.
0 0
First integrate with respect to x:
1 1 1 1 1
x4 x2
Z Z Z  
3 3 z 1
(2x z − x) dx = 2z x dx − x dx = 2z − = − .
0 0 0 4 0 2 0 2 2

Now integrate with respect to z:

4 4
z2 z
Z     
z 1 16 4
− dz = − = − − 0 = 4 − 2 = 2.
0 2 2 4 2 0 4 2

Answer. The flux of F through the given patch of the parabolic cylinder, in the specified
normal direction, is
2.
□
∗∗∗
Example 6.2.

Find the flux of

F = yz j + z 2 k
outward through the surface S cut from the cylinder

y 2 + z 2 = 1, z ≥ 0,

by the planes x = 0 and x = 1 (see figure 8).

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

Figure 8: The surface S cut from the cylinder y 2 + z 2 = 1, z ≥ 0, between the planes x = 0
and x = 1, with its projection Rxy on the xy-plane.

Solution. The surface S is part of the vertical cylinder

g(x, y, z) = y 2 + z 2 = 1.

1. Find the outward unit normal

For a surface given implicitly by g(x, y, z) = c, a normal vector is

∇g = ⟨0, 2y, 2z⟩.

Thus
∇g 2y j + 2z k 2y j + 2z k 2y j + 2z k
n= =p = p = = y j + z k.
∥∇g∥ 2
(2y) + (2z) 2 2
2 y +z 2 2·1
Since y 2 + z 2 = 1 on the cylinder, this vector already points outward.
2. Surface area differential for an implicit surface
For a surface g(x, y, z) = c and projection onto the xy-plane, the formula is

∥∇g∥
dσ = dA.
|∇g · k|

Here, k is normal to the xy-plane. We have

∇g = ⟨0, 2y, 2z⟩, ∇g · k = 2z.

Hence p p
(2y)2 + (2z)2 2 y2 + z2 1
dσ = dA = dA = dA,
|2z| 2z z
because y 2 + z 2 = 1 and z ≥ 0 on S.
3. Compute F · n on the surface

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Module IV: Vector Calculus Prof. V. K. Narla

F · n = (yz j + z 2 k) · (y j + z k) = yz · y + z 2 · z = y 2 z + z 3 = z(y 2 + z 2 ) = z · 1 = z.

4. Set up the flux integral

ZZ ZZ   ZZ
1
F · n dσ = z dA = dA.
S Rxy z Rxy

Thus the flux equals the area of the projection Rxy .

5. Find the projection region
The projection is defined by the rectangle

0 ≤ x ≤ 1, −1 ≤ y ≤ 1,

cylinder projects to the line segment y 2 + z 2 = 1 ⇒ −1 ≤ y ≤ 1 in the y-direction,

since thep
and z = 1 − y 2 ≥ 0.
Hence the area is ZZ
dA = (1 − 0)(1 − (−1)) = 2.
Rxy

Final Answer: ZZ
F · n dσ = 2.
S

***

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