MODULE III

OPERATION OF RECORDING DEVICES

Grade 11 Journalism Student Module

Contents

No Contents Page

MODULE DESCRIPTION 67
1 Unit 1: Audio recording devices 67
1.1 Introduction to audio recording devices 68
1.2 Microphone Basics 68
1.3 Audio System Components 68
2 Unit Two: Operation of audio recording devices 83
2.1 Introduction to audio Recording devices operation 83
2.2 Steps to Audio Recording 84
2.3 The Recording Process 87
2.4 Operation of different types of audio devices 88
3 Unit Three: Video recording devices 97
3.1 Introduction to video recording devices 118
3.2 Types of Video Cameras 118
3.3 Operation of Video Recording Devices 132
3.4 Camera setup operation 130

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Module Description

Recording refers to the process of capturing and preserving audio, video, or any other form of data
or information using electronic or mechanical devices. This can involve the use of devices such as
cameras, microphones, or recorders to capture a live performance, event, or speech, or digitally
storing data in a format that can be replayed or accessed later. The recorded material can be stored,
reproduced, edited, or shared for various purposes such as entertainment, documentation, analysis,
or archival.

Recording good-quality sound and images is extremely important, as poor-quality recordings can
destroy the impact of what could otherwise be a high-quality production. Understanding how audio
video and film recording devices work will help ensure that you consistently record good- quality
sounds and images. Visual and audio media are based on digital and analog electronic, magnetic,
and photochemical recording processes.

This module is designed to introduce students with the audio visual recording devices and how to
operate them in the recording process.

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UNIT 1
Audio Recording Devices

Introduction to the unit

Audio recording, or Sound recording, is the storage of sounds so that they can be heard again. In
professional and home recording studios, special equipment records the music that people listen to
on compact discs (CDs) and their computers.

Learning Outcomes:

After completing this unit, students will be able to:

 Explain the differences between the various audio recording devices
 Identify different types of microphones and function
 Use microphones and audio recorders to record quality sound

Key Terms:
 Analogue recording equipment
 Audio
 Audio chain
 Audio Console
 Audio interface
 Digital recording equipment
 Microphone
 Microphone pickup pattern
 Noise

Activities: 1.1:

Students, List some common components found in a typical signal chain for guitar players (DJ)?
Discuss in group the importance of these components you listed?

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1.1. Introduction to Audio Recording Devices

Audio recording is the process of capturing sound. Sound is captured by a recording microphone or
other recording device. From there, the sound can be changed and manipulated by mixers and other
specialized devices or equipment used by sound technicians and producers.

1.2. Types of Audio Recording Devices

There are many different types of audio recording devices, including recorders, players, and
duplicators. Digital recording devices, such as portable audio recorders, are small and handy, and
feature built-in microphones or microphone inputs. Mountable recording devices are suitable for
permanent locations like conference rooms, places of worship, and professional audio recording
studios. Multi-track mixers and recorders are versatile by allowing for multiple recording channels,
and use during live performances. Analog recording devices include cassette recorders, as well as
equipment to convert analog recordings into digital files.

1.3. Audio System Components

There are categories used to identify audio gear, but many items combine elements from multiple
categories. For example, a mixer may also act as an interface. It is important to be aware of these
categories and that they may be combined depending on the gear.

I) Cable:

For most uses, cables are straight-forward, you find the cable with a plug that connects to the socket
you want to connect. The most common are XLR, 1/4", 1/8" (mini 3.5mm aux), and RCA. If you
don't know what connector you need, you can look up your equipment make and model to find a
manual with connector information. USB and other computer cables can carry digital audio signal
if your gear is designed to utilize it.

II) Interface:

An audio interface is a device that allows you to record live audio by connecting microphones,

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instruments, and other sources to your computer. Interfaces improve sound quality, reducelatency,
and provide many more options, such as multiple inputs and outputs and record monitoring
capabilities. In other words, it‘s a necessary piece of equipment for recording music, voiceovers,
podcasts, and other types of content.

In audio, an interface refers to an audio device which connects an analog system to a digital system.
They are used to take multiple analog signals (voltage) from a mixer or microphone, and convert it
to digital signals (1's and 0's). It is also used to direct digital audio from your computerout into your
analog system. You can use USB to connect the interface to the computer to record the digital
audio. Other gear can function as an audio interface because some have the ability to connect
analog inputs to digital outputs that then go into the computer to be recorded.

III) Amplifiers:

An amp, or amplifier, takes an analog signal and makes increases the gain, which you can think of
as volume. Guitar players call the speaker they connect their guitar to an amp, but it is actuallyboth
a speaker and an amp in one box. Most amps are just an amp with no speaker, and some devices are
just speakers and they need to be connected. If a speaker has a fan in it, that is probably because it
is cooling an amp. Most gear that receive signal from microphones has a preamplifier, which is a
kind of amp that makes a mic level turn in to line level. Most amps, that are not specifically
preamplifiers, convert line level to speaker level so it can have enough gain to be heard on a
speaker.

IV) Speaker:

There are many different uses for speakers, and each may have their own different type of speaker.
Of course there are headphones and guitar amps. For events the big ones facing an audience are
often called mains, or house. If you have any facing the performers so they can hearthemselves they
are called stage monitors. Speakers used in recording studios are called monitors, because you are
monitoring the mix.

V) Support:

In audio systems supports are items that hold audio gear. These kinds of gear can be overlooked,

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but are very helpful to getting clean audio. Mic stands, speaker stands, pistol grips, boom poles,
gorilla pods, goosenecks, and stereo mount adapters are examples of supports.

VI)Mixers

A mixer is a type of equipment used to take in multiple audio signals, "mix" them, and send themto
another part of the audio system like speakers, or a device to be recorded. An audio recorder mixer
allows the user to manipulate the audio input by altering the high and low frequencies, the volume,
and the presence in stereo output, as well as allowing the inputs to be diverted into specified
auxiliary outputs. Audio mixers are optimal for both in-studio recording sessions and for live
performances. The mixer allows for nuance and control in the output, creating the ability to
carefully balance all of the instruments or inputs. Being able to divert sound into auxiliary output is
especially useful in recording sessions when instrumentalists may need to listen to specific parts of
the mix.

The audio console plays an important function in every radio broadcast production. It is also used
for film and television audio, broadcasting, podcasting, live sound, and music production in the
media industry.

Also called the control board, it is the primary piece of equipment in the production facility. It is the
link between the microphone and the recording channels. It is equipped with faders, equalizers,
various buttons and switches, which are used to regulate and modulate signals.

The console board has three primary functions: to mix, amplify and route audio. The console
enables the operator to select any one or a combination of various in-put. And the control board
amplifies the incoming audio signal to an appropriate level.

Amplification means that the volume of an audio signal going through the console can be raised or
lowered as the situation may dictate. This implies that the console is used for controlling the quality
of sound. With the audio console, you can improve the quality of sound.

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VII) Microphone

Microphones are devices that convert or change sound energy into electrical energy. The
microphones are transducer or a device which converts the variation of sound pressure in a sound
wave into corresponding electrical variation in an electric circuit. In other words a microphone can
be regarded as an instrument which changes sound energy into electrical signals. These signals are
further amplified by an amplifier to make them suitable for loud speaker‘s hertz and for modulating
waves.

Figure 1.1: Audio recording setup

1.4 Microphone Basics

Activities 1.2:

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What is microphone? What it is used for? Discuss in group.

Audio or sound is created by the rapid vibration of objects and sound waves consist of rapidly
contracting and expanding particles of air. This pressure or sound wave moves in a relatively
straight line and strikes other objects, such as the human ear or a microphone element. The eardrum
vibrates in response to the sound wave and produces an auditory impression in the mind. A
microphone like human ears consists of a small membrane which vibrates when it meets these
acoustic waves. The microphone translates movements of the membrane into electrical signals.
Basically, a microphone converts acoustic waves into electrical waves.

Microphone is a type of transducer. Transducers are devices that change one form of energy to
another form of energy. Mics convert analog sound wave action into analog fluctuations in
electrical voltage. A digital signal must be created by converting the analog signal through an
analog-to-digital converter. A mic has an element that is sensitive to these airwaves and converts
the wave action into corresponding fluctuations in electrical current. The electrical signal thus
becomes an analog, or copy, of the sound wave. Once an electronic equivalent of the audio
signal has been created, that signal may be converted into a digital signal for recording, processing,
and maintenance of the highest quality during duplication.

The ability to duplicate quality audio in film, video, and audio-only situations depends on careful
mic selection and placement. This means choosing a mic designed for the specific purpose at hand
and positioning it properly. Mics can be classified on the basis of the type of transducer element
they use into three basic categories: dynamic, ribbon, and condenser. One type of mic element may
be better suited to a specific audio situation than another.

A dynamic mic consists of a moving coil attached to a vibrating diaphragm or disc suspended
between two magnetic poles. As the diaphragm vibrates with the sound wave, the coil moves up
and down within a magnetic field and changes the voltage of the electrical current flowing through
the coil. In general, dynamic mics are very durable, not extremely susceptible to wind noise, and
relatively inexpensive.

A ribbon mic contains a narrow strip of corrugated foil suspended in a magnetic field. This
ribbon vibrates in response to the difference in air pressure in front and in back of it and produces

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an alternating current along the length of a coil. The ribbon itself is quite fragile and can easily be
damaged by simply blowing into the mic, although newer ribbon mics have been designed to be
more durable but still are best confined to studio use. A ribbon mic usually produces a smooth, bass
emphasized sound, is preferred by many radio and television announcers for that reason, and it is
ideal for digital recording because its warm sound accentuates high frequencies. Most ribbon mics
are priced at the top of the range of professional microphones.

Condenser mics are relatively complex, compared to dynamic or ribbon mics. The element is a
capacitor that requires two charged plates: a diaphragm and a fixed back plate. As the diaphragm
vibrates, the space between it and the fixed plate changes in capacitance, that is, in its ability to pass
an electrical current or signal. The strength of the electrical sound signal increases or
decreases accordingly. The signal is very weak, however, and a preamplifier is required to boost the
signal to a usable level. Additional current may be supplied to the preamplifier by a battery in the
mic handle or by a power supply located in the mixer called a phantom supply. An electret
condenser mic is constructed with permanently charged plates, reducing the power needed to
operate the mic and the need for a built-in preamplifier. Condenser mics vary in price from
relatively inexpensive to quite expensive, and some inexpensive cameras and cassette recorders
have built-in condenser mics of lesser quality. A condenser mic generally reproduces high- quality
sound, and with its built-in preamp can be considered quite sensitive.
Characteristics of Microphones

There are many types of microphone on the market today, this is because there are so many types of
sounds. These are, Vocals, electric guitar, clarinet, drums, keyboards, violins etc. All of which
generate different frequencies or combinations of frequencies. The major differences between
microphones are the transducer type and the pickup pattern. The pickup pattern is the area around
the microphone transducer where the sound is actually "heard" by the microphone.

Transducer Types

There are two basic microphone transducers, condenser and dynamic. To understand the difference
between these types of microphones, you have to know something about how they work.

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In a dynamic microphone a coil of wire is mounted on a

diaphragm, which sits inside a magnetic field. When the
diaphragm is moved by the sound source the resulting
fluctuations in the magnetic field create an electric current that
travels from the microphone to the mixer or amplifier.

Figure 1.2: Dynamic Microphone Dynamic microphones are rugged and can handle high sound
Transducer pressure levels, like those delivered by kick drums, snare
drums, and aggressive vocals.

A condenser microphone requires a constant electric charge,

provided by a battery or phantom power from your mixer. The
condenser diaphragm has less mass, which requires less
energy to move, so condenser microphones are more sensitive
than dynamic microphones.

These microphones are very responsive to high frequencies

Figure 1.3: Condenser Microphone
produced by an acoustic guitars or cymbals on a drum-kit and
Transducer
are used extensively in broadcast, recording and sound
reinforcement.

Pickup patterns

Mics can be classified according to their directional sensitivity or pickup patterns, as well as their
transducer elements. Different recording situations require the use of mics that pick up sounds from
a very narrow or a very wide area. Some mics pick up sounds coming from every direction,whereas
others are sensitive to a very restricted area. The three basic categories of pickuppatterns are
as follows: omnidirectional, bidirectional, and unidirectional or cardioid.

Impedance

A third characteristic of microphones that determines microphone use and placement is impedance.
Impedance is an electronic term which measures the amount of opposition a device has to an AC
current. It is the combined effect of capacitance, inductance, and resistance on a signal. It is
measured in ohms and shown with the Greek omega symbol Ω. All microphones have rated
impedance; this may be written on the microphone itself or on the specification sheet provided with

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the microphone. There are two general classifications for microphone impedance.

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 Low Impedance 200 - 1000 Ω

 High Impedance 10,000 - 50,000Ω

The preferred choice of microphone impedance should always be low (600Ω). A low impedance
microphone should generally be connected to an input with the same or higher impedance. If a
microphone is connected to an input with lower impedance, there will be a reduction in signal
strength.

All Microphones turn acoustic sound into analog signal. Depending on the mic, it may need to be
supplied by a battery or "phantom power," which is usually 48 volts of electricity sent to the mic
from whatever you are connecting it to, such as a mixer. Phantom power is a power source that is
supplied through the mic cable from a mixer or field recorder.

A recording microphone works by intercepting vibrations created by an instrument or voice,

capturing those vibrations via a thin diaphragm inside the microphone, and then translating that
vibration into electrical signals. Different studio recording microphones have their own specialties,
and are better suited for capturing various sounds or instruments.

Types of microphone

There are basically two ways of distinguishing microphones.

A. By the pickup pattern

B. By the materials they are made with

A- Pickup Pattern:

Microphone respond to sound differently based on direction. This is called the microphone‘s pickup
or polar pattern. The shape of the pattern tells you how sensitive the mic is to sound approaching
from one direction. In this regard there are 3 basic patterns:

i. Uni-Directional Microphones: This is a microphone that picks sound from one direction. In

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this kind of microphone, one side is alive and the other side dead. The advantage it has against the
others is that it discriminates unwanted sounds. The uni- directional category is broken down
into cardioid, super-Cardioid, and hyper-cardioid subcategories:

o Cardioid: Sound is picked up in a heart shaped pattern in front of the mic. This allows
you to focus on one sound while excluding other sounds. Also all directional mics are
Omni-directional with low frequencies. This means that a cardioid mic may pick up low
frequencies outside of its pick up pattern.

o Super-Cardioid: Mics have a narrower pattern in the front but they also have a small
lobe in the back of the pattern.

o Hyper-Cardioid: Used with shotgun mics. They have a very narrow pattern in the
front. They have a rear lobe like the super-cardioid, but they also have lobes on the
side of the mic. They are used to focus in a specific direction. You need to pay
attention to the side lobes. If you are standing next to a noisy camera with a shotgun
mic the side lobes might pick up the camera along with the intended sounds.

ii. Bi-Directional Microphones: This is a microphone that picks sound from two directions (the
front and the back) and not from the sides because the diaphragm is open to air at both sides.
This pattern is less common than the others. Most ribbon mics are bi-directional, and some
fancy large diaphragm condensers have variable pickup patterns including bi-directional.

iii. Omni-Directional Microphone: picks sound from all directions. It measures the pressure of air
in sound waves and responds equally to sound from directions.

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Figure 1.4: The various microphone response types and associated polar patterns

The above patterns are not the only ones, just the most common.

B- Materials they are made with:

Microphones can be also identified with the material they are made up with. They are broadly
classified into two:

(i) The Pressure Microphone: contains a thin metal diaphragm structured somewhat like the
head of a drum inside a rigid frame. This diaphragm is part of the electric circuit so that when sound
waves strikes the diaphragm, it vibrates. This vibration produces corresponding signals that flow
into the circuit system.

(ii) The Velocity Microphone: Has a very tight ribbons of aluminum foil loosely suspended in
a strong magnetic circuit so that when sound waves touch the ribbon, it vibrates, generating
different amount of current inside the ribbon. The condenser and dynamic microphones are
examples. They can give very high sound quality though expensive. They can be used for outside
recording or broadcasting.

Noise Avoidance

Noise is an unwanted sound that is unpleasant, loud, or disruptive on your record. Other words for

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noise include buzz, cacophony, commotion, crash, cry, explosion, roar, or turbulence. For example
buzz is a low, continuous humming sound like sound made by an insect.

There are a lot of different bad noises to consider when using microphones.

Location: You want to be in a quiet room, or a space that has environmental noise that you want. If
you are in a room with a loud fan, fridge buzz, etc, it will make a noisy recording. If you want
location sounds, you could add them in later, but if you know you want to have bird chirping, or
loud coffee-shop chatter in the back of interview, these noises can work to your advantage.

Placement: You want the mic to be close enough to your source that it is picking up the person or
instrument more than anything else, but not so close that it starts to get too "boomy" where the low
frequencies get picked up more than others. This boomy-ness from close mic is because of what is
called proximity effect.

Mic Bumps: Handling the mic or bumping the mic stand will make a noise that can be hard to
effectively remove later. It is best to avoid these noises. Some mics are built to endure handling
noise better. For field recording, you could use a shock mount like the boom pole or pistol grip to
minimize handling noise for shotgun microphones.

Pops: You can use a pop filter or a windscreen to help reduce some bad sounds thatmight get
recorded on a microphone. When people make "B" or "P" sounds they generate a big burst of air
that will hit the microphone and not sound very good. These are called "plosives." Using a pop filter
helps break up that burst of air and you are only left with good natural sounding vocals. These pop
filters can also help reduce the sharp "S" soundsthat can get unnaturally picked up by microphones,
called "sibilance".

Feedback: This is a really scary thing to deal with in audio, but you only need to worry about it if
you have speakers and microphones in the same space and the speaker is amplifying what the
microphone is picking up. It is called feedback because the mic picks up itself on the speakers,
which then amplifies itself and it feeds back until it makesan extremely loud whining sound. The
easiest thing to do to avoid this is have your mic in a different space than the speakers. But if you
need them to be together, you could be sure the mics are pointed away from the speakers, so they
will not pick them up. Do mic tests to make sure that with your placement, it will not have
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feedback.

VIII) Audio Recorder

Anything that stores audio is called audio recorder. But if you were to use an interface and recordon
a computer, that computer would be a recorder.

Digital Audio Recorders

Figure 1.5: Same examples of digital audio recorders

A digital audio recorder is a key component of a system used to capture sound, but as there are
different types of recorders, selecting one can be challenging. Most of the commercially available
equipment is designed for recording music and the human voice with close and cooperative
subjects. Few audio recorders are specifically designed for the quick onset and rapid frequency
changes characteristic of wildlife sounds or the rigorous field conditions faced by biologists and
birders.

Many recorders offer the same capabilities with varying degrees of special features, both essential
and nonessential. A ―good‖ recorder is one that balances your personal needs and desires.

Mobile phones as audio recording device

Mobile phones typically record sounds using a file format called .AMR, which is primarily
designed for phones and should be transferred onto a computer and converted for editing. Once the
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sound files are on the computer, they can be converted, using a freeware tool, into the .WAV or
FLAC format, which can then be edited on the computer using a sound editing application you
already have access to.

There are various ways to get sounds from your phone to your computer:

Bluetooth Wi fi Data cable

Bluetooth is a technology which allows two handsets or a handset and a computer within close
proximity of each other to transfer information to each other. Most Bluetooth technology works
over a range of approximately 10 meters. Although newer variants can reach further, up to 100
meters, it‘s most likely that you will use Bluetooth to transfer data off your phone while sitting next
to the computer with the phone. To connect your phone and your computer via Bluetooth you
should follow the instructions on your computer about ‗pairing‘ a device via Bluetooth. Youhave to
make sure that Bluetooth is switched on, on both devices and follow the instructions. If you are
transferring data this way, always remember to switch Bluetooth off when you are finished.

IX)Headphones

Headphones are a pair of small loudspeaker drivers worn on or around the head over a user's ears.
They are electroacoustic transducers, which convert an electrical signal to a corresponding sound.
Headphones let a single user listen to an audio source privately, in contrast to a loudspeaker, which
emits sound into the open air for anyone nearby to hear. Headphones are alsoknown as earphones
or, colloquially, cans. Circumaural ('around the ear') and supra-aural ('over the ear') headphones use
a band over the top of the head to hold the speakers in place. Another type, known as earbuds or
earpieces, consists of individual units that plug into the user's ear canal. The third types are bone
conduction headphones, which typically wrap around the back of the head and rest in front of the
ear canal, leaving the ear canal open. In the context of telecommunication, a headset is a
combination of a headphone and microphone.

Headphones connect to a signal source such as an audio amplifier, radio, CD player, portable media
player, mobile phone, video game console, or electronic musical instrument, either directly using a
cord, or using wireless technology such as Bluetooth, DECT or FM radio.

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You will need a set of headphones to check sound levels

as you record. The headphones enableyou to hear the sound
exactly as it is being recorded, and therefore exactly as the
audience will hear it. It‘s a good idea to record a
minute or so of sound in situ before you start and listen back
to it on headphones to check for problems such as noise,
distortion or insufficient level.

Figure 1.6: Headphone

UNIT 2
Operation of audio recording devices

1.1 Introduction to the unit

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Audio recording, or Sound recording, is the storage of sounds so that they can be heard again. In
professional and home recording studios, special equipment records the music that people listen to
on compact discs (CDs) and their computers. Sound recording is also used in radio, television, and
movies

As you study this unit, audio production can be accomplished in a variety of situations and in a
number of different environments. Recording ―in the field‖ may simply entail using a single
microphone and portable recorder or perhaps a setup consisting of lap-top, audio software, and a
microphone. On the other hand, recording in the studio may entail multiple microphones and other
sound sources feeding into a large audio mixer or just a basic editing suite. This unit takesa look at
the more formal setting of the traditional audio studio.

The room that houses the equipment necessary for audio production work and in which the finished
product is assembled is known as the production studio. The merely a roomful of electronic
equipment will become a comfortable environment once you‘ve become familiar with the space and
components that make up the production facility.

Learning Outcomes:

After completing this unit, students will be able to:

 Operate different audio recording devices

 Record quality audio by using audio recording devices

 Appreciate the difference in audio recording devices

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Key Terms:

 Audio Bit-depth  Intro

 Audio sample  Outro
 DAT  Studio recording
 DAW
 Filed recording

Activities: 2.1:

Students, List as money different types of audio recording devices as you possible and their
common parts. Discuss in group the importance of these you listed?

2.2. Steps in Audio Recording

Although digital recorders are increasingly the norm, either an analogue or a digital recorder willdo the
job. Whichever you use, when you input your recording into your computer it will be converted to
digital sound, which you can then edit with free digital sound-editing software.

Two important factors that distinguish recorders from each other is the presence of a time counter and
the ability to adjust sound levels.

Figure 2.1. A level meter in action

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The following are the key steps to record audio.

STEP 1 – PLANNING
Creating great audio is not only about sound levels. Planning what you want to produce is thefirst
vital step. Your plan should answer the following questions:
 Who is this for?
 What is it trying to achieve?
 Who is the audience?
 What is the key message?
 What do you want listeners to learn / feel / do?
 What are the barriers to this audience hearing this message?
STEP 2 – CHOOSING A FORMAT
Choose the right format for your audience and message. Here are some common formats for you to
choose from:
 Panel discussion – an interviewer with two or more contributors
 Phone-in – recording of contributors on the phone; usually used in studio-based context.
However, you need to know about the legal restrictions concerning recording people in the
phone as this is illegal in some countries, even if the person has given permission.
 Single interview – with an interviewee and interviewer.
 Feature – with voice, background sound, narration and other elements mixed together.
 Dramatic – this is a broad category and can include theatre, music, and other entertaining
formats.
 Informative/ documentary – a piece that primarily conveys information, in the same
way as a public service announcement or advert provides educational information.
 Endorsement – using a well-known person to convey a message, such as a leader or a
celebrity.
STEP 3 – CHOOSING A STYLE
Choose a style for your audio piece that suits your audience and your message. The following are
some of the most common styles.
 Formal or informal – do you want to use humor and familiarity as tools to reach your
audience, or do you want to convey information by invoking authoritative sources and
―experts‖? If yes, the most obvious example of the formal style is a news item, in which the
emphasis is put on the authority of the information.

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 With a narrator or without – do you want to let the voice of your contributor(s) be the
whole audio piece, as many ‗oral history‘ productions do, or do you want to incorporate a
―presenter‖ voice to draw the pieces together for the audience?
STEP 4 – SETTING UP THE RECORDING
Whether you are doing an interview or capturing raw sound, you need to take time to test the sound
levels before you actually start recording. Background sound, such as the hum of an air conditioner,
might not have been noticeable before you started recording, but once you have yourheadphones on
it can suddenly sound very loud.
Some background sound can add to the atmosphere, but some can be purely distracting. If the noise
is a problem, ask it to be switched of or silenced, or if necessary, move to another location. There is
nothing worse (and it happens a lot) than to come back with unusable recordings simply because the
person making the recording felt too awkward to do anything about it at the time.
If you are doing an interview, take the time to test your contributor‘s voice for loudness and clarity,
and make any necessary changes – such as adjusting the sound levels, repositioning the
microphone, or changing the seating arrangement or general environment.
You can also use this test period or ―sound-check‖ as a way to break the ice – people are often
nervous about being recorded and uncomfortable speaking into a microphone, but you can take
steps to ensure that they are as relaxed as possible. Welcome them, perhaps make a joke, and then
tell them that you will ask a few ‗trailer‘ questions that won‘t be recorded. What did you have for
breakfast?‘ is a standard first question to break the ice, and also to test voice levels.
For some sorts of interviews, you may want to prepare the interviewee(s) in advance by discussing
what sort of questions you are going to ask. Especially if the recording is being playedlive, or if you
hope to use the interview without much editing, this is time well spent.
STEP 5 – REVIEWING YOUR MATERIAL
One of the most important steps in producing audio is to listen back to your recording and make
notes or a full transcript of what was said and where the good sounds are located. If you do thisin
shorthand, it is called a ―log.‖ This step takes time, and a frequent mistake made by audio
producers at all levels of experience is hasty logging. This can result in a great deal of wasted time.
Time spent reviewing and logging your content is time well spent.
A log can take a number of forms depending on what works for you, but at minimum, be sure to
record the time of each new paragraph or new sound (make sure to start your playback at 00‘00‖),

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and then additionally the time when there is a good bit of speech or background sound. Note the
start time, the first few words, the last few words, and the end time for each section that you like.
For example:
INTRO (00’20”): “I believe the most important aspect is …… OUTRO: everyone should know
this”. (00’50”)

2.3 The Recording Process

The key decision in finding the right space is how you can best eliminate noise. Noise is a typeof
sound that can be unpleasant, unwanted, annoying or too loud for human ears. In audio, recording,
and broadcast systems, audio noise refers to the residual low-level sound (four major types: hiss,
rumble, crackle, and hum). You want to avoid fans, road noise, other people walking around, wind
and any other unintended sound. It is hard to remove these kinds of sounds from a signal, it might
be possible though if you use noise reduction tools, but don't expect it to. At this point in time, most
recording is digital: your signal gets sent to a computer and turned into a file. Based on the place
where it happens, recording take place in studio or out of the studio, field recording.

Studio: A recording studio is a specialized facility equipped with audio and sound equipment,
designed for the purpose of recording, mixing, and producing audio performance, music, or spoken
words. It is typically soundproofed to minimize external noise interference and can consist of
multiple separate rooms for recording, control, and sound isolation You could record in any quiet
room and get good results; you just have toconsider not only noise, but how reverberant the room
is. When you make a sound, can you hear that sound bounce around the room? This is usually
caused by flat parallel surface. You can put up curtains, or other acoustic treatment techniques.

Field: Field recording is anything that is not in a studio, usually outside. People often use devices
called field recorders which are like an all in one audio recording device. It functions as the mic,
interface, computer, and speakers. Although most phones have these abilities too, a field recorder
can capture much higher quality sound and could connect with professional microphones. If you
want to record a specific sound like an interview or a bird, you may want something more
directional like a shotgun mic. Shotguns are often paired with windscreens and boom poles for
getting sound for video. You could usea lavalier mic, which is a tiny mic that clips onto a person's
shirt for high quality close mic'ing. You should always have headphones to monitor your sound.
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You never know when it‘s going to rain, so it's a good idea to carry your gear in a dry bag. To
reduce the noise of recording, it is good to use shock mounts for microphones like a boom pole, or a
pistol grip.

Audio Recording Workflow

1) Test out your equipment and space before your performer gets there. Make sure
you aregetting clean signal with no noise.

2) With your musician, run a mic check and set your gain.

3) Make sure that the performer can hear what they need to; themselves, what
is beingrecorded, the pre-recorded sounds, whatever they need.

4) Record the take, check it, and continue. Operation

5) Save your files in at least 2 locations for safety.

2.4 Operation of different types of audio devices

As there are so money audio recording devices in the market today, their operation is also different.
To know and familiarize the operation of these audio recording devices, you should study the
operational manual of each device. As examples, some of the widely used audio recorders in
Ethiopian operations are discussed below.
I Sony Digital Voice Recorder ICD-PX370,
Step one: Powering on your recorder

1. First of all make sure that your recorder has proper batteries installed.

2. To turn the device ON:

3. Slide and hold the HOLD – POWER switch (on the left side of the
recorder) in the direction of ―POWER‖ until the window display appears on the screen.

4. To turn the device OFF:

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5. Slide the HOLD – POWER switch to ―POWER‖ and hold it until ―Power Off‖ appears on
the display window.

Step two: Recording an Audio Session

1. First, note the microphone at the top of the recorder. For best audio quality, do notblock or
cover the microphone during the session.

2. On the front of the recorder, note the STOP button at the top left, the REC/PAUSE
button at the top right, and the PLAY/ENTER button in the center.

3.

4. Before you start, make sure the Power Button is in the center of the switch.

5. From the HOME menu, select the RECORD option- the recording
standby screenwill then appear on the display window.

a. Select the folder you would like to store the recorded files in.

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Recordings areautomatically filed in ―FOLDER01‖ by default.

b. Instructions on how to create new folders can be found in the Help Guide:

6. Face the recorder so the microphone is positioned between you and your sourcewant to
record.

7. Press the REC/PAUSE button.

a. Recording has started when ―REC‖ appears on the display and

the operation indicator light is red.

b. To pause the recording, hit REC/PAUSE again. Then hit the

center play button when you wishto resume.

c. Hitting stop will end the recording and further recording will be
on a separate file.

8. Note: Hit STOP button only the entire session isdone to ensure the entire session remains in the
same file.

9. Once your session is over, hit the STOP button to end the recording. ―Saving…‖ will
appear on the display and will then return to the record standby screen.

10.

Step three: Listening to / Locating a Recording

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1. If you would like to listen to the recording before uploading it to your computer, you may
select ―RECORDED FILES‖ on the Home screen by using the Fast Forward and Rewind
buttons to scroll through the options. Hit the PLAY button to select.

2. Once you have selected RECORDED FILES you may choose the most recent recording,
search by recording date, or look through a specific folder. You can choose which of these
you would like by scrolling using the UP/DPC and DOWN/A-B buttons and using PLAY to
select.

Note that your recorder does NOT include an SD card so when searching through Folders you
must select ―Built-In Memory‖ to view all of your recordings in that folder.

If at any point, you need to go back to a previous screen, just use the BACK/HOME button, to go
back through previous screens and return to the Home page.

To Transfer Your Files to a Computer

Successful completion your recording will be followed by transferring your recording to computer

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workstation for reproducing or editing process.. A few simple steps will allow for easy transfer to
any desktop or laptop with a USB port.

1) Slide the USB lever, located on the back of your recorder, down until the USB is
fully exposed.

2) Insert the USB connector into a USB port.

3) Device called ―IC Recorder‖ will appear on your computer. Click on the device.
You will see a folder called ―REC_FILE‖. Double click on the folder. And then
you will see a subfolder called ―FOLDER01.‖ Note: If you have not created
another folder on the device, this is where all of your audio recordings will be
located.

4) Select the audio recording you would like to upload and drag and drop to the local
disk orShared Drive on your computer.

5) When saving each separate recording, please name the fileproperly to identify it
easily in later use.

II Recording Audio with Your Mobile PhoneFor iPhones

 Go to the App Store.

 Search "audio recorder free."

 Find the voice recorder app with this logo:

 Download and open the app.

 Hold your phone upside down, like a microphone.

 Push the red record icon and begin speaking.

 When you're done speaking, push the stop icon.

 When prompted, rename the file with your name.

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 Play back the file to ensure it recorded correctly.

 Email the file to the appropriate recipient.

For Android phones

 Go to the Google Play Store.

 Search "audio recorder free."

 Find the voice recorder app with this logo:

 Download and open the app.

 Hold your phone upside down, like a microphone.

 Hold the red record icon and begin speaking.

 When you're done speaking, push the stop icon.

 When prompted, rename the file with your name.

 Play back the file to ensure it recorded correctly.

 Email the file to the appropriate recipient.

Unit Summery

With the advent of digital audio equipment and the advantages in quality and convenience it offers, the
use of old analog equipment continues to diminish and in many instances has been discontinued.
Being comfortable working with various kinds of digital equipment, especially the recorders and
players, will be a necessary skill for most audio production people. It is also probable that new
types of digital-based equipment will continue to be developed, and equipment not yet thought of
will find a home in future audio production facilities.
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The aesthetic use of recorded sounds demands an understanding of sound aesthetics as well as
recording devices and their selection, placement, and control. A mic or microphone is a transducer
that converts analog sound-wave energy into analog electrical energy. Mics can be classified into
three different categories on the basis of their transducer elements: dynamic, ribbon, and condenser.

Mics can also be classified on the basis of pickup patterns: omnidirectional, bidirectional, and
unidirectional mics, such as the cardioid and super cardioid or shotgun mic. Mics can be placedin
on-camera and off-camera positions. Hand mics, desk mics, stand mics, and lavaliere mics are
examples of on-camera mic positions. Mics on booms, such as fish-pole, giraffe, and perambulator
booms, as well as various hidden mics, such as the hanging mic, prop mic, and concealed lavaliere
mic, are off-camera mics.

Digital recording of audio requires greater care in mic selection and placement as well as noise
reduction. Sound signal control helps a sound recordist achieve the best-quality recorded sound by
eliminating specific audio problems, such as loudness distortion and excessive ambient and system
noise. A sound-measuring device, such as a volume unit (VU) meter or LED indicators, can be
used to set the sound level as high as possible for optimal signal-to-noise ratio while avoiding
loudness distortion. Balanced mic cables should be used to minimize noise and electrical
interference.

Audio mixing is done on an audio console, mixer, or DAW (Digital Audio Workstation). Mixing
refers to combining several different inputs, such as different mics or playback machines, into a
single (monophonic) or dual (stereophonic) output, which is directed to a tape recorder or some
digital recording medium. Faders on the audio console, mixer, or DAW are used to adjust the
volume gradually.

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UNIT 3
Video recording devices

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Introduction to the unit

Video is an electronic medium for the recording, copying, playback, broadcasting, and display of
moving visual media. Video was first developed for mechanical television systems, which were
quickly replaced by cathode-ray tube (CRT) systems, which, in turn, were replaced by flat-panel
displays of several types. Video systems vary in display resolution, aspect ratio, refresh rate, color
capabilities, and other qualities. Analog and digital variants exist and can be carried on a variety of
media, including radio broadcasts, magnetic tape, optical discs, computer files, and network
streaming.

Video recording is a way of storing television programs and other moving images along with sound.
Video recording is used to record TV programs for later broadcast. Video recording also gives
viewers the ability to save a TV program and watch it whenever they want to.

Thousands of movies are available in the form of video recordings, too. They can be viewed on a
TV set or a computer screen. And many people make their own movies using portable video
cameras called camcorders. This unit focuses on the type and nature of video recording devices.

Learning Outcomes:

After completing this unit, students will be able to:

 Explain the differences between the various video cameras available.

 Identify each part of a video camera, camera accessories and note their
correspondingfunction.

 Use video camera and record quality video

 Differentiate between the focal length and the focal point related to a zoom lens.

 Explain the interrelationship between f-stops, the iris, and aperture in controlling light.

 Identify the challenges and benefits involved in using hand-held camera shooting.

 Recognize the types of tripod heads available and cite the unique characteristics of each.

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Key Terms
 Studio camera:
 Camcorder:
 Camera head:
 Charge coupled device
(CCD):
 Gain:
 Viewfinder:
 Lens:
 Focus:
 Focal length:
 Iris:
 Aperture:
 Shutter:
 Tripod:
 Camera control unit (CCU):

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Activities: 3.1:

Students, list as money equipment as possible you know people use to record video of any
occasion. Discus in group the equipment and their functions

3.1. Introduction to video recording devices

Video is a form of visual and audio medium that involves recording moving images and sound. Itis a
technology that allows for the recording, playback, and broadcasting of visual and auditory
information. Videos are widely used for entertainment, education, communication, marketing, and
many other purposes.

A camera is an optical instrument that records images that can be stored directly, transmitted to another
location, or both. These images may be still photographs or moving images such as videos or
movies. The term camera comes from the word ―Camera Obscura (Latin for "dark chamber). The
modern camera evolved from the camera Obscura & functioning of the camera is very similar to the
functioning of the human eye.

A video recording device is a piece of hardware that lets you capture video footage in a digital format -
better known as a camera or video camera. Your device will usually record to an in-built storage
drive or an SD card. A video recording device usually includes an built-in mic to record
corresponding audio, although this isn‘t always the best option for high-quality audio.

3.2 Types of Video Cameras

Videos are typically made up of a series of individual images called frames that are displayed rapidly in
succession to create the illusion of motion. Videos can be recorded using various devices such as
cameras, smartphones, and webcams, and they can be stored, shared, andstreamed through various
platforms and mediums, including television, the internet, DVDs, and more. Video cameras today
come in a wide variety of shapes and sizes that suit all kinds of different situations. They range
from units that fit in a pocket to cameras that are so heavy that they can take a couple of people to
lift them. Historically there were consumer, industrial, and professional cameras. Many of those
monikers have merged, with small, previously thought of as consumer cameras now being used in
the professional workplace. Traditionally, for a multi- camera production, high-cost

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cameras were used that required camera control units. Today‘s multi-camera systems allow many
types of cameras to be used in professional situations, including low-cost cameras. The right
camera depends on how the end production is going to be used. What was considered a professional
quality camera 10 years ago has been dwarfed by the quality of small, low-cost high-definition
pocket-sized cameras available today.

For all of the cool technological advancements, keep in mind that the important thing is to know
how to visually communicate. Most productions are created with a camera that is a stand-alone unit;
they are known as single-camera productions. Single-camera productions are generally edited
together during postproduction. The second major type of production is a multi-camera production,
where two or more cameras are used with a switcher selecting the image to be shownto the viewer.

Single cameras generally have a built-in recorder. These recorders may use a videotape, DVD, flash
card, and/or a hard drive. Note that some of the latest cameras have both tape or flash card and a
hard drive, allowing two recording options in one camera. Cameras may also be combined (by wire
or wirelessly) with other recorders such as a tape deck or a portable hard drive. Some ofthe studio
cameras or remote production (outside broadcast) cameras are available withoutrecorders because
they are designed specifically for multi-camera use.

The camera is one of the first pieces of equipment that new students gravitate toward because itis
the main tool used to make videos and to tell stories. It also appears to be the most central itemin a
television studio. Good camera operators must first learn the capabilities of their equipment.

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Figure 3.1: types of video cameras

Several types of video cameras are available for professional, consumer, and prosumer use.
Prosumer cameras refer to cameras that are at the top end of consumer use and bottom end of
professional use. The following are types of camera.

a) Studio Cameras

A studio camera is usually very large and too heavy to be used as a remote camera in the field.
Because of its size, studio cameras are attached to a large, single column on wheels that is
pneumatically or hydraulically controlled called a studio pedestal.

Studio cameras may be placed on a three-legged stand, called a tripod, for support. To allow the
camera to easily move from one location on the studio floor to another, the feet of the tripod are
placed into a type of three-wheeled cart called a tripod dolly,

Each studio camera comes with a camera control unit (CCU), sometimes referred to as a remote-
control unit (RCU). The CCU is a piece of equipment that controls the video signal sent from the
camera and is usually placed in the control room or the master control room. The CCU controls
many signals from the camera, including the color, tint, contrast, and brightness.

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Figure 3.2: Different Types of Studio Cameras

b) Camcorders

A camcorder is a combination of a video camera and recorder in a single unit. The firstcamcorders
that debuted in 1983 were rather large and recorded onto analog videotape. Today, consumer
camcorders fit in the palm of your hand and record onto memory cards. Most consumers get by
with using their smartphones for capturing life‘s special moments, but small consumer
camcorders still have their use, especially when needing to record for long periods of time.

The term camcorder has fallen out of favor in recent years, as most people refer to it as a video
camera. Professional camcorders are lightweight, portable cameras but are not quite as small.
The main difference between consumer and professional camcorders is a professional camcorder
has more manual controls and allows for external microphone inputs. It also has a better quality of
internal components and camera resolution. Newer camcorders record directly onto SD cards or to

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an external recorder. Most camcorders have USB ports to transfer captured video directly to a
computer and HDMI ports to feed a live signal to a production switcher.

Electronic News Gathering (ENG) Cameras

An electronic news gathering (ENG) camera is a large, professional video camera that is often used
by photojournalists working with the news. These cameras are sometimes referred to as an
electronic field production camera, or an EFP camera for short. While in use, it is placed on the
operator‘s right shoulder or on a tripod. These broadcast quality cameras are heavier than
camcorders, but the weight helps to keep the shot steady. They have interchangeable lenses and
professional audio inputs, which assist in work with reporters.

Figure 3.3: video camera parts

 This type of viewfinder is generally called an electronic news gathering (ENG) or
electronic field production (EFP) viewfinder. It is a small monitor designed to be placed
next to the camera operator‘s eye
 The power switch turns the camera on/off.
 The manual zoom control lens ring allows the camera operator to zoom in and out
manually.
 The power zoom rocker switch, located on the side of the lens, allows the camera
operator to electronically zoom the lens. The speed of the zoom may vary, depending on
the switch pressure.
 The focus control ring on a lens allows the camera operator to turn the ring manually to
obtain the optimal focus.

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 The lens aperture control ring allows the camera operator to adjust the lens iris manually
to control exposure.
 The white and black balance controls the circuitry in the camera that uses white or black
to balance the color settings of the camera.
 The filter wheel includes a number of filters that can be used to correct the color in
daylight, tungsten, and fluorescent lighting situations.
 Clip-on camera batteries allow the camera operator to carry multiple batteries.
 Although at this point it is not common, some cameras are equipped with a built-in
wireless microphone and antennas.
 On-camera shotgun microphones are useful for picking up natural sound but often pick
up camera and operator noises.
 Lens shades protect the lens elements from picking up light distortions from the sun or a
bright light

Figure 3.3: DSLR camera

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c) Smartphone Cameras

The best camera is the one that is in your pocket, and having an HD camera in your pocket canbe
a very powerful thing. Almost every major event is now captured on video, whether it is a riotin a
street or a tornado devastating a community. Smartphone cameras have come a long way, and the
technology behind them is growing exponentially. There are even festivals dedicated to videos shot
on smartphones. Camera support companies are building rigs specifically to support this growing
market. Video specific apps and the playability of video on social networking sites have also
contributed to more and more content being produced directly from smartphones.

The smartphone should not be considered a replacement for a camcorder. Its primary purpose is still
to make phone calls, and when your phone is being used as a camera, it cannot be used to text,
make calls, or take pictures. The main drawback is that it lacks on-board tactile focus and exposure
control. Depending on the phone model, memory capacity and battery life can be somewhat
limiting as well. However, a smartphone definitely has its place as a camera and is a powerful tool.

d) Camera Drones

Figure 3.4: Drone Camera at work

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Camera drones, or simply drones, capture aerial photography shot using a tiny camera mountedto
a small quadcopter. Prior to drones, these types of photos were only attained by using helicopters
with specialty cameras mounted underneath that were stabilized by a gimbal. A gimbal is a support
that allows an object to rotate along a single axis. This same stabilization technology is also used in
a drone.

Drones are used by film and video producers as well as entities such as real estate professionals and
home inspectors. Since drones occupy the air space, their operation is governed by the federal
aviation administration. Commercial drone operators must obtain a license to fly one.

Parts of a Camera

A video camera comprises three major parts:

I. Camera lens

II. Camera head

III. Viewfinder

(I) Camera Lens

The camera lens is an assembly of several glass discs placed in a tube on the front of a [Link]
primary purpose is to concentrate, or focus, the incoming light rays on the surface of the imaging
device or target. A picture is considered to be in focus when the adjoining lines of contrast are as
sharp as possible.

Auto-focus is a common feature on consumer cameras that tracks and keeps the subject of the
picture in focus. Auto-focus is also on many professional cameras, although professionals almost
always keep auto-focus turned off. This is because when it is on, the lens is constantly adjusting,
and the slightest change in the shot can lead to the lens switching focus. Focus can also be usedas
a creative tool, and professionals prefer to have creative control over their images. There are some
occasions where auto-focus can be a great benefit, especially when shooting documentary or event
footage where there may be many unpredictable moving subjects in the frame.

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Types of Lenses

Camera lenses are classified by their focal length measurement. Focal length is the distance
(measured in millimeters) from the focal point of the lens assembly to the back of the lens
assembly. The back of the lens is the end of the lens assembly that attaches to the camera. The front
of the lens assembly is the outermost part, which is the side closest to the subject. The focallength
of the lens determines how much of the scene you can fit in your frame. The smaller the focal
length number, the wider the view. The larger the focal length number, the narrower the view.

Wide-angle lenses are lenses that have a focal length less than 50 mm. They usually range from 14
mm to 35 mm. Wide-angle lenses give the camera operator a wider view of the subject and the
surrounding area. They also alter depth perception by making the size and distance between objects
more pronounced. You can see more of the scene, but it all seems further away. These lenses are
easier to keep the subject in focus. It is easier to keep this lens and camera steady when shooting
handheld. Thus, if a tripod is not being used, try using a smaller focal length and getting closer to
the action. One drawback to wide-angle lenses is that the wider the lens, the more the image
distorts.

A lens that has a focal length higher than 50 mm is called a telephoto lens. Telephoto lenses make
the subject appear closer to the camera. You may have noticed professional photographers on the
sidelines at sporting events with their long telephoto lenses. The higher the number, the more
magnified the image becomes. Common telephoto lenses range from 70 mm to 300 mm, although
there are some even higher than this. Unlike wide angle lenses that pronounce distance, telephoto
lenses compress distance. Telephoto lenses have a small depth of field and are more difficult to
focus. You can use this to your advantage creatively if you want the background or foreground of a
scene to be out of focus. Telephoto lenses also exaggerate camera movement, so if you are filming
a football player running in for a touchdown, it will be shaky without the useof a tripod.

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Figure 3.4: Different types of Camera Lenses

(II)Camera Head

The camera head, also known as the camera body, is the actual camera portion of the equipment. It
contains all the electronics needed to convert the reflection of light from the subject into an
electronic signal. The incoming light is split, usually by a prism, into individual red, green, and blue
beams. Each beam hits the photo sensitive surface, or the target, of the correspondingcharge
coupled device (CCD), or chip. There are hundreds of thousands of photosensitiveelements on one
side of the dime-sized CCD that convert light into an electronic, or video, signal. The electronic
signal created by each photosensitive element varies, depending on the intensity and color of light
that hits individual elements. The video signal passes through to the opposite side of the CCD and
enters the rest of the camera. Professional cameras contain three CCDs—one for each colored light
beam (red, green, and blue). Low-cost cameras have only one CCD, which produces video that is
considerably lower in quality than a professional camera.

Another type of sensor is the CMOS (complementary metal-oxide semiconductor) sensor. The
CMOS sensor is larger than the CCD and, therefore, can capture more light. These sensors are
found in smartphone, web, most DSLR, mirrorless and digital cinema cameras. Sensors vary in size
with the biggest being referred to as a full-frame sensor, which is equivalent to the size of 35 mm
film.

Video cameras have circuit that regulates how long the CCD is exposed to light coming through the
lens called shutter. As light hits the CCD, the photosensitive elements build up an electrical charge
of varying strength depending on the intensity and color of light hitting them. This chargeis sent to

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the camera processing circuits sixty times per second. When the charge is sent out, the
photosensitive elements are discharged and begin collecting light again.

Some higher-end cameras offer manual shutter speed settings. For example, the shutter speed on
one camera can be increased exponentially from 1/100 to 1/8000. The higher the shutter speed, the
clearer the footage is when played back in slow motion—often used in sports programming.
However, higher shutter speeds ―eat up‖ light, or require more light. To avoid a very dark
picture, the amount of light must be increased dramatically if shutter speed is increased.

(III) Viewfinder

A viewfinder is a small video monitor that allows the camera operator to view the images in the
shot. There are two types of view finders: the optical viewfinders (OVF) and electronic viewfinders
(EVF). Optical viewfinders display the video image as it is seen through the lens. They show the
camera operator the world as it exists, while electronic viewfinders show what theimage looks like
after it is processed by the sensor. Thus, the operator can see in real time if the image is under
exposed. Oftentimes, a camcorder has two viewfinders—one small fold-out screen on the side of
the camera head (EVF), and one that is much smaller (perhaps only an inch,if measured diagonally)
and fixed at the rear of the camera body (OVF).

The fold-out viewfinder is very convenient if the camera is on a tripod, and the larger screen is
easier to view. On the other hand, the image displayed on a fold-out viewfinder may be difficult to
see when the camera is in a well-lit environment. It may also be difficult to focus the image using
the fold-out viewfinder because it does not display the same resolution as the camera captures.
While the camera may be recording a 4k image, the resolution on the flip out screen is only a small
fraction of that. To help with this, many professional cameras with electronic viewfinders employ a
feature called focus peaking. This feature outlines the part of the imagethat is in focus with a
bright colored frame, which can be especially useful when shooting imageswith a shallow depth of
field.

The smaller viewfinder has a magnifier in front of it, which makes the image easier to see. Because
the viewfinder and magnifier are completely enclosed, the operator‘s eye must rest against a soft
rubber eyepiece to properly view the image. When using the small viewfinder, there is no problem

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seeing the image clearly in bright light. However, operators who wear eyeglasses may find that their
glasses get in the way of properly using the viewfinder.

3.3 Elements of Video Production

In order to make a good television program or video we need various equipment and people to
operate them. Some of the essential equipment are video cameras, lights, microphone, sound
recorder etc. We can categories these basic production elements as follows:

a) Video Camera

The most basic equipment in every production is the camera. In our lives also, many of us or our
friends must have used the camera for capturing various events.

If you carefully look at any camera, you will see a lens in it. This lens selects a part of the visible
environment and produces a small optical image. The camera is principally designed to convert the
optical image, as projected by the lens, into an electrical signal, often called the video signal.

b) Camera Lights

Just like the human eye, the video camera also cannot see without a certain amount of light. There
comes the role of lights in television production. Lighting any object or individual has three main
purposes:

• To provide the television camera with adequate illumination for technically acceptable
pictures.

• To show the viewers what the objects shown on screen actually look like, say, for
instance, if there was no light in the room, we would not have been able to see how the
chair, table or anything else for that matter would look like. Lights also help us know
when the event is taking place, in terms of the season and the time of the day.

• To establish the general mood of the event.

To enhance the visual quality and ambiance of your video productions, proper lighting is a vital
component that cannot be overlooked. Good lighting can make a significant difference in the
overall look and feel of your videos. When setting up your lighting equipment, consider
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using three-point lighting, which consists of a key light, a fill light, and a backlight.

The key light is the primary light source, providing the main illumination for your

subject.

The fill light helps to soften shadows created by the key light, while the backlight adds depth by
separating the subject from the background.

Figure: Ilustration of three point light

LED panel lights are a versatile and popular option for video production. They’re energy-efficient,
adjustable in color temperature, and provide consistent lighting. Soft boxes are another essential
lighting tool that helps diffuse light and create a flattering, even illumination.
Additionally, reflectors can be used to bounce light back onto your subject, filling in shadows and
enhancing overall brightness.

c) Microphone

As the camera converts what it sees into electrical signals, similarly the microphone converts sound
waves into electrical energy or the audio signals. But the sounds that we produce are very feeble in
nature and, therefore, cannot be sent to larger distances. Therefore it is amplified and sent to the
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loudspeaker which reconverts them into audible sound.

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There are different types of microphones available for different purposes. Picking up a news
anchor‘s voice, capturing the sounds of a tennis match, and recording a rock concert - all these
require different types of microphones or a set of microphones.

d) Sound Recorder

In one of your earlier lessons, you have learnt that radio is an aural or auditory medium. However,
television combines compelling visuals with the personal immediacy of the radio. This audio visual
character gives it great power in conveying realism in a convincing way.

Television sound/audio not only communicates information, but also contributes greatly to the
mood and atmosphere of the visuals that come along with the audio on screen. The sound recorder
essentially records the sound picked up by the microphone.

With a sound recorder, you can:

• select a specific microphone or other sound input

• amplify a weak signal from a microphone or other audio source for further processing

• Control the volume and ensure the quality of sound

• mix or combine two or more incoming sound sources

e) Post production editing machine

In television, before we actually telecast a program, we need to do the post production. In the post
production stage, you select visuals from the recorded materials, which seem to be most relevant
and copy them onto another videotape in a specific order. This is called editing. The
postproduction editing equipment/machine helps to edit the program after it is recorded. While
many of the elaborate editing systems may help you to obtain the desired results, most of them
cannot make the creative decisions for you. It is therefore important for you to know the desired
result and shoot accordingly.

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3.4 Principles of Video Recording cameras

All television cameras, whether they are color or monochrome, big studio models or small portable
ones, work on the same basic principle: the conversion of an optical image into electrical signals
that are reconverted by a television set into visible screen images.

• Light reflected off object;

• Lens gathers light and focuses image of object onto front surface of pickup tube;

• Camera pickup tube with photosensitive surface that converts light into electrical energy,
the video signal;

• Preamplifier, which strengthens signal;

• Electronic viewfinder, a small television set that shows what the camera is
photographing. In most cameras, the viewfinder produces only a black-and-white picture.

Unit Summary

A video camera contains one or more light-sensitive pickup chips. The camera chain consists ofa
camera, power supply, sync generator, and a camera control unit. Video cameras can be
divided into three basic categories on the basis of function: field cameras, convertible cameras, and
studio cameras. Field cameras are lightweight and portable. They can range from consumer cameras
to sophisticate and expensive digital video recording equipment that records the highest- quality
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images. Digital cameras are becoming smaller, use less power, and at the
same time produce a higher-quality signal for a lower cost than previous
video cameras. Digital cameras are usually divided into SD (standard
definition), HDV, full HD (high definition), and DC (digital cinema)
cameras, but there is a broad spectrum of digital cameras in terms of price
and quality, ranging from inexpensive consumer-grade SD cameras to the
highest-level digital cinema cameras. The use of videotape in camcorders
is being replaced with disc, solid-state circuits, and flash and hard drive
recording systems.

Camera operators understand the best position and angle at which to

place the camera in terms of camera-to-subject distance and high-angle
versus low-angle camera positions. Camera movements alter spatial
perspective and are often used to follow performer movements. Pans,
tilts, and pedestal and crane movements can be made with a stationary
tripod or camera- mounting device. Dollies, trucking shots, and arcs are
accomplished using movable camera- mounting devices. Moving camera
shots are used primarily to keep moving subjects within the camera frame
or to reveal new information by altering spatial perspective.

Camera operators must be thoroughly familiar with camera techniques

and equipment to provide directors with the best possible visual images
from the standpoint of a particular aestheticapproach. A camera operator
controls image composition and camera placement by employing four
key concepts: essential area, look-space, walk-space, and headroom.
Camera operators also employ the rule of thirds and realist conventions,
such as the 180-degree action-axis rule.

So camera operators must understand how lenses function in order to

control them. Lenses are curved pieces of glass that bend light in a
predictable manner. Lenses help a camera operator control an image‘s

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field of view, brightness, focus, perspective, and depth of field. Lenses

can be categorized by their focal lengths within a specific video or film
format into wide-angle, normal, and telephoto lenses. Zoom lenses allow
an operator to manipulate field of view by varying the focal length of the
lens. A zoom lens should usually be focused at its longest focal length
(telephoto). Varying the aperture, or iris, of a lens changes the amount of
light transmitted through the lens. The depth of field of an image—that is,
the range of distances in front of the lens that remain in focus—will vary
with changes in focal length, aperture, and camera-to- subject distance or
focus distance within a specific film or video format.

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