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CHAPTER ONE
Introduction : physics and measurement
A. A YUSUF

What is the physics ?

Physics deals with the nature and properties of
matter and energy.
Physics is based on experimental observations and
quantitative measurements.
Matter is anything that has mass , volume and
occupies space
Energy is the ability of doing work

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UNITS AND STANDARDS

Any physical quantity must have, besides its numerical
value, and standard unit. It will be meaningless to say that
the distance between Mogadishu and jowhar is 90
because 90 kilometers is different from 90 meters or 90
miles, where kilometer, meter, and mile are standards for
length known all over the world.
Several systems of units are used in physics:
The most common system among them is the System
International (French for International System) abbreviated SI.

Unit systems
Two systems of units are widely used in the world, the
metric and the British systems. The metric system
measures the length in meters whereas the British
system makes use of the foot, inch, ….. The metric
system is the most widely used.
Therefore the metric system will be used in this course.
By international agreement the metric system was
formalized in 1971 into the International System of
Units (SI). There are seven basic units in the SI

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Unit systems

Prefix Multipliers
The International System of Units uses the prefix
multipliers shown in Table 1.2 with the standard units.

These multipliers change the value of the unit by the

powers of 10 (just like an exponent does in scientific
notation)

For example, the kilometer has the prefix kilo

meaning 1000 or 103.

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Prefixes Used with SI Base Units

Derived quantities
All physical quantities measured by physicists can be
expressed in terms of the three basic unit of length,
mass, and time.
For example speed is simply length divided by time, and
the force is actually mass multiplied by length divided by
time squared.
[Speed] = L/T = LT-1
[Force] = ML/T2 = MLT-2

where [Speed] is meant to indicate the unit of speed, and

M, L, and T represents mass, length, and time units.

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Dimensional Analysis
The word dimension in physics indicates the physical nature
of the quantity. For example the distance has a dimension of
length, and the speed has a dimension of length/time.
Quantity Dimension Unit (SI, cgs, British)
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Area L m2, cm2,ft2

Volume L3 m3, cm3, ft3

Velocity L/T m/s, cm/s, ft/s

Acceleration L/T2 m/s2, cm/s2, ft/s2

Force ML/T2 Newton (N), dyne, pound

The dimensional analysis is used to check the formula, since the

dimension of the left hand side and the right hand side of the formula
must be the same.
Examples
Using the dimensional analysis check that this equation x = ½ at2 is
correct, where x is the distance, a is the acceleration and t is the time.
Solution
𝑥 = 1ൗ2 𝑎𝑡 2
𝐿
𝐿 = 𝑇2 × 𝑇 2 = 𝐿
This equation is correct

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Examples:
Show that the expression v = vo + at is dimensionally correct, where v
and vo are the velocities and a is the acceleration, and t is the time
Solution
The right hand side
𝐿
𝑉=
𝑇

The left hand side

𝐿 𝐿
𝑎𝑇 = 𝑇2 × 𝑇 = 𝑇
Therefore, the expression is dimensionally correct.

Examples:
Show that the expression v = vo + at2 is dimensionally correct, where v
and vo are the velocities and a is the acceleration, and t is the time
Solution
The right hand side
𝐿
𝑉=
𝑇

The left hand side

𝐿
𝑎𝑇 = 𝑇2 × 𝑇 2 = 𝐿
Therefore, the expression is dimensionally incorrect.

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Counting Significant Figures

First you should know that a number can have one uncertain
digit only (estimated).
The uncertain digit is counted as a significant figure
When counting significant figures, start from the first digit
other than zero and start counting to the right.
All zeros to the left of a nonzero digit are not significant.
All zeros between valued numerical digits are counted
(significant).
Zeros to the right of numeric digits are not significant, unless
a decimal point is present.

Counting Significant Figures

The number 00215 has three SFs
The number 02015 or 002105 has four SFs
The number 215000 has three significant figures
and should be written in the scientific notation as
2.15x105
The number 215.000 has 6 SFs, also the number
2.15000 has six SFs
The number 0.000215 has only three SFs.

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Any digit that is not zero is significant

1.234 kg 4 significant figures
Zeros between nonzero digits are significant
606 m 3 significant figures
Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit are not significant
0.08 L 1 significant figure
If a number is equals/greater than 1, then all zeros to the right of the
decimal point are significant
2.0 mg 2 significant figures
If a number is less than 1, then only the zeros that are at the end and in
the middle of the number are significant
0.00420 g 3 significant figures

Addition and Subtraction

Assume you are to sum the following numbers:
20.42 two digits to the right
1.322 three digits to the right
83.1 one digit to the right
Sum = 104.842
Since the result 83.1 has one digit to the right of the decimal
point, this is the highest uncertainty and the answer should
include one digit to the right of the decimal point (answer =
104.8)

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Multiplication and Division

In multiplication and division, the number with the least number
of SFs defines the number of digits in the answer.
Example
Find the area of a rectangle which has a length of 6.221 cm and
a width of 5.2 cm.
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = (6.221 𝑐𝑚) × (5.2 𝑐𝑚) = 32.3492 𝑐𝑚2

5.2 has two SFs only while 6.221 has 4 SFs. The answer should
have only 2 SFs, that is 32 cm2 .

The width, length, and height of a small box are 15.5 cm, 27.3 cm, and
5.4 cm, respectively. Calculate the volume of the box, using the correct
number of significant figures in your answer.

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑥 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑥 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

A calculator used for this calculation shows 2285.01, which we must
round off to two significant figures.
𝑉 = (15.5 𝑐𝑚) (27.3 𝑐𝑚) (5.4 𝑐𝑚) = 2285.01 𝑐𝑚3
Because the resulting number is 2300, it is best reported in exponential
notation, to clearly indicate two significant figures.
Answer = 2.3 × 103 𝑐𝑚3

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Rounding Off
In rounding off numbers, look at the leftmost digit
to be removed:
If the leftmost digit removed is less than 5, the
preceding number is left unchanged.
Thus, rounding 7.248 to two significant figures
gives 7.2.
If the leftmost digit removed is greater than 5, the
preceding number is increased by 1.

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If the leftmost digit to be removed is

exactly 5, look at the digit before it,
increase it by 1 if it is odd and do not
round off it is even
Rounding 4.735 to three significant
figures gives 4.74 (since 3 is odd), and
rounding 2.45 to two significant figures
gives 2.4 since 4 is even.

Vector and scaler

A scalar is the physical quantity that has magnitude
only, for example, time, volume, mass, density, energy,
distance, temperature.
Measuring Mass Measuring Temperature

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A vector is the physical quantity that has both

magnitude and direction, for example, displacement,
velocity, acceleration, force, area.
𝑣, Ԧ 𝐹Ԧ
Ԧ 𝑎,

Magnitude = 100 N
A Force
Direction = Left

The vector quantity will be distinguished from

the scalar quantity by typing it in boldface, like A.
In write handing the vector quantity is written with
an arrow over the symbol, such as,𝐴Ԧ
The magnitude of the vector A will be denoted
by 𝐴Ԧ , or simply the italic type A
Equality of Two Vectors Any two vectors
are said to be equal if they have the same
magnitude and point in the same direction

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Scalars and Vectors

Examples of scalars and vectors

Coordinate system
1. The rectangular coordinates
The rectangular coordinate system in
two dimensions is shown in Figure. This coordinate system is
consist of a fixed reference
point (0,0)
which called the origin.
A set of axis with
appropriate scale and label.

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2. The polar coordinates.

Sometimes it is more convenient to use the polar coordinate
system (r,𝜃),where r is the distance from the origin
to the point of rectangular coordinate
(x,y), and 𝜃is the angle between r and
the x axis.

The relation between coordinates

The relation between the rectangular
coordinates (x,y) and the polar coordinates
(r,𝜃) is shown in Figure

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𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑦
sin 𝜃 = =
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑟
𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑥
cos 𝜃 = =
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑟
𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑦
tan 𝜃 = =
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑥
𝑦
𝜃 = tan−1
𝑥

𝑟= 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2

Example :
The polar coordinates of a point are r =
5.5m and 𝜃 =240°.
What are the Cartesian
coordinates of this point

solution
x = r cos 𝜃 = 5.5×cos 240° = -2.75 m
y = r sin 𝜃 = 5.5×sin 240° = -4.76 m

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𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝐴𝑦
sin 𝜃 = =
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝐴
𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴 sin 𝜃
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐴𝑥
cos 𝜃 = =
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝐴
𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴 cos 𝜃
𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝐴𝑦
tan 𝜃 = =
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐴𝑥
𝐴𝑦
𝜃 = tan−1
𝐴𝑥

Example
A vector 𝐴Ԧ lying in the x-y plane has a magnitude A=50.0
units and is directed at an angle of 120° to the positive x
axis, What are the rectangular components of this vector?

Solution:
𝐴 = 50.0 𝜃 = 120

Component 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐴 cos 𝜃 = 50.0 cos 120 = −25.0

Component 𝐴𝑌 = 𝐴 sin 𝜃 = 50.0 sin 120 = 43.3

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The unit vector

A unit vector is a vector having a magnitude of unity and its used
to describe a direction in space.

i a unit vector along the x-axis

j a unit vector along the y-axis
k a unit vector along the z-axis

Components of a vector
Any vector 𝐴Ԧ lying in xy plane can be resolved into two components
one in the x-direction and the other in the y-direction
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦
Since, Ax =Axi and Ay =Ayj we can write Equation

𝐴Ԧ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗

where 𝐴𝑥 and 𝐴𝑦 are the x-component

and the y-component of the vector A,
respectively

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𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴𝐶𝑂𝑆𝜃 𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
The magnitude of the vector A is given by
𝐴 = 𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐴2𝑦

The direction of the vector to the x-axis

𝐴𝑦
𝜃 = tan−1
𝐴𝑥
In general any vector A can be resolved into three
components as
𝐴Ԧ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘

Properties of Vectors
Vector addition:
Only vectors representing the same
physical quantities can be added. To
add vector 𝐴Ԧ to vector 𝐵 as shown
in Figure , the resultant vector 𝑅 is
𝑅 = 𝐴Ԧ + 𝐵
𝐴Ԧ + 𝐵 = 𝐵 + 𝐴Ԧ

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Vector subtraction:

The vector subtraction 𝐴 − 𝐵 is evaluated as the vector

subtraction
𝐴Ԧ − 𝐵 = 𝐴Ԧ + −𝐵

We can added two vectors 𝐴and Ԧ 𝐵 by

analysis
𝐴Ԧ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗
𝐵 = 𝐵𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗
𝑅 = 𝐴Ԧ + 𝐵
𝑅 = 𝐴Ԧ + 𝐵=(𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 )i + 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 j

The magnitude is 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑥2 + 𝑅𝑦2

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Example
Find the sum of two vectors 𝐴Ԧ and 𝐵 given by
𝐴Ԧ = 3i + 4 j and 𝐵 = 2i - 5 j
Solution
Note that Ax=3, Ay=4, Bx=2, and By=-5
𝑅 = 𝐴Ԧ + 𝐵=(𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 )i + 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 j
=(3 +2)i +(4 - 5) j =5i - j

The magnitude of vector 𝑹 is

𝑅 = 𝑅𝑥2 + 𝑅𝑦2 = (5)2 +(−1)2 = 𝟐𝟔 = 𝟓. 𝟏

The direction of 𝑅 with respect to x-axis is

𝑅𝑦 −1
𝜃 = tan−1 = tan−1 = −11°
𝑅𝑥 5

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Example
If 𝐴Ԧ=4i +3j and 𝐵 =-3i +7 j, find the resultant vector 𝑅= 𝐴Ԧ + 𝐵
Solution :
From the given information we have
𝐴𝑥 = 4 𝐴𝑦 = 3 𝐵𝑥 = −3 𝐵𝑦 = 7
we have 𝑅𝑥 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 = 1
and 𝑅𝑦 = 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 = 10
So we can write
𝑅=i+10j

Example:

Two vectors given 𝐴Ԧ = 3𝑖 − 2𝑗 and 𝐵 = −𝑖 − 4𝑗 calculate

(a)𝐴Ԧ + 𝐵 (b)𝐴Ԧ − 𝐵 (c) 𝐴Ԧ + 𝐵 (d) 𝐴Ԧ − 𝐵 (e) the direction of
+ 𝐵 𝐴Ԧ − 𝐵
Solution
(a) A+ B= (3i - 2 j) +(-i - 4 j) =2i - 6 j
(b) A- B= (3i - 2 j) - (-i - 4 j) =4i +2 j
(c) 𝐴Ԧ + 𝐵 = 22 + −6 2 =6.32
(d) 𝐴Ԧ − 𝐵 = 42 + 22 =4.47
𝑅𝑦 −6
(e) for 𝐴Ԧ + 𝐵, 𝜃 = tan−1 𝑅𝑥 = tan−1 = −71.6°
2
2
for 𝐴Ԧ − 𝐵 ,, 𝜃 = tan−1 4 = 26.6°

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