CHEMISTRY NOTES

Writing a chemical equation that shows the energy change involved

• 3 ways of writing chemical equation that shows the energy change in a reaction:

1. Writing the ΔH value above the yield arrow

▪ Example: 6 CO2 + 6 H2O C6H12O6 + 6 O2
▪ Note: positive ΔH value means energy is supplied from surrounding; negative
ΔH means energy is released to the surrounding
2. Writing the value of ΔH on the reactant side (if endothermic) or on the product side
(if exothermic)
▪ Example: 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 2,804 kJ ➔ C6H12O6 + 6 O2
▪ The value of ΔH is written on the reactant side because the chemical
▪ reaction is endothermic
3. Writing the value of ΔH after the chemical equation, with correct sign.
▪ Example: 6 CO2 + 6 H2O ➔ C6H12O6 + 6 O2 ΔH = + 2,804 kJ
▪ the sign of ΔH is positive because the chemical reaction is endothermic

Standard enthalpy of formation (ΔHf 0) of a compound

• ΔHf 0 is necessary in calculating the heat of reaction (ΔHrxn)

• ΔHf 0 = is the enthalpy change when one mole of a compound is formed at RTP from its element
components in their stable states at RTP as well.

• ΔHf 0 of non-ionized elements is ZERO, but ionized atoms have either positive or negative ΔHf 0 .

• RTP = room temperature (250C) and standard pressure (1 atm pressure)

• ΔH0 (standard enthalpy change) = enthalpy change of a system (or a reaction) at RTP

• ΔH0 = total ΔHf 0 products – total ΔHf 0 reactants

• Given on the next slide are the ΔHf 0 of different compounds and ions

Flow of calculation

Standard enthalpy of Heat of Reaction (ΔHrxn ) Change in Internal Energy

formation ((ΔHf 0 ) (ΔUrxn )

Temperature change of Heat lost or gained (q)

the surrounding
In a little while you will be given sodium hydroxide pellets to be dissolved in water

• Before doing the activity, predict if it would become exothermic process or endothermic process by
getting its heat of reaction.

• Chemical equation: NaOH ➔ Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

• ΔHf 0 of substances involved:

NaOH(s) = - 425.6 kj/mole

Na+ (aq) = - 240.1 kJ/mole

OH- (aq) = - 230 kJ/mole

Heat (q) and Work (w)

• Heat and work are two forms of energy that are intertwined.

• When a system releases energy, it’s either in the form of heat or work, or a combination of the
two

• Likewise, when a system absorbs energy, it’s also either in the form of heat or work, or a
combination of both

• Work is readily convertible to heat, but heat is difficult to convert back to work, because heat
dissipates to the surrounding, thus difficult to recover.

• Work done by a system is negative work (-W)

• Work done on a system is positive work (+W)

• Heat released by a system is negative heat (-q)

• Heat absorbed by a system is positive heat (+q)

• An exothermic reaction releases heat to the surrounding, hence –q.

• in an exothermic reaction, the surrounding absorbs the heat, hence +q

• An endothermic reaction absorbs heat from the surrounding, hence +q.

• In an endothermic reaction, the surrounding provides heat to the reaction, hence –q

• In short, the respective signs of q of the reaction and the surrounding are opposite of each other

Determining the change in temperature of the surrounding as it provides heat to, or absorbs heat
from, a chemical reaction

Note: • In an exothermic reaction, the chemical reaction has – q while the environment has + q
 • In an endothermic reaction, the chemical reaction has +q while the environment has – q

Sample problem #1

• The ΔU of a given chemical reaction is – 2,300 kJ. Suppose the said chemical reaction happened
inside a 50-mL water, how many degree Celsius do you think would be the increase in temperature of
the water inside which the reaction occurred, if 20% of the said ΔU was released by the reaction in
the form of work?

• Note: in this problem, the ΔU of the reaction is already given (although it can also be calculated
using the ΔH of the reaction)

• 20% of the ΔU was converted to work by the reaction, which means only 80% of it was
available, and was released by the reaction, in the form of heat (q).

Important points on the problem

• 80% of 2,300 kJ = 1,840 kJ = amount of energy converted to heat (q)

• Since ΔU of the reaction is negative, it also means this q is negative ( - q)

• Negative q means heat is released by the reaction to the surrounding.

• The surrounding (the 50-mL water) will receive the heat, so the q of the surrounding is +q.

• Which means the 50-mL water will absorb 1,840 kJ of heat released by the reaction.

• q of water = + q = + 1,840 kJ

• Let us now compute the change in temperature (or ΔT) of the surrounding.

Calculating the ΔT of 50-mL water based on the amount of heat (q) it absorbed

• Amount of heat absorbed = + 1,840 kJ

• Formula: q = mcpΔT,

where m = mass of water in grams cp = specific heat of water ΔT = change in

temperature

• Rearranging the formula ➔ ΔT = q/(m)(cp)

ΔT = 1,840 kJ/(50 g)(4.19 kJ/g.0C)

ΔT = 8.780C

• ΔT here is positive w/c means the T final is higher than T initial. That is, the temp of water will
increase by 8.780C

• If the temperature of water before the reaction is 250C, then its temperature after the
reaction is 33.780C (that is 25 + 8.78)

What happens to the energy released or absorbed by a chemical reaction?

 Energy released by exothermic rxn Energy released by endothermic rxn
manifests in the form of heat released or work Manifests in the form of heat absorbed or
done by a system work done by the surrounding on the system
Increases the temperature of its surrounding Energy is stored in the products, usually in their
chemical bonds
Inside our body, this energy is harvested and Decrease in the temperature of the
converted to ATP, an energy storage form surrounding
Some are used to make the building blocks of
products more organized

Energy and Stability

Higher potential energy (U) = higher potential to change = less stable

ΔH (heat of reaction) = H product- H reactant

Reactants → Products

Total enthalpies of reactants (1,000 units-less stable) → Total enthalpies of products (200 units-
more stable) → EXOTHERMIC REACTION

Total enthalpies of reactants (300 units-more stable) → Total enthalpies of products (1,500
units-less stable) → ENDOOTHERMIC REACTION

Systems tend to naturally change from less stable state to more stable state

ΔH = H product (after) - H reactant (before) Higher H = less stable

- ΔH = H (after) < H (before) = forward (form less stable to more stable)


+ ΔH = H (after) > H (before) = backward (more stable to less stable)

• Endothermic: A process or reaction that absorbs heat and has a positive ΔH.

• Exothermic: A process or reaction that releases heat and has a negative DH ΔH.

• Law of conservation of energy: Energy can be neither created nor destroyed in any physical or
chemical change.

• Heat of reaction: Represented by ΔH, is the difference between the energy absorbed in breaking
bonds and that released in forming bonds. ΔH is also known as enthalpy change.

SPONTANEUTY OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

What “pushes” chemicals to undergo chemical reaction?

• Spontaneous process: A process that, once started, proceeds without any outside “help” • Example:
Spontaneous reaction

• Non-spontaneous process: A process that will not happen without outside “help”

• Example: Non-spontaneous reaction

Spontaneous non-spontaneous

Systems tend to naturally change from less stable state to more stable state

LESS STABLE SUBSTAN → MORE STABLE SUBSTANCE

ΔH and spontaneity of reaction

• In the previous chapter we observed the general idea that chemical reactions with negative ΔH
(exothermic) tend to become spontaneous, and it makes sense

• Systems with high internal energy (U) tend to be less stable than those with low internal energy

• If the total internal energy of reactants is higher than their products, it means by average, the
reactants are less stable than the products, and therefore, more prone to change.

“But not all spontaneous reactions are exothermic. Majority, yes but not all”

- There must be another factor out there that determines spontaneity of chemical reactions

Entropy (S) - The measure of randomness or disorganization of a system

ΔS (change in entropy) = entropy after – entropy before

Law of entropy = the natural tendency of an isolated system is to degenerate from organized to
disorganized

+ ΔS = S (after) > S (before) = forward (go) natural

- ΔS = S (after) < S (before) = backward (retreat) not natural

2nd law of thermodynamics

• the universe (system + surrounding) tends to naturally and spontaneously change to a more
random state with the flow of time.

• This is also called the law of entropy

• The change in entropy (ΔS) at RTP is mathematically defined as: ΔS 0 = ΣnS0 products - ΣnS0
reactants
• Rxns that results in the increase of moles of gas has +ΔS 0

• Rxns that results in the decrease of moles of gas has – Δs 0

Systems tend to naturally change from more organized state to less organized state

MORE ORGANIZED → LESS ORGANIZED

Gibb’s Free Energy

• What “pushes” substances to react with each other and undergo chemical change?

• We talked about the two natural tendencies of substances

• Substances tend to change from unstable state to stable state (ΔH)

• Substances tend to change from organized to disorganized (ΔS)

• These are the two “forces” that push substances to undergo chemical change.

• The vector sum of these two forces is referred to as the Gibb’s Free Energy (ΔG), or simply Free
Energy

Gibbs-Helmholtz Equation - Gives us the equation for the determination of Gibb’s Free energy
value based on the two “forces”

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ΔG and Spontaneity of Chem Rxn

• If ΔG is negative ➔ the reaction is spontaneous (exergonic)

• If ΔG is positive ➔ the reaction is non-spontaneous (endergonic)

• If ΔG is zero ➔ the reaction is in its equilibrium

Negative ΔG (Exergonic) positive ΔG (Enderrgonic) Zero ΔG (Equilibrium)

Gibbs-Helmholtz Equation

• Example: ΔH = - 100 joules (go); ΔS = + 10 joules (go), temp = 273 K (or 0 degree Celsius)

• ΔG = ΔH - TΔS (Gibbs-Helmholtz equation)

• ΔG = -100 - (273)(+10)

• ΔG = -100 – 2,730
• ΔG = -2,830 joules of energy

• The delta G is negative!!!

• The reaction is spontaneous

Predicting the spontaneity of reaction

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What natural processes increases the entropy of a system?

These are the natural processes that increases the entropy of a system

1. Change of phase from solid to liquid to gas

2. Rise in temperature

3. Catabolic processes (breaking down processes)

4. Passing of time

Making sense of Gibbs Helmholtz Equation

More unstable molecules = Greater chance of breaking and undergoing chemical change

Faster motion (high temp) = stronger collision = greater chance of breaking, rearranging, and
forming new combinations

more random motion → more random motion → Higher chance of collision