Introduction to Probability
and Statistics
Twelfth Edition
Methods of Data Collection and
Presentation
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Variables and Data
• A variable is a characteristic that changes or
varies over time and/or for different individuals
or objects under consideration.
• A variable is a characteristic of interest
measurable on each and every individual in the
population
• Examples: Hair color, white blood cell count,
time to failure of a computer component, age,
gender, menu for the day
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Definitions
• A population is the set of all individuals or
entities under consideration or study
• A sample is subset or part of a population in
which measurements are taken
• An experimental unit is the individual or object
on which a variable is measured.
• A measurement results when a variable is
actually measured on an experimental unit.
• A set of measurements, called data, can be
either a sample or a population.
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Example
• Variable
–Hair color
• Experimental unit
–Person
• Typical Measurements
–Brown, black, blonde, etc.
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Example
• Variable
–Time until a
light bulb burns out
• Experimental unit
–Light bulb
• Typical Measurements
–1500 hours, 1535.5 hours, etc.
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Example
• Variable
–The most frequent use of microwave
oven
• Experimental unit
–Microwave ovens
• Typical Measurements
–Reheating, defrosting, warming
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Example
• Variable
–The number of children in grade V
who are reading above the grade
level
• Experimental unit
–Pupils/students of grade V
• Typical Measurements
–0,1,2,3,4,5,6,……
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How many variables have you
measured?
• Univariate data: One variable is measured
on a single experimental unit.
• Bivariate data: Two variables are measured
on a single experimental unit.
• Multivariate data: More than two variables
are measured on a single experimental unit.
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Types of Variables
Qualitative Quantitative
Discrete Continuous
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What level of measurement have you taken?
• Nominal level: Classifies data into different
categories or groups.
e.g.
name, gender, sss number, religion,etc
• Ordinal level: Data may be arranged or ranked.
• e.g.
job position, military rank, class of material
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What level of measurement have you taken?
Scaled Data
• Interval Data: Data are measured without the
true zero point.
- Numbers can’t be multiplied
e.g. temperature, IQ Score, performance
evaluation score, opinion level scores
• Ratio level: Data are measured with true Zero
point.
-numbers can be multiplied
e.g.
height, weight, number of cars, lot area,
monthly income, blood pressure
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DESCRIBING DATA
Organizing and Displaying Data
Introduction
• When conducting a statistical study, the researcher must gather data for the
particular variable under study.
• For example, if a researcher wishes to study the number of people who were
bitten by poisonous snakes in a specific geographic area over the past
several years, he or she has to gather the data from various doctors,
hospitals, or health departments.
• To describe situations, draw conclusions, or make inferences about events,
the researcher must organize the data in some meaningful way.
• This module will show you how to construct appropriate graphs to represent
data and help you to get your point across to your audience. Also, this let
you show the statistical methods that can be used to summarize data. The
most familiar of these methods is the finding of averages.
How do various methods of data
organization and display, such as tables,
histograms, and box plots, influence the
interpretation and analysis of data?
Suppose a researcher wished to study on the
number of miles that the employees of a large
department store travelled to work each day.
The researcher first would have to collect the
data by asking each employee the approximate
distance the store is from his or her home.
When data are collected in original form,
they are called raw data.
Three Rules of Data Analysis:
• Make a picture. A display of your data will reveal things you
are not likely to see in a table of numbers and will help you
to Think clearly about the patterns and relationships that
may be hiding in your data.
• Make a picture. A well-designed display will Show the
important features and patterns in your data. A picture will
also show you the things you did not expect to see: the
extraordinary (possibly wrong) data values or unexpected
patterns.
• Make a picture. The best way to Tell others about your data
is with a well-chosen picture.
Methods of Data Presentation
1. Textual Presentation - Data are incorporated
in a paragraph.
-can be utilized if there are only few
information to be presented.
2. Tabular Presentation – Data are summarized
into rows and columns.
3. Graphical Presentation – Data are presented
through figures and pictures.
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Methods of Data Presentation
• Pie Chart- for Relative Frequencies and
Shares of the Whole
• Line Graphs -for changes over time, trends,
or differences between groups
• Bar Charts - Similar to line graphs in their
uses. Sometimes they make for better pair-
wise comparisons.
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Graphing Qualitative Variables
• Use a data distribution to describe:
– What values of the variable have been
measured
– How often each value has occurred
• “How often” can be measured 3 ways:
– Frequency
– Relative frequency = Frequency/n
– Percent = 100 x Relative frequency
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Example
• A bag of M&Ms contains 25 candies:
• Raw Data: m m m m m m m m m m
m m m m m m m m m m
m m m m m
• Statistical Table:
Color Tally Frequency Relative Percent
Frequency
Red mmm 3 3/25 = .12 12%
Blue mmmmmm 6 6/25 = .24 24%
Green mm mm 4 4/25 = .16 16%
Orange mmmmm 5 5/25 = .20 20%
Brown mm m 3 3/25 = .12 12%
Yellow mmmm 4 4/25 = .16 16%
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Graphs
Bar Chart
Pie Chart
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A sample of 200 runners were asked to indicate their favorite
type of running shoe. Draw a chart based on the following
information.
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Pie Chart for Running Shoes
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Graphing Quantitative
Variables
• A single quantitative variable measured for different
population segments or for different categories of
classification can be graphed using a pie or bar
chart.
A Big Mac hamburger
costs $4.90 in
Switzerland, $2.90 in
the U.S. and $1.86 in
South Africa.
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Construct a chart for the number of unemployed per
100,000 population for selected cities during 2001
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Bar Chart for the
Unemployment Data
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• A single quantitative variable measured
over time is called a time series. It can be
graphed using a line or bar chart.
CPI: All Urban Consumers-Seasonally Adjusted
September October November December January February March
178.10 177.60 177.50 177.30 177.60 178.00 178.60
BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS
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U.S. MEDIAN AGE BY GENDER
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Bar Chart/ Bar Plot
• A bar chart displays the distribution of a categorical variable,
showing the counts for each category next to each other for
east comparison.
Pie Charts
• show the whole group of cases as a circle. They slice the
circle into pieces whose sizes are proportional to the fraction
of the whole in each category.
The Frequency Distribution
Table (FDT)
An FDT is a statistical table
showing the frequency or number
of observations contained in each
of the defined classes or
categories.
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Frequency Distribution Table (FDT)
A frequency distribution is the organization of raw data in table form,
using classes and frequencies.
Categorical Frequency Distribution
• It is used for data that can be placed in specific categories, such as
nominal- or ordinal-level data.
Example: Distribution of Blood Types. Twenty-five army inductees were
given a blood test to determine their blood type.
A B B AB O
O O B AB B
B B O A O
A O O O AB
AB A O B A
Parts of a Statistical Table
1. Table Heading – includes the table number
and the title of the table
2. Body –main part of the table that contains
the information or figures
3. Stubs or Classes – classification or categories
describing the data and usually found at the
left most side of the table
4. Caption – designations or identifications of
the information contained in a column,
usually found at the top most of the column.
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Table 1: Frequency Distribution of Staff
Perception of the Leadership Behavior of the
Administrator
Perception of Frequency
Leadership Behavior
Strongly Favorable 10
Favorable 11
Slightly Favorable 12
Slightly Unfavorable 14
Unfavorable 22
Strongly Unfavorable 31
TOTAL 100
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Types of FDT
1. Qualitative or Categorical FDT – a frequency
distribution table where the data are grouped
according to some qualitative characteristics,
data are grouped into non numerical categories.
Table 2: Freq. Distri. Of the Gender of
Respondents of a Survey
Gender of Number of
Respondents Respondents
Male 38
Female 62
Total 100
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2. Quantitative FDT – a frequency distribution
where the data are grouped according to some
numerical or quantitative characteristics.
Table 3: Freq. Distri. For the Weights of 50 Pieces of
Luggage
Weights (in FREQUENCY
kilogram)
7-9 2
10-12 8
13-15 14
16-18 19
19-21 7
TOTAL 50
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Steps in the Construction of FDT
1. Determine the Range
2. Determine the number of classes
3. Determine the class size
4. Enumerate the classes or
categories
5. Tally the observations
6. Compute for values in other columns
of the FDT as deemed necessary.
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•
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Other Columns in the FDT
•
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Other Columns in the FDT
•
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Other Columns in the FDT
•
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Other Columns in the FDT
•
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Other Columns in the FDT
•
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Example: Construct the FDT of the
given data set.
Age (in years) of 40 Patients Confined at a
Certain Hospital
5 15 23 27 33 38 44 52
5 15 24 30 33 40 45 53
7 20 25 31 34 42 45 55
10 20 25 31 35 42 50 57
13 21 26 32 36 43 51 57
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TABLE: Frequency Distribution of Age (In Years)
of 40 Patients Confined at a Certain Hospital
AGE Tall f TCB CM RF CF RCF
(CLASSSES) y (%)
LTCB UTCB <CF >CF <RCF >RCF
5-13 5 4.5 13.5 9 12.5 5 40 12.5 100
14-22 5 13.5 22.5 18 12.5 10 35 25 87.5
23-31 9 22.5 31.5 27 22.5 19 30 47.5 75
32-40 8 31.5 40.5 36 20 27 21 67.5 52.5
41-49 6 40.5 49.5 45 15 33 13 82.5 32.5
50-58 7 49.5 58.5 54 17.5 40 7 100 17.5
TOTAL 40 100
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Graphical Presentation of the FDT
1. Frequency Histogram – a bar
graph that displays the classes on
the horizontal axis and the
frequencies of the classes on the
vertical axis, the vertical lines of the
bars are erected at the class
boundaries and the height of the
bars correspond to the class
frequency.
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Graphical Presentation of the FDT
2. Relative Frequency Histogram – a
graph that displays the classes on the
horizontal axis and the relative
frequencies on the vertical axis.
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Frequency Histogram
Graphical Presentation of the FDT
3. Frequency Polygon – a line chart that is
constructed by plotting the frequencies at
the class marks and connecting the plotted
points by means of straight lines, the
polygon is closed by considering an
additional class at each ends of the lines are
brought down to the horizontal axis at the
midpoints of the additional classes.
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Frequency Polygon
Graphical Presentation of the FDT
4. Ogives – graphs of the cumulative
frequency distribution
a. <Ogive – the <CF is plotted
against UTCB
b. >Ogive – the >CF is plotted
against the LTCB
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Ogives
Ogives – graphs of the cumulative
frequency distribution
a. <Ogive – the <CF is
plotted against UTCB
b. >Ogive – the >CF is
plotted against the
LTCB
Dotplots
• The simplest graph for quantitative data
• Plots the measurements as points on a horizontal
axis, stacking the points that duplicate existing
points.
• Example: The set 4, 5, 5, 7, 6
4 5 6 7
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Stem and Leaf Plots
• The stem and leaf plot is a method of organizing data
and is a combination of sorting and graphing. It has
the advantage over a grouped frequency distribution
of retaining the actual data while showing them in
graphical form. A stem and leaf plot is a data plot
that uses part of the data value as the stem and part
of the data value as the leaf to form groups or
classes.
Stem and Leaf Plots
• A simple graph for quantitative data
• Uses the actual numerical values of each data
point.
–Divide each measurement into two parts: the stem
and the leaf.
–List the stems in a column, with a vertical line to
their right.
–For each measurement, record the leaf portion in the
same row as its matching stem.
–Order the leaves from lowest to highest in each
stem.
–Provide a key to your coding. Copyright ©2006 Brooks/Cole
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Stem and Leaf Plots
Example 1: At an outpatient testing center, the
number of cardiograms performed each day for 20
days is shown. Construct a stem and leaf plot for the
data.
25 31 20 32 13
14 43 02 57 23
36 32 33 32 44
32 52 44 51 45
When the data values are in the hundreds, such as 325, the stem is 32
and the leaf is 5. For example, the stem and leaf plot for the data
values 325, 327, 330, 332, 335, 341, 345, and 347 looks like this.
BACK TO BACK STEM AND LEAF PLOT
Example 3: The number of stories in two selected samples of
tall buildings in Atlanta and Philadelphia is shown. Construct a
back-to-back stem and leaf plot and compare the
distributions.
Step 1 Arrange the data for both data sets in order.
Step 2 Construct a stem and leaf plot using the same digits as
stems. Place the digits for the leaves for Atlanta on the left
side of the stem and the digits for the leaves for Philadelphia
on the right side:
Step 3 Compare the distributions. The buildings in Atlanta
have a large variation in the number of stories per building.
Although both distributions are peaked in the 30- to 39-story
class, Philadelphia has more buildings in this class. Atlanta has
more buildings that have 40 or more stories than Philadelphia
does. -
How to spot a misleading graph?
[Link]
Reading Graphs
[Link]
Example
The prices ($) of 18 brands of walking shoes:
90 70 70 70 75 70 65 68 60
74 70 95 75 70 68 65 40 65
4 0 4 0
Reorder
5 5
6 580855 6 055588
7 000504050 7 000000455
8 8
9 05 9 05
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Interpreting Graphs:
Location and Spread
• Where is the data centered on the
horizontal axis, and how does it spread
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Interpreting Graphs: Shapes
Mound shaped and
symmetric (mirror images)
Skewed right: a few
unusually large
measurements
Skewed left: a few unusually
small measurements
Bimodal: two local peaks
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Interpreting Graphs: Outliers
No Outliers Outlier
• Are there any strange or unusual
measurements that stand out in the
data set?
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Example
• A quality control process measures the diameter of a
gear being made by a machine (cm). The technician
records 15 diameters, but inadvertently makes a typing
mistake on the second entry.
1.991 1.891 1.991 1.988 1.993 1.989 1.990 1.988
1.988 1.993 1.991 1.989 1.989 1.993 1.990 1.994
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Key Concepts
I. How Data Are Generated
1. Experimental units, variables, measurements
2. Samples and populations
3. Univariate, bivariate, and multivariate data
II. Types of Variables
1. Qualitative or categorical
2. Quantitative
a. Discrete
b. Continuous
III. Graphs for Univariate Data Distributions
1. Qualitative or categorical data
a. Pie charts
b. Bar charts
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Key Concepts
2. Quantitative data
a. Pie and bar charts
b. Line charts
c. Dotplots
d. Stem and leaf plots
e. Relative frequency histograms
3. Describing data distributions
a. Shapes—symmetric, skewed left, skewed right,
unimodal, bimodal
b. Proportion of measurements in certain intervals
c. Outliers
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1. Construct a Stem and leaf Plot for the
data given.
2. What fraction of the service time are less
than or equal to 1 minute?
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1. Construct a pie
chart to describe
the racial
breakdown in the
U.S. Army
2. Construct a bar chart to describe the racial
breakdown in the U.S. Air Force.
3. Make a brief interpretation of the two
graphs.
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