CHAPTER 1

Computer Systems
Class 10th | Computer Science | FBISE

Topics: Number Systems • OS • ASCII/Unicode • Software

01001100 11010101 00110101 10110100 01011010 10110101

 Learning Outcomes Unit 1

Number Systems & Data Representation

01
Understand and describe number systems and encoding schemes for data representation in computer systems.

System Software & Hardware Flow

02
Explain how system software controls the flow of information between hardware components used for input, output, storage, and processing.

Software Tools & Environments

03
Identify and learn common software tools such as translators, IDEs, online and offline computing platforms, and code repositories.

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 2

 Introduction to Computer Systems 1.0

What is a Computer System?

A computer system is a mix of hardware (physical parts) and software (programs) that work together to process information, solve problems,
and do many tasks.

Hardware Software

• CPU (Processor) • Operating System

• Memory (RAM) • Application Software
• Storage Devices • Programming Software
• Input Devices • Driver Software
• Output Devices

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 3

 1.1 Machine Level Representation of Data 1.1

Machine level representation refers to how information is encoded and stored in a computer's memory, understood by the machine's hardware.
Data is represented using binary digits (bits) — either 0 or 1.

01001000 01100101 01101100 01101100 01101111 → "Hello" in Binary

Decimal 5 ASCII 'A' Color Red

101 01000001 11111111 00000000 00000000

In binary representation Character encoding RGB binary values

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 4

 Binary Representation & Bits 1.1

• A binary digit (bit) can have one of two states: 0 or 1

• Bits are the fundamental units of information in a computer
• The leftmost bit is the Most Significant Bit (MSB)
• The rightmost bit is the Least Significant Bit (LSB)
• 8 bits = 1 Byte | 1024 Bytes = 1 Kilobyte
• All data — text, images, audio, video — is stored as bits

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 5

 Data Types: Integers & Floating-Point Numbers 1.1

Integers Floating-Point Numbers

• Represented using a fixed number of bits • A number with a decimal point

• Most Significant Bit (leftmost) indicates sign • Can be positive or negative
• 8-bit signed: −128 to +127 • Examples: 15.5, 0.45, −203.345
• 8-bit unsigned: 0 to 255 • Stored using IEEE 754 standard
• Example: 42 = 00101010 in binary • Three parts: Sign, Exponent, Mantissa

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 6

 Data Types: Characters & Boolean Values 1.1

Characters

• Represented using character encoding schemes (ASCII or Unicode)

• Each character is assigned a unique binary code
• ASCII code for 'A' is 65 → 01000001 in binary
• ASCII code for 'a' is 97 → 01100001 in binary

Boolean Values

• Represent only two values: TRUE or FALSE

• Can be stored using a single bit: 0 = False | 1 = True
• Used extensively in conditions, logic gates, and program control

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 7

 Short Questions Section 1.1

Q1 What is 'machine level representation of data'?

Q2 What is a bit? What are its two possible values?

Q3 How is the decimal number 5 represented in binary?

Q4 What is the ASCII binary code for the letter 'A'?

Q5 Differentiate between signed and unsigned integers.

Q6 What is a Boolean value? How is it stored in memory?

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 8
 1.2 Numbering Systems – Overview 1.2

A number system is a way of writing and showing numbers using specific digits or symbols. It helps perform arithmetic operations and
organise numbers within a group.

Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal

Base 10 Base 2 Base 8 Base 16

Digits: Digits: Digits: Digits:

0–9 0, 1 0–7 0–9, A–F

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 9

 Decimal Number System (Base-10) 1.2

• Uses 10 symbols: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
• Also called the Denary number system
• It is a positional-value system — digit value depends on its position
• 9 is the Most Significant Digit (MSD), 4 is the Least Significant Digit (LSD)
• (8745.215)₁₀ = 8×10³ + 7×10² + 4×10¹ + 5×10⁰ + 2×10⁻¹ + 1×10⁻² + 5×10⁻³
• = 8000 + 700 + 40 + 5 + 0.2 + 0.01 + 0.005 = 8745.215
• Each digit carries weight expressed as powers of 10

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 10

 Binary Number System (Base-2) 1.2

• Only two digits: 0 and 1 (Base = 2)

• Computers use binary because digital circuits have two states: ON (1) / OFF (0)
• It is also a positional-value system — each bit has weight expressed as a power of 2
• Left-most bit = MSB (Most Significant Bit) — carries most weight
• Right-most bit = LSB (Least Significant Bit) — carries least weight
• Example: (1011.101)₂ = 1×2³ + 0×2² + 1×2¹ + 1×2⁰ + 1×2⁻¹ + 0×2⁻² + 1×2⁻³
• = 8 + 0 + 2 + 1 + 0.5 + 0 + 0.125 = (11.625)₁₀

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 11

 Octal Number System (Base-8) 1.2

• Uses 8 digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 (Base = 8)

• Each digit position has weight expressed as powers of 8
• An octal number is easily converted to decimal by multiplying each digit by its positional weight
• Example 1: (672)₈ = 6×8² + 7×8¹ + 2×8⁰ = 384 + 56 + 2 = (442)₁₀
• Example 2: (25.6)₈ = 2×8¹ + 5×8⁰ + 6×8⁻¹ = 16 + 5 + 0.75 = (21.75)₁₀
• Octal digits 0-7 each correspond to a unique 3-bit binary group

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 12

 Hexadecimal Number System (Base-16) 1.2

• Uses 16 symbols: digits 0–9 and letters A, B, C, D, E, F

• Hex digits A–F represent decimal values 10–15
• Each digit position has weight as power of 16
• Example: (3AF)₁₆ = 3×16² + 10×16¹ + 15×16⁰ = 768 + 160 + 15 = (943)₁₀

Hex 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F

Dec 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Note: A=10, B=11, C=12, D=13, E=14, F=15 (highlighted in yellow above)

(3AF)₁₆ = 3 × 16² + 10 × 16¹ + 15 × 16⁰ = 768 + 160 + 15 = 943₁₀

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 13

 Short Questions Section 1.2 – Types

Q1 What is a number system? Name the four most common types.

Q2 What is the base of the Binary, Octal, and Hexadecimal systems?

Q3 What digits does the Hexadecimal system use beyond 9?

Q4 What is the decimal equivalent of (672)₈?

Q5 Convert (3AF)₁₆ to decimal.

Q6 What is a positional-value number system?

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 14
 1.2.2 Number System Conversions – Overview 1.2.2

• To convert any number from one base to another, use a systematic method
• Converting TO Base-10 (Decimal): multiply each digit by its positional weight (base raised to its position) and add all results
• Converting FROM Base-10: repeatedly divide by the new base; remainders in reverse order form the answer
• Direct shortcuts exist between binary ↔ octal (groups of 3 bits) and binary ↔ hex (groups of 4 bits)

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 15

 i. Conversion: Binary → Decimal 1.2.2

Multiply each bit by 2 raised to the power of its position (right to left, starting from 0). Add all results.

Example 1: (10111)₂ → Decimal

(1×2⁴)+(0×2³)+(1×2²)+(1×2¹)+(1×2⁰)

= 16+0+4+2+1 = (23)₁₀

Example 2: (100101.1011)₂ → Decimal

(1×2⁵)+(0×2⁴)+(0×2³)+(1×2²)+(0×2¹)+(1×2⁰)+(1×2⁻¹)+(0×2⁻²)+(1×2⁻³)+(1×2⁻⁴)

= 32+0+0+4+0+1+0.5+0+0.125+0.0625 = (37.6875)₁₀

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 16

 ii. Conversion: Octal → Decimal 1.2.2

Multiply each octal digit by 8 raised to the power of its position, then add all results.

Example: (437)₈ → Decimal

(437)₈ = 4×8² + 3×8¹ + 7×8⁰

= 4×64 + 3×8 + 7×1
= 256 + 24 + 7
= (287)₁₀

Example 2: (25.6)₈ → Decimal

(25.6)₈ = 2×8¹ + 5×8⁰ + 6×8⁻¹ = 16 + 5 + 0.75 = (21.75)₁₀

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 17

 iii. Conversion: Hexadecimal → Decimal 1.2.2

Multiply each hex digit by 16 raised to the power of its position. Remember: A=10, B=11, C=12, D=13, E=14, F=15.

Example: (1BE8)₁₆ → Decimal

(1BE8)₁₆ = 1×16³ + B×16² + E×16¹ + 8×16⁰

= 1×16³ + 11×16² + 14×16¹ + 8×16⁰
= 1×4096 + 11×256 + 14×16 + 8×1
= 4096 + 2816 + 224 + 8
= (7144)₁₀

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 18

 i. Conversion: Decimal → Binary 1.2.2

Integer Part Fractional Part

1. Divide the integer by 2 1. Multiply the decimal part by 2

2. Record the remainder (0 or 1) 2. Record the integer part (0 or 1)
3. Update integer to the quotient 3. Remove integer part; keep decimal
4. Repeat until quotient = 0 4. Repeat until decimal = 0
5. Read remainders in REVERSE ORDER 5. Read integer parts in FORWARD ORDER

Example: (179.257)₁₀ → (10110011.0100001)₂

Integer: 179 → 10110011 | Fraction: 0.257 → 0100001

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 19

 ii. Conversion: Decimal → Octal 1.2.2

• Divide the decimal number by 8

• Record the remainder as the LSD of the octal number
• Divide the quotient again by 8; record remainder as next digit to the left
• Repeat until quotient = 0; the last remainder is the MSD

(165)₁₀ → Octal (331)₁₀ → Octal

165 ÷ 8 = 20 rem 5 331 ÷ 8 = 41 rem 3

20 ÷ 8 = 2 rem 4 41 ÷ 8 = 5 rem 1
2 ÷ 8 = 0 rem 2 5 ÷ 8 = 0 rem 5
→ Read up: (245)₈ → Read up: (513)₈

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 20

 iii. Conversion: Decimal → Hexadecimal 1.2.2

Divide the decimal number by 16 repeatedly. Record remainders (convert 10–15 to A–F). Read remainders in reverse (bottom to top).

(739)₁₀ → Hex (3501)₁₀ → Hex

739 ÷ 16 = 46 rem 3 3501 ÷ 16 = 218 rem 13 → D

46 ÷ 16 = 2 rem 14 → E 218 ÷ 16 = 13 rem 10 → A
2 ÷ 16 = 0 rem 2 13 ÷ 16 = 0 rem 13 → D
→ (2E3)₁₆ → (DAD)₁₆

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 21

 Octal ↔ Binary Conversion 1.2.2

Each octal digit corresponds to exactly 3 binary bits. Convert digit by digit using the table below.

Octal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Binary 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111

Octal → Binary: (7301)₈ Binary → Octal: (1100111000101)₂

7 → 111 Group 3 from right:

3 → 011 001 100 111 000 101
0 → 000 14705
1 → 001 → (14705)₈
→ (111011000001)₂

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 22

 Hexadecimal ↔ Binary Conversion 1.2.2

Each hex digit corresponds to exactly 4 binary bits. Convert digit by digit.

Hex 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F

Binary 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111

Hex → Binary: (D73A1)₁₆ Binary → Hex: (1100111001001101)₂

D → 1101 Group 4 from right:

7 → 0111 1100 1110 0100 1101
3 → 0011 CE4D
A → 1010 → (CE4D)₁₆
1 → 0001
→ (11010111001110100001)₂

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 23

 Octal ↔ Hexadecimal Conversion 1.2.2

• Two methods available:

• Method 1: Octal → Decimal → Hex (or Hex → Decimal → Octal)
• Method 2: Octal → Binary → Hex (or Hex → Binary → Octal)
• Example (6457)₈ → Hex:
• Method 1: (6457)₈ = (3375)₁₀ → (3375)₁₀ = (D2F)₁₆
• Method 2: (6457)₈ → (110100101111)₂ → (D2F)₁₆
• Example (A09D)₁₆ → Octal:
• (A09D)₁₆ = (41117)₁₀ → (120235)₈

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 24

 Conversions Hub Cheat Sheet 1.2.2

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 24

 Short Questions Section 1.2.2

Q1 Convert (10111)₂ to decimal.

Q2 Convert (437)₈ to decimal.

Q3 Convert (3AF)₁₆ to decimal.

Q4 Convert (179)₁₀ to binary.

Q5 Convert (165)₁₀ to octal.

Q6 Convert (739)₁₀ to hexadecimal.

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 25

Q7 Convert (7301)₈ to binary.
 1.2.3 Binary Arithmetic – Introduction 1.2.3

• Computers use binary arithmetic as the fundamental way to perform arithmetic operations
• Digital electronic circuits inherently operate in binary (base-2) rather than decimal
• In binary arithmetic there are only two digits: 0 and 1
• Computers perform addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division using binary digits (bits)
• Basic binary addition rules:
• 0+0=0|0+1=1
• 1 + 0 = 1 | 1 + 1 = 10 (carry 1 to next bit)

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 26

 Binary Addition – Examples 1.2.3

Binary addition works like decimal but with only two digits: 0 and 1. When 1+1=10 (carry 1).

10010 + 111 11101010 + 10011011

1 0 0 1 0 (18 decimal) 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 (234 decimal)

+ 1 1 1 ( 7 decimal) + 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 (155 decimal)
───────────── ──────────────────
1 1 0 0 1 (25 decimal) 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 (389 decimal)

Tip: Verify by converting both operands to decimal and checking the sum!
Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 27
 Binary Subtraction – Examples 1.2.3

Subtraction rules: 0−0=0 | 1−0=1 | 1−1=0 | 0−1=1 (borrow 1 from next higher bit)

10110 − 101 11000101 − 101111

1 0 1 1 0 (22 decimal) 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 (197 decimal)

- 1 0 1 ( 5 decimal) - 1 0 1 1 1 1 ( 47 decimal)
─────────── ──────────────────
1 0 0 0 1 (17 decimal) 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 (150 decimal)

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 28

 Short Questions Section 1.2.3

Q1 Why do computers use binary arithmetic instead of decimal?

Q2 What are the four basic binary addition rules?

Q3 What does 'carry' mean in binary addition?

Q4 What does 'borrow' mean in binary subtraction?

Q5 Add: 10010 + 111

Q6 Subtract: 10110 − 101

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 29
 1.2.4 Overflow and Underflow 1.2.4

• Overflow: occurs when a calculation result is LARGER than the maximum value that can be stored with the available bits
• Underflow: occurs when a calculation result is TOO SMALL to be represented properly
• These conditions can cause errors and unexpected behavior (bugs) in programs
• Example – 8-bit Unsigned Overflow:
• 11111111 (255) + 1 = 100000000 → the 9th bit is lost → result wraps to 00000000
• Handling strategies:
• Use larger data types (e.g., 8-bit → 16-bit integer)
• Perform range checking before arithmetic operations
• Use built-in library functions that detect overflow

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 30

 Short Questions Section 1.2.4

Q1 What is overflow in computing?

Q2 What is underflow in computing?

Q3 Give an example of 8-bit unsigned integer overflow.

Q4 What is the range of an 8-bit unsigned integer?

Q5 How can programmers handle overflow and underflow?

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 31

 1.2.5 Complements – 1's Complement 1.2.5

In digital logic, complements are used to perform logical operations, especially subtraction. The binary system has two types: 1's complement
and 2's complement.

1's Complement: Toggle (invert) ALL bits — 0 becomes 1 and 1 becomes 0

Number: 01101 Number: 00011101

1's Comp: 10010 1's Comp: 11100010

Binary Subtraction Using 1's Complement:

1. Make both numbers same length (add leading 0s)
2. Convert subtrahend to 1's complement
3. Add. If carry → add carry to LSB. If no carry → 1's complement of result (negative).

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 32

 2's Complement 1.2.5

The most widely used method in modern computers to represent negative numbers.

2's Complement = 1's Complement + 1 (add 1 to the LSB of the 1's complement)

2's comp of 01010001 2's comp of 10101110

Number: 01010001 Number: 10101110

1's Comp: 10101110 1's Comp: 01010001
+ 1: 1 + 1: 1
───────────────── ─────────────────
2's Comp: 10101111 2's Comp: 01010010

Represent −13 using 8-bit 2's Complement: 13 = 00001101 → invert: 11110010 → +1 = 11110011

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 33

 Binary Subtraction Using 2's Complement 1.2.5

• Steps:
• 1. Make both numbers equal length (add leading zeros)
• 2. Convert subtrahend to 2's complement
• 3. Add the 2's complement to the minuend
• 4. If result has a CARRY → ignore it; remaining part is the answer
• 5. If there is NO CARRY → take 2's complement of result; answer is negative
• Example: Subtract 100110 from 111000
• 111000 (Minuend) − 100110 (Subtrahend)
• 2's comp of 100110 = 011001 + 1 = 011010
• 111000 + 011010 = 1010010 → ignore carry → answer = 010010

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 34

 Short Questions Section 1.2.5

Q1 What are complements used for in digital logic?

Q2 How do you find the 1's complement of a binary number?

Q3 How do you find the 2's complement of a binary number?

Q4 Find the 1's complement of 00111001.

Q5 Find the 2's complement of 01111001.

Q6 Subtract 100110 from 111000 using 2's complement.

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 35
 1.2.6 Signed & Unsigned Number Representation 1.2.6

Unsigned Numbers

• Unsigned numbers have no sign bit — they represent only positive values
• Range: 0 to (2ⁿ−1), where n = number of bits
• 8-bit unsigned: 0 to 255 (00000000 to 11111111)
• Example: Decimal 105 = (01101001)₂ (unsigned)

Signed Numbers (Two's Complement)

• The MSB (leftmost bit) is the SIGN BIT: 0 = positive, 1 = negative

• 8-bit signed range: −128 to +127
• Positive numbers: use regular binary | Negative numbers: use 2's complement
• Example: −13 in 8-bit 2's comp = 11110011

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 36

 Floating-Point Number Representation (IEEE 754) 1.2.6

• Floating-point numbers represent real numbers with fractional parts

• Stored using the IEEE 754 standard — the most common format
• Three components in IEEE 754:
• Sign Bit (1 bit): 0 = positive, 1 = negative
• Exponent (8 bits): power of 2 by which the mantissa is multiplied
• Mantissa/Significand (23 bits): the significant digits of the number
• Total: 32 bits = 1 (sign) + 8 (exponent) + 23 (mantissa) → single precision
• 64-bit = double precision; used when higher accuracy is needed

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 37

 Short Questions Section 1.2.6

Q1 What is the difference between signed and unsigned numbers?

Q2 What is the range of an 8-bit unsigned integer?

Q3 What is the range of an 8-bit signed integer?

Q4 What does the MSB represent in a signed number?

Q5 Represent −55 using 8-bit 2's complement.

6 Name the three components of an IEEE 754 floating-point number.

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 38
 1.3 Common Coding Schemes 1.3

Coding schemes are standards that computers use to convert and represent data in a format they can understand (binary digits). Computers
cannot interpret letters or symbols directly — they need coding schemes.

Data Representation Standardization Efficiency Communication

Maps human-readable Ensures compatibility across Fixed-length binary Enables different systems to
characters to binary codes different platforms and devices representation optimises communicate using a common
storage format

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 39

 ASCII Coding Scheme 1.3

• ASCII = American Standard Code for Information Interchange Characters ASCII-8 Decimal Value
• Approved on June 17, 1963 as the American standard code
• Originally 7-bit: represents 128 characters (2⁷ = 128) 0–9 48 – 57
• Extended to 8-bit ASCII (ASCII-8): represents 256 characters (2⁸ = 256)
• ASCII-8 became popular in 1981 with IBM's Personal Computer
A– Z 65 – 90

a–z 97 – 122

• 32 code combinations are used for machine and control commands

• Control commands include: start of text, carriage return, form feed
• Control commands do NOT represent printable characters
• ANSI (American National Standards Institute) code = Extended ASCII-8

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 40

 Unicode Coding Scheme 1.3

• Extended ASCII-8 cannot support all written languages (only 256 chars)
• Unicode (Universal Coding System) was created to support ALL written languages worldwide
• Published by Unicode Consortium; first version introduced in 1991
• Assigns a unique number to each character consistent across all systems
• Latest version includes over 100,000 characters
• Covers letters, digits, accents, punctuation, technical symbols, emoji
• Unicode encodings:
• UTF-7, UTF-8, UTF-16, UTF-32 (UTF = Unicode Transformation Format)
• Conversion between these encodings is lossless
• Unicode version 3 is 4-byte (32-bit) and fully compatible with ASCII

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 41

 Short Questions Section 1.3

Q1 What is a coding scheme? Why are they used in computers?

Q2 What does ASCII stand for?

Q3 How many characters can 7-bit ASCII represent?

Q4 What is Extended ASCII (ASCII-8)? How many characters does it support?

Q5 What is Unicode and why was it developed?

Q6 Name the four Unicode transformation formats.

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 42
 1.4 Operating System 1.4

An Operating System (OS) is essential software that manages a computer's memory,

processes, hardware, and software, enabling user interaction.

User

Application Software

Operating System

Hardware

• Loads into RAM when computer is turned on Necessary to run any programs
• Examples: Windows, macOS, Linux, iOS, Android
Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 43
 Main Functions of an Operating System 1.4.1

Process Management Memory Management

01 02
Allocates CPU time to various processes Controls and manages main memory (RAM)

File Management Device Management

03 04
Manages files and folders on storage devices Controls input and output devices

Network Management Security Management

05 06
Monitors and manages network resources Protects system from unauthorized access

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 44

 Process & Memory Management 1.4.1

• Process Management: A process is a program in execution. OS allocates CPU time to various processes.
• Example: 3 processes A(5ms), B(2ms), C(1ms) — OS decides order for efficiency
• Memory Management: Controls and manages operation of main memory (RAM)
• Allocates space to programs loaded in memory for execution
• Keeps track of freed memory when a program closes
• Uses Swap In/Swap Out between RAM and hard disk for efficient memory use

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 45

 File & Device Management 1.4.1

• File Management: Manages files and folders on storage devices (HDD, USB, DVD)
• Allows: creating, copying, moving, renaming, deleting, and searching files/folders
• Also allows read, write, open, and close operations on files
• Device Management: Controls input and output devices (keyboards, mouse, printers)
• Efficient I/O management improves overall computer performance
• Example: Three programs A, B, C want to print → OS creates a queue and serves each in turn

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 46

 Network & Security Management 1.4.1

• Network Management: Monitors and manages resources of a network

• Allows creation of user groups and assigns privileges
• Shares network resources among users
• Detects and fixes network problems
• Security Management: Ensures resources are used according to user privileges
• Creates user accounts and enforces security policies
• Controls access to resources
• Protects the system from unauthorized access and malware

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 47

 Short Questions Section 1.4.1

Q1 What is an Operating System? Give three examples.

Q2 List the six main functions of an operating system.

Q3 What is process management in an OS?

Q4 What is memory management? What does 'swap in' and 'swap out' mean?

Q5 What is file management? List four file operations.

Q6 What is the role of device management in an OS?

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 48
 1.4.2 Types of Operating Systems 1.4.2

Batch Processing Multiprogramming

Groups similar tasks into batches; executes sequentially. Ideal for payroll, Multiple programs loaded into memory simultaneously; CPU switches
bank statements. when one waits for I/O.

Multitasking Time-sharing

Rapidly switches between tasks giving impression all run simultaneously. Divides CPU time into slices; multiple users interact simultaneously (banks,
Used in PCs. universities).

Real-time (RTOS) Distributed

Provides immediate responses; used in medical equipment, traffic control, Manages network of computers; distributes tasks across machines (cloud
industrial automation. computing).

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 49

 Multiprocessor & Embedded Operating Systems 1.4.2

• Multiprocessor OS: Controls multiple CPUs within a single computer system

• Distributes tasks among several processors for high performance
• Used in data centres, servers, and scientific research applications
• Embedded OS: Integrated into hardware of a specific device (microwave, TV, camera)
• Designed to perform specialised tasks automatically when device is turned on
• Optimised for the specific functions of the device
• Provides reliable performance with minimal resource requirements
• Commonly used in consumer electronics and industrial machines

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 50

 Short Questions Section 1.4.2

Q1 What is a Batch Processing OS? Give an example of its use.

Q2 How does a Multitasking OS differ from a Multiprogramming OS?

Q3 What is a Real-time OS (RTOS)? Where is it used?

Q4 What is a Distributed OS? Name one application area.

Q5 What is an Embedded OS? Give two examples of devices using it.

Q6 What is a Time-sharing OS? Where is it commonly used?

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 51
 1.4.3 How OS Manages Applications 1.4.3

• Application programs run on top of OSes by utilizing their resources and services
• OS acts as an intermediary between hardware and application programs
• When you open Microsoft Word, the OS:
• Allocates memory for the program to run
• Manages input/output operations (reading and writing files)
• Schedules the program to run on the CPU
• Provides access to printers and network connections
• The OS provides a layer of abstraction — programs interact with hardware without knowing specific hardware details

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 52

 1.4.4 Process Management – States of a Process 1.4.4

A process is a program in execution. When a program is loaded in memory for execution, it becomes a process.

Start / New Ready Running

Process is created; service requested for Ready for execution but waiting for CPU Being executed by the processor
execution assignment

Blocked / Waiting Terminated

Waiting for a resource to become available Process has completed its execution

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 53

 1.4.4 Process State Cycle 1.4.4

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 53

 Thread vs Process 1.4.4

Process Thread

An executing instance of a program A subset of the process

Has its own copy of the data segment Has direct access to data segment of its process

Change does not affect other processes Change may affect other threads of the process

Runs in separate memory spaces Runs in shared memory spaces

Controlled by the operating system Controlled by programmer in a program

Processes are independent Threads are dependent

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 54

 Process Scheduler, Synchronization & Deadlock 1.4.4

• Process Scheduler: Part of OS that manages the execution order of processes by the CPU using scheduling algorithms
• Process Synchronization: Coordinates multiple processes/threads sharing resources; prevents race conditions
• Race Condition: When processes try to access the same memory simultaneously
• Interrupts: Signals that alert the CPU to events needing immediate attention
• CPU stops current task, saves state, runs an Interrupt Service Routine (ISR)
• Deadlock: Two or more processes are stuck, each waiting for a resource held by the other
• Example: P1 needs R2 (held by P2) and P2 needs R1 (held by P1) → neither can proceed

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 55

 1.4.5 Computer System Resources Managed by OS 1.4.5

• CPU Management: Scheduling processes, deadlock resolution, handling interrupts — ensures efficient CPU use
• Memory Management: Allocates/deallocates RAM spaces to programs; manages memory hierarchy; optimises available
memory
• Storage Management: Manages hard drives, SSDs, and other storage devices — includes file system management and
read/write operations
• I/O (Input/Output) Management: Manages keyboards, mice, printers, and network interfaces — handles device drivers and
buffering

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 56

 File System Structure & Components 1.4.5

• File System: Critical OS component for organising, storing, retrieving, and managing data on storage devices
• Files: Smallest unit of data storage (text files, executables, images)
• Directories/Folders: Containers that hold files; provide hierarchical structure
• Metadata: Information about files (name, size, type, permissions, timestamps)
• Directory structures:
• Single-Level: All files in one directory — simple but inefficient as files grow
• Two-Level: Each user has own directory under root
• Tree-Structured: Most common — hierarchy of directories and subdirectories

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 57

 File Allocation Methods & File System Types 1.4.5

• File Allocation Methods:

• Contiguous Allocation: Files occupy consecutive blocks — fast access but causes fragmentation
• Linked Allocation: Files stored in linked lists — flexible but slower access (pointer traversal)
• Indexed Allocation: Uses an index to point to data blocks — faster access, balanced storage efficiency
• Common File System Types:
• FAT (File Allocation Table): Older system used by DOS/Windows — simple but limited
• NTFS (New Technology File System): Windows NT and later — supports large files, security features
• ext3/ext4 (Extended File System): Linux environments — ext4 has journaling for crash recovery

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 58

 File Allocation Methods & File System Types 1.4.5

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 58

 Short Questions Section 1.4.4–1.4.5

Q1 What is a process? How does it differ from a program?

Q2 List the five states of a process.

Q3 What is a thread? How does it differ from a process?

Q4 What is process synchronization? What is a race condition?

Q5 What is a deadlock? Give an example.

Q6 What are the three types of directory/folder structures?

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 59
 1.5 Computer Software – Types 1.5

Software is a collection of programs, data, and instructions that tell a computer how to perform specific tasks. Software is typically categorised
into four main types:

System Software Manages hardware & system resources; controls overall operations e.g. Windows, macOS, Linux, Android

Application Software Performs specific tasks for the user; meets specific needs e.g. MS Word, Spotify, Chrome

Programming Software Provides tools for writing, testing, and debugging code e.g. Eclipse, Visual Studio, GitHub

Driver Software Bridge between OS and hardware devices e.g. Printer, NVIDIA, Wi-Fi drivers

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 60

 1.5.2 Offline and Online Applications 1.5.2

• Offline Applications: Run WITHOUT an internet connection; rely entirely on local device resources
• Examples: Microsoft Word (document editing), Adobe Photoshop (image editing), VLC Media Player (media playback)
• Useful when internet access is unavailable; can still perform tasks
• Online Applications: Require an internet connection; access resources on remote servers
• Often provide real-time data and collaborative features
• Examples: Google Docs (real-time document sharing), Spotify (music streaming), Gmail (email)
• Key difference: Online apps access cloud resources; offline apps use local storage and processing power

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 61

 1.5.3 Common Productivity Application Software 1.5.3

Software Type Examples Uses

Word Processors MS Word, Google Docs Writing essays, reports, letters, resumes

Spreadsheets MS Excel, Google Sheets Budgeting, financial analysis, data charts

Presentation PowerPoint, Google Slides Business presentations, educational lectures

DBMS MS Access, MySQL Managing customer data, employee records

Email Clients Outlook, Thunderbird Organizing emails, scheduling appointments

Video Conferencing Zoom, MS Teams Meetings, webinars, virtual classrooms

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 62

 1.5.4 Application Patch 1.5.4

• An application patch is a piece of software designed to update, fix, or improve an existing program
• Patches address security vulnerabilities, bugs, and performance issues
• Key functions of patches:
• Fix Bugs: Resolve software glitches or errors
• Improve Security: Patch vulnerabilities to prevent attacks
• Enhance Performance: Optimise the program to run more smoothly
• Add Features: Introduce new functionalities to existing software
• Examples:
• Security Patch for Windows: Fixes vulnerabilities to prevent malware attacks
• Game Updates: World of Warcraft patches fix bugs and add content
• Adobe Acrobat: Frequent patches fix PDF editing issues and security

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 63

 1.5.5 Software Hosting 1.5.5

Software hosting refers to deploying, managing, and providing access to software applications on servers so users can access them over a
network (typically the internet).

On-Premises Shared Hosting

✓ Full control over hardware & security; customisable

✓ ✓ Cost-effective; easy to set up and manage
✓

✗✗ High upfront cost; requires in-house expertise ✗✗ Limited control; potential performance & security issues

Dedicated Hosting Cloud Hosting

✓ High performance, reliability & security; full control

✓ ✓ Highly scalable; pay-as-you-go; global reach
✓

✗✗ High cost; requires technical expertise ✗✗ Depends on internet; data security concerns

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 64

 1.5.5 Software Hosting Architectures 1.5.5

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 64

 1.5.6 Programming Software & IDEs 1.5.6

• Programming Software includes IDEs, text editors, and compilers

• Text Editors: Basic tools for writing and editing code (Notepad++, Sublime Text, VS Code)
• IDEs (Integrated Development Environments): Comprehensive tools combining text editor + debugger + compiler (IntelliJ
IDEA, Eclipse, Visual Studio)
• Compilers: Translate high-level language code into machine code (GCC for C/C++, javac for Java)
• How IDEs help programmers:
• Syntax Highlighting: Colors code according to syntax for readability
• Code Completion: Predicts and suggests next part of code being typed
• Integrated Debugger: Run code step-by-step, inspect variables, find bugs
• Error Checking: Real-time syntax error detection and suggestions
• Project Management: Organise code files, manage dependencies

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 65

 Short Questions Section 1.5

Q1 What are the four main types of computer software?

Q2 What is the difference between offline and online applications?

Q3 What is an application patch? What are its four key functions?

Q4 Name and describe four types of software hosting.

Q5 What is an IDE? How does it differ from a text editor?

Q6 What does a compiler do? Give two examples.

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 66
 Chapter 1 – Key Takeaways Summary Summary

Machine Level Representation Number Systems

Data stored as bits (0/1). Types: integers, floats, characters, Decimal(10), Binary(2), Octal(8), Hex(16). Interconversions using
1.1 boolean. 1.2 positional weight.

Binary Arithmetic Coding Schemes

Addition, subtraction using binary. Overflow, underflow, 1's and ASCII (7-bit: 128 chars, 8-bit: 256 chars). Unicode supports
1.2.3 2's complement. 1.3 100,000+ characters.

Operating System Computer Software

Manages CPU, memory, files, devices. Types: batch, multitasking, System, application, programming, driver software. Offline/online
1.4 RTOS, distributed, embedded. 1.5 apps. Hosting: cloud, dedicated, shared.

Chapter 1: Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE 67

Chapter 1 Complete!
Computer Systems | Class 10 Computer Science | FBISE

Questions & Discussion