SST 311

Principles of seed production

(1+1)
 Extended Syllabus
MODULE-1: BASICS-Introduction Seed Science and technology, Seed and its importance, difference between seed
& grain, Seed quality and its importance, Definition and characters of good quality seed
History and development of seed industry, seed programmes, types and planning.
Different classes of seed, Definition of breeder, foundation, certified seed & truthfully seed, Generation system of
seed multiplication, seed multiplication ratio (SMR), SRR and VRR. various agencies involved in seed production
and Certification.

MODULE-2: SEED PRODUCTION- Principles of seed production—Genetic, agronomic and economic

principles. Deterioration of crop varieties – factors and their control. Maintenance of genetic purity during seed
production. Requirements of hybrid seed production and types of hybrids. Systems and techniques of HSP- Male
sterility, self incomparability, CHA, and EGMS. Planning for breeder, foundation, truthfully labelled and certified
class of seed production. Seed production –FS and CS production in maize (Varieties, synthetics, hybrids and
composites): Redgram, greengram, blackgram and bengalgram (varieties), Varieties and hybrid seed production in
rice, sorghum and bajra, Sunflower, Castor, Cotton, Tomato, Chilli and Onion.
MODULE-3: SEED CERTIFICATION- Phases of seed certification Seed certification- purpose/objectives,
principles & procedures/phases, Control of seed source, field counts, field and seed standards. Central seed
committee, Central seed certification Board, State seed certification Agency. Central and state seed testing
laboratories and their functions.
Seed Legislation-Seed Act (1966), Seed Rules (1968) important sections-3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,[Link] Control
Order(1983) & its imp features. New seed Policy( 1988). Duties/ responsibilities of seed certification officer, seed
inspector and seed analyst.
MODULE-4: SEED MARKETING- Seed marketing and distribution strategies: Structure and organization, sales,
International trade, generation activities, promotional media. Factors affecting seed marketing. Role of WTO and
OECD in seed marketing. NSC, KSSC and other organization in marketing. Public and private sectors and their
marketing strategies, Seed sales, License, pricing policy, economic feasibility and factors influencing seed
marketing.
 Evaluation

Activities Marks
Attendance 05
Manual 05
Collection of seed 05
Mid term quiz 25
Practical exam 10
Final Examination 50
Total 100
Seed : Seed is the living matured ovule in the ovary of a flower. It contains
embryo which has developed after fertilization of the egg cell by the
pollen in the embryo sac of the ovule.
A seed is a mature ovule that comprises an embryo or a miniature
undeveloped plant and food reserves, all enclosed within a
protective seed coat.
A seed is an embroyonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering.

In agriculture and horticulture, seed is any part or organ of the plant

which has capability to regenerate a new plant and sown for
multiplication.

Modified root : Sweet potato, Dalhia. Modified stem : Potato ,Ginger,

onion. Sett: Sugarcane. Sucker : Pineapple. Bulbil:Agave. Leaf: Aloe

The seed has the potentiality to maintain the intrinsic inherent qualities
through generation of the variety or species to which it belongs.

.
 Importance of Seeds
➢ Seed is the basic input in agriculture upon which other inputs
are applied.
➢ A good vigorous seed utilizes all the resources and realized a
reasonable out put to the grower.
➢ It is wealth to the farmer, it is the yesterday’s harvest and
tomorrows hope.
➢ Good seed in good soil realize good yield.
➢It is a link between two generations.
➢ Seeds have been and still are the most important staple food
of the world.
➢ Rice, for instance is the main carbohydrate source of two
-thirds of the world’s population.
➢ Likewise, legumes (e.g. mungbean, peanut and soybean)
are rich sources of proteins essential to a balanced human diet.
 Seed Technology

The science which deals with production, harvesting, processing,

testing and certification, packing, storing and marketing of seeds.

Cowan (1973) identified seed technology as “that discipline of

study having to do with seed production, maintenance, quality
and preservation”.

Feistritzer (1975) defined seed technology as the methods

through which the genetic and physical characteristics of seeds
could be improved. It involves such activities as variety
development, evaluation and release, seed production,
processing, storage and certification. Thus seed technology is
essentially an inter disciplinary science which encompasses
broad range of subjects.
 Importance of Seed Technology to crop production?

➢ Seeds are the easiest and fastest means of plant multiplication.

Therefore, knowledge in producing, handling and storing high
quality seeds is necessary for successful crop production.
➢ Seeds remain to be the most important form of germplasm. As
such maintaining the viability of seeds under storage ensures
the availability of genetic material which could be used for crop
improvement.
➢ By studying the seed or germinating seedling, man has gained
knowledge about growth regulators, respiration, cell division,
morphogenesis, photosynthesis and other metabolic processes.
 Goals/Aims of Seed Technology

1. Rapid multiplication of popular varieties.

2. Timely supply of improves seeds/Propagules in time

and space.

3. Assurance of high quality seeds.

4. Availability of seeds at a reasonable price

 Scope of Seed Technology

1. Provision of scientific technique for Seed production .

2. Provision of guidelines to maintain the seed certification

standards.

3. Adequate and timely supply of seeds on the market.

4. Provision of technical knowledge to check the govt.

statutory guidelines of seed standards.
Feistritzer (1975) outlined the following roles of improved seed

1. Carrier of new technology

2. A basic tool for secured food supply

3. The principal means to secure crop yields in less favorable

production areas

4. A medium for rapid rehabilitation in cases of natural

disaster
 Difference between seed and grain
Seed Grain
Always alive and sensitive to light, air May be alive or dead . May or may not
and moisture sensitive to light, air and moisture
May be used as food grain, if not treated Grains should not or cannot be used as
with poisonous chemicals. seed
Seed should have sufficient vigour Vigour may not be present in grains.
Quality characters are more important Nutritional characters are more
important
Requires proper temperature and RH Proper temperature and RH is not
for better storage to maintain viability important as maintaining viability is not
important.
Inspection and suggestions are Not necessary
necessary for production.
Seed production according to seed act No such act and rules for grain
and Seed Rules. production.
 Identification of seeds
Seed
characteristics

Structural Chemical Functional

External variations Internal variations

Seed size Type of embryo

Seed colour Embryo size
Seed shape Placement of
Seed surface food reserves
quality and
quantity
Morphology of seed : Morphological differences in size , shape, colour and surface
texture of the seeds are helpful for identification of crop species and varieties .

Size of seed : Measured directly with the help of dial gauze or sieves of standard
size or or by any other methods. Indirectly on the basis of weight or density of
seed.
Smallest seed : orchids (20.33ug ). Blargest seed : Double coconut ( Around 16 Kg)

Shape of seed : Size of seed may vary from minute dust particles of orchid to
shperical, oval, elliptical, linear triangular oblong or prismatic seeds to the large
composite two chambered seeds of double coconut.

Colour of seed: Depends on pigmentation of the seed coat or the accessory layers of
cover present. Different varieties of the same species may have different colour
combination.
Black : Blackgram, Green: Greengram, Red: Redgram, Pink: Groundnut,
Brown: Chickpea, white: Soyabean.

Surface texture of seed Coat: Smooth, rough, wrinkled, ribbed, furrowed, pulpy or
hairy.
Why it is necessary to study variations

Seed size : Storage structures

Seed testing- type of media
Type of packing material
Grading
Quantity of chemical required for seed treatment
Seed Colour: Physical purity
Maturity
Grading
Diagnostic value

Seed shape: In processing, selection of sieves

Seed coat texture : Type of seed treatment method
Grading
Appendages help in seed dispersal

Seed variations helps in harvesting methods

Designing type of processing equipments

Internal variations are help in seedling growth parameters.

Longevity, vigour and also helps in crop improvement
programmes.

Chemical composition decides the longevity of seed and

seed vigour.
Classification of the crop seeds on the basis of preponderance of
the type of stored substance in different parts of the plants.

Cereals
Forestry Pulses

Oil
Plantation seeds
crops

Beverages Fibre
crops
and
Medicines Seed
Forage
crops
Spices

Sugar &
Tubers/ Starchy
Rhizomes
Vegetables
Cereals: These are rich in carbohydrates. Examples. Paddy/Rice. Sorghum. Maize.
Wheat. Bajra. Foxtail millet. Finger millet/Ragi. Barley, Oat.

Pulses: Rich in vegetable proteins. Bengalgram, Redgram, Greengram, BlackgramPea,

cowpea, Rajmah, Horsegram, Soyabean, Broad bean etc.

Oil seeds : Rich in vegetable lipids and fats. Groundut, Sunflower, castor, mustard,
Safflower, linseed, Coconut, oilpalm, NigerSesame.

Fibre crops: natural from from seed coat or from bark of stem or leaf.
Cotton, Sunhemp, Agave, Flax

Forage crops: consumed by livestock and herbivorous animals.

Barseem, Clover, Lucerne, Stylo, Setaria grass, Guinea grass, Napier/ elephant grass.
Buffel grass, Cowpea Clucter bean.

Sugar and starchy: Mainly for sugar and starchy food.

Sugarcane, Sweet potato, Colocasia/ Elephant ear, tapioca, Sugar beat

Vegetable: Consumed as fruit, lleaf, flower, stem, root.

Brinjal, Cabbage, Cauliflower, Knol Khol, okra, potato, Tomata, Water melon, Pumkin,
Ridgegourd,, Chilli, carrot, etc.
Tuber/Rhizomes: Elephant foot, Potao Colocasia.

Spices: Rich in aromatic acids or alkaloids.

Onion, Coriander, Nutmeg. Cumin, Anise., cardamom,Turmeric, Ginger, Black pepper,
Garlic,Fenugreek,Cinnamom.

Beverages and Medicines: Rich in secondary metablites.

Cacao. Tea, Coffee, Tobacco, Isabgol, Poppy.

Fruits and nuts: Rich in sugars, Vitamins and minerals and nutritious and healthy.
Apple, banana, mango,Pista, Walnut, Grapes, peach, Date palm,, cherry, cashew ,etc

Plantation crops: Arecanu, Coconut, Chestnut, Rubber.

Forestry: Various types of trees used for different purposes.

Teak, Khair, Wood apple, Bamboo, Sandal wood, Silver oak, Amla, Wind tree , Honge,
Sima ruba, etc.
 Color, Weight and Size Variations in Seeds

Variety of pulses soya beans green lentils green split peas dried peas Bengalgram

black mustard oats

Golden flax hemp

coriander Pinto beans fenugreek wheat grain

Seed shape and colour of diancha
Row 1: poppy, red pepper, strawberry, apple tree, blackberry, rice, carum, Row 2: mustard,
eggplant, physalis, grapes, raspberries, red rice, patchouli, Row 3: figs, lycium barbarum,
beets, blueberries, golden kiwifruit, rosehip, basil, Row 4: pink pepper, tomato, radish,
carrot, matthiola, dill, coriander, Row 5: black pepper, white cabbage, napa cabbage,
seabuckthorn, parsley, dandelion, capsella bursa-pastoris, Row 6: cauliflower, radish,
kiwifruit, grenadilla, passion fruit, melissa, tagetes erecta.
 Sudan grass : Brown-tan; often covered by
lemma and palea. Oblong; pointed at one end.

Grain Sorghum : Dark brown-purple; glossy

black glumes. Oblong; pointed on one end.

Johnson Grass : brown, light to black with

gradiations, smooth and shiny.
 Morning Glory: black to brown; shaped like
sections of an orange.

Vigna aconitifolia Sesbania bispinosa

oats, black rice, brown rice, carnaroli rice, buckwheat, basmati
rice, khorasan wheat, barley, quinoa,
Dandelion seed
Calotropis
Hopea parviflora

Hopea odorata

Maple tree

Honne Moringa
 Biggest seed in world

Double coconut (Lodoicea maldivica)

Mainly found in two islands in Seychelles — was planted
by the British at Acharya Jagadish Chandra Bose Indian
Botanic Garden in Howrah district in Bengal.
 Smallest seed in world : orchid

One gram of seeds of the southeast Asian species Aerides

odorata contains 3.4 million seeds.
Aril

External appendage
Nut meg
Elaiosome

Afzelia africana
Caruncle

Castor
The Father of seed technology is Dr Badrinarayan Barwale.
Thank you
I wish the New Year adds
more beautiful days to
your life.
History of seed industry in
India
 Seed industry in India

Pre-independence Post- independence

➢ In 1905 five agriculture colleges (Sabour, Lyallpur, Pune, Kanpur,
Coiambatore) took up the task of agriculture research and developed
the strains of Cotton , Wheat, Groundnut and Sugarcane.

➢ State department of Agriculture took up the task of distribution of

seeds of improved strains by two methods

➢ First method applied on Bengal for jute and paddy seeds.

➢ Second method applied on UP (United Province) for paddy seeds.

First method is very effective and recommended by (Howard 1928)

In 1922 on United province (UP) establish seed store in each Tehsil.

 In 1925 Royal Commission on Agriculture was constituted.

Suggestion of Royal commission

Introduction and spread of improved varieties;

1 Separate department should be there within agriculture to deal with

seed testing and distribution

2 Seed distribution should be made through co-operative societies,

dept. of agriculture and seed growers

3 Private seed growers should be given encouragement.

With the above suggestions of Royal commission, the Govt. of India
established several Research Institutes. The different strains of Cotton, Wheat,
Groundnut and sugarcane are developed. however the seed multiplication and
distribution was not took place and not encouraging.
 Later on several committees were made, some important among them are;

1937 - Sir John Russell Committee

1940 - ICAR committee
1944 - Dr. Burns committee
1944 - Famine enquiry co mmittee
1944 - Food Grain Policy committee

These review commissions revealed that;

➢ Crop botanist should be involved in development of improved varieties,

their testing and demonstration

➢ Initial seed should be multiplied on govt. farms and subsequent

multiplication in the fields of registered growers

➢ Govt. should purchase the seed from registered growers at a premium

price and later on distribute to fanners at confessional rates.
1945 - Private vegetable Seed companies had developed facilities for
producing vegetable seed at Quetta in Pakistan and Kashmir valley.

1946 - All India Seed Growers, Merchants and Nurserymen's

Association was formed with the objective of rapid development of
vegetable Seed Industry.
 Seed Industry after Independence
1950 - Recommendations were given by experts from foreign countries for
the establishment of Agricultutal Universities.

Until 1951 agriculture was neglected and after the formation of

Agricultural Universities and Research Institutes agriculture
development started in India.
First Five Year Plan (1951-56): Use of improved seed
1952 - Grow More Food Enquiry Committee was constituted they recommended
seed multiplication and distribution schemes. However the progress made
during the FFYP was poor and seed was mainly distributed with subsidy.
Second five -year Plan (1956 -61):Golden period
1957 - All India Co-ordinated maize Improvement Project was started in
collaboration with Rockfeller foundation of USA with multidisciplinary
approach.
1961 - Maize hybrids released. Deccan, Ranjit, Ganga-1 and Ganga-101
1961- Sorghum hybrid CSH-1
1964 - Bajra hybrid HB-1
Multiplication of foundation seed –NESB- seed farm and seed store- 4328 seed farms- 2551 launched.
1959- First Indo- American Agriculture Production Team – seed productions problems.
(Dr. Sherman E Johnson)
Third Five Year Plan (1961-66) : Scientific principle – seed production
1963 - Central Seeds Corporation
The main aim of establishing CSC was
➢ To establish foundation and certified seed production
➢ To assist in the development of seed production and marketing of seeds
➢ To encourage and assist in development of seed certification programs, seed law and seed law
enforcement programs.
➢ To train personnel involved in seed programs
➢ Act as Co-ordinator for the improved seed programs.

Significant achievements of NSC in development of seed industry are:

➢ Establishment of a scientific seed industry.

➢ Encouragement of Indian Manufacturers for seed processing equipments.
➢ Development of field inspection methods, seed standards for seed certification and labelling.
➢ Multiplication of Pre released varieties of national importance .
➢ NSC provided expert services to FAO for designing high capacity processing plants in Iran and
seed storage structures in Malaysia.

1966 - High yielding variety program was launched by govt. of India.

9.2 [Link]. of food crop area by 1968-69 and 25 [Link] by 1973- 74 under HYV
bajra, maize, sorghum, paddy and wheat.
On 29th Dec. 1966 Seed Act Bill was introduced in the parliament.
On 2nd Oct, 1969 the Seed Act Bill came into force throughout the country.
1968 - Seed Review Team constituted by GOI to review seed status
Recommendations of team
• Registration of Varieties
• Elimination of doubtful varieties
• Avoidance of pre release publicity
• SAU role for foundation seed production
• Involvement of cooperative and private sector for seed production.

Fourth Five -year plan (1969-74):

1969- Tarai development carporation (TDC)
The project aimed at integrated agriculture development of Tarai area with the
production of quality seed as primary objective.
TDC renamed as U.P. Seeds and Tarai Development Corporation Ltd., w.e.f. 1st July 1978.
1971 - Indian society of Seed Technology was formed .
PublicationsSeed Research and Seed Technology Newsletter

Fifth five-year Plan (1974-77):

1976 – National commission on Agriculture (NCA) carried out a review on seed industry and
give its recommendations .
Expansion, varietal registration, seed insurance, tax benefits, seed processing ,storage,
seed research, seed law enforcement, seed certification, grow out tests and inclusion of
seed tech as a course in Agricultural university.
NCA- GOI- SPA- supply of seeds- Agril production - NSP

1975-76 -NSP -I was implemented

NSP Phase I was launched in first four states Punjab, Haryana, Maharastra and Andhra
Pradesh with the establishment of state seed corporation on their territory
NSP Phase II was launched in five states Karnataka, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and
Orissa with the establishment of state seed corporation on their territory.

Sixth five-year Plan (1980-85):

Seed control order 1983 passed and enacted and declared that seed as an essential
commodity under Essential Commodity Act 1955.

Seventh five year plan (1985-1990)

• Strengthening of infra structure, facilities for seed production both in public and private
sectors.
• NSP Phase III launched in four states namely Assam, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh &
Gujarat with the establishment of state seed corporation.
New Policy on seed development was passed on 16th Sept. 1988, which came into effect
on 1st Oct, 1988. The policy was directed to assure the Indian farmers access to the best
seeds available anywhere in the world with a view to maximize the yields of various crops.
Eighth five year plan (1992-97) :

• High targets of seed production has been fixed.

• Emphasis given on seed production of Hybrid Varieties of Rice and other crops.
1994: Drafting of legislation on plant variety law made available to public in India on 2 nd
February.
ICAR launched a special project promotion of Hybrid research in vegetables at four
ICAR institutes and 11 State Agricultural Universities.
1994: Indian Patent Act was amended allowing patenting end product of all
pharmaceuticals and agriculture produce and brought under Plant Variety
Protection Act.
The period of protection would be 15 years for annual crops and 18 years for fruit
trees and vines.

Ninth Five Year (1997-2002):

Starts-both Public and Private Seed Sector Companies encouraged in production of
quality seeds.
1997: M/S Monsanto, USA identified the Terminator Gene concept which allows the
germination of seed for one generation only.
1997: ISTA notified Indian Seed Testing Laboratory at New Delhi under seed act 1966 as
its member laboratory.
2001: Protection of Plant varieties and Farmers’ Right Authority. (PPVFRA)
2002: Govt. of India launched National Seed policy (NSP) and Seed bank scheme.
Tenth Five Year plan (2002-2007):

2003 : Govt. of India established National seed Board to strengthen and co-ordinate seed
development programme in India.
2003: Seed quarantine order.
2004: Seed bill introduced in the parliament.
2005: National Seed Research and Training Centre (NSRTC) and (PPV & FRA).

Eleventh Five Year plan 2007-2012:

2007: Rastriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY).

2007: National food security mission (NFSM).
2009: Amendments of the Plants, fruits and seed order
2010: Introduction of OECD scheme.
2011: Amendments of the Seed Bill.
Tweleveth Five Year Plan. 2012-2017:
2012: Seed subsidies entered to private companies.
2013: Indian Minimum Seed Certification Standards (IMSCS) were developed, released
and reviewed one.
2014: Seed bill is amended.
2015: Cotton Seed Price Control Order , Ready to transform Telangana as a seed bowl of
India.

ROLE OF PUBLIC & PRIVATE SEED SECTOR

• The number of companies engaged in seed production or seed trade is around

400 or 500.
• The main focus of private seed companies has been on the high value low
volume seeds viz. maize , sunflower and cotton. However, in the case of
vegetable seeds and planting materials of horticultural crops, the private sector
is the dominant player.
• The main focus of Public sector has been on for low value high volume seeds
viz. cereals, pulses and oilseeds.
According to “India Seed Market By Product Type, By Crop
Type, By Availability, By Sales Channel, Competition Forecast
& Opportunities, 2013 - 2023” seed market is projected to
grow at a CAGR of over 18% by 2023

Major players operating in India seed market

Nuziveedu Seeds Limited
Kaveri Seed Company Limited
Monsanto India Limited
Rallis India Limited
Syngenta India Limited
Bayer CropScience Limited
DCM Shriram Limited
National Seeds Corporation Limited
UPL Limited
Maharashtra Hybrid Seeds Company Private Limited.
Seed quality
Seed quality

Seed quality is the possession of seed with required genetic and

physical purity that is accompanied with physiological soundness
and health status.

The major seed quality characters are :

1. Physical purity: The seed should be easily identifiable as a species of
specific category of specific species.
2. Genetic purity : It is the true to type nature of the seed.
3. Physiological purity : It is the actual expression of seed in further
generation / multiplication. Germination and vigour.
4. Seed health : Health status of seed is nothing but the absence of insect
infestation and fungal infection, in or on the seed.
The quality seed should have

➢ High genetic purity

➢ High pure seed percentage ( physical purity)
➢ High germinability
➢ High vigour
➢ Higher field establishment
➢ Free from pest and disease
➢ Good shape, size, colour etc., according to the specification of variety
➢ High longevity / shelf life.
➢ Optimum moisture content for storage
➢ High market value Characteristics of good quality seed
Role of good quality seed
The use of quality seed and thus certification guarantees quality and
ensures high and assured yield under environmental stress conditions.

Significance of quality seed

1. Ensures genetic and physical purity of the crops
2. Gives desired plant population
3. Capacity to withstand the adverse conditions
4. Seedlings produced will be more vigorous, fast growing and can resist pest and
disease incidence to certain extent
5. Ensures uniform growth and maturity
6. Development of root system will be more efficient that aids absorption of
nutrients efficiently and result in higher yield
7. It will respond well to added fertilizer and other inputs
8. Good quality seeds of improved varieties ensures higher yield atleast 10 – 12 %
 Classes of seed

✓ Nucleus seed

✓ Breeder seed

✓ Foundation seed

✓ Certified seed

✓ Truthfully labeled seed

Nucleus seed
Breeder seed
Foundation seed

99.50
98.00
 Certified seed

99.00
98.00
 Truthfully labelled seed
It is the category of seed produced by cultivators, private seed
companies and is sold under truthful labels.

This type of seeds does not come under the purview of the
Department of Seed Certification.

Rather, field standard and seed standard should be maintained as

per seed act and certified seed stage.

Under the seed act, the seed producer and seed seller are
responsible for the seed.

Truthful labelling is compulsory for notified kind of varieties and

it is tested for physical purity and germination.
 Seed Class Colour Size

Breeder Seed Golden Yellow 12 cm x 6 cm

Foundation Seed White 15 cm x 7.5 cm
Certified Seed Blue 15 cm x 7.5 cm
Truthfully labelled
Opal Green 15 cm x 10 cm
Seed

Certification is voluntary but labeling is compulsory for

notified kind of varieties.
 Generation system of seed multiplication
Generation system of seed multiplication is nothing but the production of a
particular class of seed from specific class of seed up to certified seed stage. The
choice of a proper seed multiplication model is the key to further success of a seed
programme.

Depends on
✓ Pollination behaviour of the crops
✓ Seed multiplication ratio
✓ Seed demand
Three Generation system

Breeder Seed
Foundation Seed
Certified Seed

Four Generation system

Breeder Seed

Foundation Seed-I

Foundation Seed-II
Certified Seed
 Seed programme

It is a series of activity of planning and implementation to

multiply and distribute the seeds on requisite quantity with
the excellent quality.
However the quality seeds production must depend upon
the other agriculture inputs such as irrigation support, farm
mechanization, land leveling, crop protection and the last
credit facilities
 Bases of seed programme

A. High level support:

a. Govt. desire of Agri. improvement.
b. Administrative support at all levels for planning &
implementation.

B. Effective plant breeding programme:

a. Varietal testing programme
b. Primary introduction, secondary introduction & varietal
improvement.

C. Co-ordinated effort:
a. Effective extension programme to guide the farmers.
b. Proper TOT to the extension workers by scientist.
 Types of seed programme

1. Official seed programme

[Link] departmen run seed programmes.

2. Semi official seed programme

[Link], SSC run seed programmes

3. Private seed programmes

[Link] enterprise handle seed programmes in US & Europe
General guidelines for planning the seed programme
1. Decide the basic strategy and specific role of various
agencies first.
2. Fix the target of seed production on the basis of pertinent
data.
3. Calculate the production requirement for each generation.
breeder, foundation, certified
4. Production requirement should be calculated on the basis
of seed rate and seed multiplication rate
5. Example : let take if Redgram SMR is 1:100 than one qtl
breeder seed sown on 8 ha field, it produces 120 quintal of
foundation seed, further 120 qtl foundation seed sown on
960 ha produces 14400 qtls of certified seed.
 Seed multiplication ratio

It is nothing but the number of seeds to be produced

from a single seed when it is sown and harvested.
[Link]
 Seed replacement rate

Seed Replacement Rate is the percentage of area sown out of

the total area of crop planted in the season by using
certified/quality seeds other than the farm saved
seed. [Link]
 Variety replacement rate

Seed Replacement Rate (SSR) or Seed Replacement Ratio

is a measure of how much of the total cropped area was
sown with certified seeds in comparison to farm saved
seeds.
 ISST

ISTA

SMR

SRR

VRR

Thank you
Seed production agency
 Seed production agency
There are three type of Seed Production Agency.

1) Government sector.

2) Co-operative sector.

3) Private sector

National Seed Production Agencies :-

➢ National seed corporation. (NSC)

➢ State Farm Corporation of India. (SFCI)

➢ Indian Council of Agriculture Research. (ICAR)

➢ Indian Institute of Horticulture Research. (IIHR)

➢ India Agriculture Research Institute.(IARI)

NATIONAL SEEDS CORPORATION: ( NSC):

The National Seeds Corporation (NSC) was initiated in

1961 under the Indian Council of Agricultural Research.
Later, on 7th March,1963, it was registered as a limited
company in the public sector.

The NSC was established to serve two main objectives:

1. To promote the development of a seed industry in India
2. To produce and supply the foundation seeds of various
crops.
State Seed Production Agencies :-
✓ State Seed Corporation. (SSC)
 ✓ State Seed Development Authority. (KSSDA)

✓ State Seed Certification Agency. (SSCA)

The State Seeds Corporations are mainly concerned with

the production and supply of certified seed, and within the
state marketing of certified seed. State Seeds Corporations
have been recently established in order to reduce the
workload of NSC.
Private Seed Companies.
A number of private seed company are also engaged in seed
production, research and development activities 1969
onwards.
 ✓ Syngenta India Ltd
✓ Sutton and son Calculta (WB) ✓ Bejo Sheetal hybrid
seed Jalna (MH) ✓ Unicorn group Hydrabad.
✓ Namdari seeds Bangalore
✓ Hinduston Lever Ltd Bombay
✓ Pioneer Seed company Ltd Hydrabad
✓ Maharashtra hybrid, seed company Jalna
✓ Indo-American Hybrid seed Ltd Bangalore
✓ Nath seeds Aurangabad

Organization for Seed Production :-

For breeder seed production :- ICAR, SAUS, IIHR, there are

33 breeder seed purity testing centres located in Agriculture
University and Institute which has been established under
National Seed Programme.

Breeder seed supplied to government agencies including the

NSC, SSC, SFCI and reputed private seed companies.

Foundation seed SAU, NSC, SFCI, SSC, and private seed

company its certified by seed certified agency.

Certified seed NSC, SFCI, SSC, and private seed company.

support to NSC and SSC.

Agencies, which are notified under Section 8 of the Seeds

Act are authorized for certification of seeds. At present
there are 21 State Seed Certification Agencies in the
country.

Maharashtra was the first State to establish an official

Seed Certification Agency during 1970 as a part of the
Department of Agriculture, whereas Karnataka was the
first State to establish the Seed Certification Agency as an
autonomous body during 1974.
 ISST KSSC KSSDA

ISTA NSC ICAR

SMR KSSOCA IARI

SRR SFCI IIHR

VRR

Thank you
Principles of seed
production
 Principles of Seed Production

❖In order to produce high seed yield with best quality

A. Genetic principles

B. Agronomic principles

C. Economic principles

24-Apr-22 2
 Causes for genetic deterioration
✓Developmental variations
✓Mechanical mixtures
✓Mutations
✓Natural crossing
✓Minor genetic variations
✓Selected influence of pest and diseases
✓The technique of the plant breeder
 1. Developmental Variations

• Seed crops grown under differing soil, fertility,

climate, photoperiods, or at different elevations for
several consecutive generations developmental
variations may set in as differential growth responses
• Grow the varieties of crops in the areas of adaptation
to minimize developmental shifts
 2. Mechanical mixtures

➢ If more than one variety is sown with the

same seed drill, through volunteer plants
of the same crop in the seed field, or
through different varieties grown in
adjacent fields
➢ The threshing equipment is often
contaminated with seeds of other varieties
➢ Gunny bags, seed bins and elevators are
also often contaminated.
➢ Roguing the seed fields during seed
production and proper processing are
necessary to avoid mechanical
contamination
 3. Mutations

✓ Mutations do not seriously deteriorate varieties. It is often

difficult to identify or detect minor mutations occurring
naturally.
 4. Natural crossing

❖Natural crossing can be an important source of

varietal deterioration in sexually propagated crops

❖The extent of contamination depends upon the

magnitude of natural cross-pollination
 Sources of contamination

Genetic contaminants are: off types, volunteer plants, pollen shedders, etc.,

Extent of genetic contamination due to natural crossing depends upon

➢ 1. The breeding system of the species

➢ 2. Isolation distance
➢ 3. Varietal mass
➢ 4. Pollinating agent.
➢ The isolation of seed crops is the most important factor in avoiding
contamination of the cross-pollinated crops.
➢ The direction of prevailing wind, the number of insect presents and their
activity, and mass of varieties are also important considerations in
contamination by natural crossing.
 5. Genetic Variations
❖Minor genetic variations can occur even in varieties
appearing phenotypically uniform and homogenous
when released. The variations may be lost during
later production cycles owing to selective elimination
by the nature

❖ Due care during the maintenance of nucleus and

breeder seed of cross-pollinated varieties of crop is
necessary
6. Influence of Pest and Diseases

✓ New crop varieties often are susceptible to newer

races of pests and diseases. The vegetatively
propagated stock also can deteriorate quickly if
infected by virus, fungi or bacteria

✓ Seed production under strict disease free conditions

is therefore essential.
7. of the Plant Breeder

✓Premature release of varieties, still

segregating for resistance and susceptibility to
diseases or other factors can cause significant
deterioration of varieties

✓Incorrect identification of pollen shedders,

partials and off-types in the seed production
plots leads to genetic contamination
➢ Adoption of Crop
➢ Approved Class of Seeds
➢ Preceding Crop Requirement
➢ Isolation
➢ Roguing
➢ Field Inspection
➢ Post harvest handling operations
➢ Grow Out Test
AGRONOMIC PRACTICES - SEED PRODUCTION
• Proper field management

• Timely application of proper and balanced nutrients

• Correction of ill-effects of soil reactions and conditions

• Increasing soil organic matter

• Intercultural operations

• Method and time of harvesting of crop

• Post-harvest technologies
 MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
• Selection of suitable agronomic region

• Selection of seed plot

• Isolation of seed crops

• Preparation of land

• Selection of variety
• Seed materials

• Pre-sowing Seed treatment

• Time of planting

• Seed rate

• Methods of sowing and depth of sowing

 MANAGEMENT PRACTICES CONTD…
• Weed control

• Nutrient and irrigation management

• Rouging

• Provision for supplementary pollination

• Disease and insect control

• Harvesting

• Drying

• Storage of seeds
 1. SELECTION OF SUITABLE
AGRONOMIC REGION
• Crop variety – adapted to the region

• Climatic factors – Rainfall, Temperature , RH, …

• Drought

• Submergence

• Salinity
 2. SELECTION OF SEED PLOT
• Choice of field is an important component of seed production

• Seed production plots require extra care

• Area - uniform, well leveled, free from inoculums & weeds

• Avoid areas where rain occurs during seed development stages

SITE SELECTION

• Adaptation of crop/variety to the production environment

• Previous cropping history - same variety/species/ pest & diseases

• Field - isolated from other fields of the same crop / varieties

• Soil texture and fertility should be suitable for the crop concerned

• Accessibility of the site to the transport network for field inspection,

monitoring and field activities

 3. ISOLATION DISTANCE
Minimum isolation requirements for seed production

Minimum isolation distance(Mtrs.)

Crop Foundation seed Certified seed
Redgram 250 200
Green gram, Black gram, Bengalgram 10 5
Bajra Hybrids 1000 200
Bajra Openpollinated varieties 400 200
Paddy(Varieties) 3 3
Paddy (Hybrids) 200 100
Castor (Varieties) 600 300
Sunflower(Hybrids) 600 400
Sunflower(Varieties) 400 200
Soyabean 3 3

Cropping system should prepared

Staggered sowing can be practiced
 [Link] PREPARATION
• Land should be prepared well in advance
• Old crop residues to be removed
• Deep ploughing and harrowing once or twice
Good root growth
Plants get moisture from the soil
• Uniform germination of seeds
 5. SEED SELECTION
• Use genetically pure seeds

• Pure seeds should be obtained from the breeder or the research

institution responsible for developing the variety, or from
registered growers

• Seeds - free of other crop seeds, weed seeds and seed-borne

diseases
• While buying the seeds, seed of appropriate class, tags and seals
of seed bags are intact and validity period has not expired
 6. SEED TREATMENT
• Seed treatment - application of biological and chemical agents -
control soil and seed borne infestation of insects and diseases

• Main objective – To improve crop establishment and vigorous

growth
 7. SOWING / PLANTING Proper and uniform depths

• Sowing - proper season and time

• Sowing at proper moisture level

• Spacing between rows and plants

• Too early or too late planting to be avoided –
poor crop growth and affect the seed quality Uniform row to row spacing

Depth of sowing:
Different sowing method to be maintained for
different seed size

i) Small seed : 3- 4 cm
Optimum plant population
ii) Medium seed : 5-6 cm

iii) Large seed : 7-8 cm

 8. NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT
• Use soil test to determine nutrient needs, and apply only the
amount of nutrients needed by the crop to be grown.

• Site-specific nutrient application varies the amount of nutrients

within fields based on a soil tests.

• Use manure tests to determine nutrient content

• Timing of fertilizer application - apply nutrients just before they
are needed by the crop.

• Most of the N is needed after the plant is three to four weeks old.

• Most efficient method of applying N fertilizer is as top dress /side

dress after planting.
 9. WATER MANAGEMENT
All physiological processes of plant directly or indirectly influenced

by water status

• Vegetative growth and development, plants require

- adequate quality of water,

- appropriate quantity

- at right time.

• Excess application - damage seed crops

- Delayed irrigation may cause water stress

- Reduce the seed yield

 10. WEED MANAGEMENT
Mechanical, manual and chemical weeding can be adopted to keep
the fields weed-free

i) Cultural

• Solarisation

• Stale seedbed technique

• Place and time of fertilizer application

• Crop rotation
 WEED MANAGEMENT
ii) Mechanical

• Disc plough for field preparation

• Cultivators - Seedbed preparation / planting

• Zero till- Minimum or no-till system

iii) Chemical

- selective herbicides

- method of application

- placement of herbicide
POWER DRAWN MULTI ROW
- timing of application
ROTARY WEEDER
• During herbicide application sufficient soil moisture to be
maintained.
 11. ROGUING
• Off-type plants are removed from the field as soon as they are
seen

• Diseased plants should also be discarded

• Done at vegetative, flowering and maturity stages

 12. SUPPLEMENTAL POLLINATION
Needed for cross pollinated crops
Insect and artificial method

• Bee hives @ 5 per hectare

• In sunflower, during flowering (7-10 days), rub the heads with
muslin cloth between 8 – 11 AM at alternate days till the completion
of flowering
 13. INTERCULTURAL OPERATIONS
• Intercultural operation is thinning, nipping and earthing up
should be done at proper time and in proper way

• During intercultural operation weak plant must be removed

 14. HARVESTING
• Before harvesting maturity of crop - seed color, texture, shape
and size of seeds

• Harvested produce to be kept and threshed separately to avoid

any mixture of other varieties
 15. DRYING AND STORAGE OF SEEDS
• Seeds should be dried properly before storage

• Optimum moisture content (10-12%) - maintained

• Seeds treated with fungicides / insecticides

• Seeds stored in gunny / cloth bag / polythene bag depending
upon the storage period
Thank you
Maintenance of genetic
purity during seed
production
 Maintenance of varietal purity

a. Use of approved seed only in seed multiplication.

b. Inspection and approval of fields prior to planting.

c. Field inspection and approval of growing crops at critical

stages for verification of genetic purity, detection of mixtures,
weeds, and for freedom from noxious weeds and seed borne
diseases etc.

d. Sampling and sealing of cleaned lots

e. Growing of samples of potentially approved stocks for
comparison with authentic stocks.
 Maintenance of Genetic purity

a. Providing adequate isolation to prevent contamination by

natural crossing or mechanical mixtures
b. Rouging of seed fields prior to the stage at which they could
contaminate the seed crop.
c. Periodic testing of varieties for genetic purity.

d. Avoiding genetic shifts by growing crops in areas in their

adaptation only.
e. Certification of seed crops to maintain genetic purity and
quality of seed.
f. Adopting the generation system.
g. Grow out tests.
Genetic Purity Maintenance in Hybrid Seeds
Maintenance of the genetic purity of hybrid seeds is a complicated one requiring
elaborate procedures.
Nucleus Seed of Inbred Lines
▪ The nucleus seed of inbred lines can be maintained by self pollination, sib-
pollination, or a combination of the two procedures (hand pollination).
▪ Some breeders prefer 'sibbing" because it maintains vigour. "Selfing" is used
to stabilize inbred lines if a change in breeding behavior is noticed.
▪ Some parental material is preferably maintained by alternate selfing and
sibbing from one generation to other.
▪ Individually selfed or sibbed ears should be examined critically, discarding off
types or inferior characteristics (texture, colour, seed size, chaff color and
shape of earhead).
▪ The uniform ears are then threshed separately and planted in ear to row
method to easily detect and discard off types from individual ears if any.
▪ Alternatively all of the ears from an individual inbred line may be composited
for bulk planting in the next season.
▪ The hand pollination seed is sown on clean, fertile soil having
no previous crop of the same kind or variety during the previous
year (bearing maize).
▪ It is rather important to ensure that the crop is well isolated,
with the requirement varying from crop to crop and depending
upon the nature of the material to be protected by isolation, the
nature of the contaminant, and the direction of the prevailing
wind.
▪ The isolation can be achieved either by distance or by time
(maize). The inbred line may be composited for bulk planting in
the next season.
▪ Maintenance of genetic purity in inbred lines through hand
pollination and adequate isolation alone is not enough to achieve
perfection.
▪ The isolated fields must be critically rogued for off types and
other impure types prior to the shedding of pollen.
▪ The nucleus seed crop is harvested after physiological
maturity if artificial drying facilities exist.
▪ Ear to harvest lines are harvested separately and piled; These
are again critically examined for ear characteristics, sorting
out of all off-coloured, diseased, or otherwise undesirable ears.
▪ If the overall percentage of off types exceeds 0.1%, hand
pollination should be repeated to produce the second year's
breeders seed.
▪ The uniform ears are bulked, dried in a clean dry bin at
temperatures not exceeding 430C, shelled, cleaned, treated with
pesticides, and stored under ideal storage conditions as breeder
stock seed. This seed may be increased during the following
season by paying adequate attention to isolation, roguing, etc., to
maintain high genetic purity of the seed.
Nucleus Seed of Non-Inbred Lines
➢ To maintain in the genetic purity of the nucleus seed of non-
inbred lines, the number of plants for hand pollination
should be large enough to preserve genetic makeup of the
variety, narrowing the genetic base by sibbing only a few
plants (about 5000 plants or more).
➢ The sibbed ears are examined critically, discarding of colour,
texture, or diseased ones.
➢ Uniform ears are bulked, dried, shelled, cleaned, treated and
stored as usual.
➢ Other practices of seeding sibbed nucleus seeds are similar
to those described earlier for inbred lines.
➢ Roguing however, needs to be observed more critically by
individuals with good knowledge of the material.
➢ The breeder's stock seed thus produced from the nucleus seed
can be utilized to increase the breeder's stock of non-inbred
lines, paying adequate attention to land requirements, isolation,
roguing, harvesting and handling of seed to achieve maximum
genetic purity.
➢ The breeder's seed of the established varieties of cross
pollinated crops can be maintained by raising breeder's seed crop
in isolation and roguing the crop thoroughly at various stages.
➢ It is often purified by mass selection.
➢ The crop is grown in isolation and rogued carefully as described
earlier.
➢ At maturity about 20,000 - 25000 true to type plants are selected,
harvested separately, and bulked after careful examination.
➢ This constitutes the breeder's stock seed. The seed may be carried
over to ensure against possible failures or unforeseen shortages
Requirements of hybrid
seed production
Requirements of hybrid seed production

➢ Heterosis

➢ Emasculation

➢ Pollination

➢ Economic feasibility
 Heterosis

It is condition in which the performance of hybrid exceeds the

performance of its parents for one or more characters.

Mid parent heterosis ;

MP (H) = F1 - MP x 100
MP

High parent heterosis :

HP (H) = F1 - HP x 100
HP
 Emasculation
Removal of stamens or anthers or killing the pollen of a flower
without the female reproductive organ is known as emasculation.

✓ Artifical emasculation
✓ Use of male sterility

▪ Hand emasculation - Cotton, tomato, chilly, Brinjal

Detasseling - Maize
▪ Chemical emasculation
Use of Gametocides
Arsenicals : Rice (5 days beofore heading)
Dalapon : Cotton , pearl millet, wheat , linseed etc
Ethepon: Wheat , barley, rice etc.
FW 450(Mendok): Cotton, Capsicum, SF etc
Ethrel – 2- chloro ethyl phosphoric acid - cereals
DCIB : Disodium 2,3-dichloro iso butyarate
GA : Onion
Alcohol Treatment
In Lucerne the inflorescence immersed in 57% alcohol for10
second was highly effective. It is better method of emasculation
than suction method.

Hot Water Treatment

In case of hot water emasculation, the temperature of water and
duration of treatment vary from crop to crop. It is determined for
every species. For sorghum 42-480C for 10 minutes is found to be
suitable. In the case of rice, 10 minutes treatments with 40-440C is
adequate.
 Use of male sterility

➢ Reduced the cost of hybrid seed production.

➢ Production of large scale of F1 seeds.

➢ It avoids enormous manual work of emasculation and

pollination.

➢ Speedup the hybridization programme.

➢ Commercial exploitation of hybrid vigour.

Phenotypic Male Sterility

Pollen sterility
Structural or staminal male sterility
Functional male sterility

Genotypic sterility
1. Genetic male sterility
Environmental sensitive male sterility
Termo sensitive genetic male sterility (TGMS)
Photoperiod sensitive genetic male sterility (PGMS)
Environmental non sensitive sterility

2. Cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS)

3. Cytoplasmic genetic male sterility (CGMS)
4. Transgenic male sterility (TMS)

Chemically induced male sterility (CHA)

 Pollination

The process of transferring pollen from the male anther of flower

to the female stigma of the same or different flower

Natural Pollination ;
Wind: Anemophilly - Cereals – Sorghum , Bajra
Insect : Entemophilly – Cole crops, cauliflower, cabbage, SF. etc

Manual Pollination : Cotton , Chilly, tomato etc

 Economic feasibility

HSP is feasible and economically viable when:

✓ Consistent performance

✓ Cost of production

✓ SMR yield

✓ Seed rate should be less

✓ Quality and yield

T
h
a
n
k

y
o
u
For reading/Reference

Text book
Seed technology
by
R L Agarwal
Types of hybrids
 Types of hybrids

The type of hybrid produce is a function of

i. Number of parents involved

ii. Relationship among parent

Conventional Hybrids
Six types of hybrids
1. Single cross hybrid
2. Modified single cross hybrid
3. Double modified single cross hybrid
4. Three way cross hybrid
5. Modified three way cross hybrid
6. Double cross hybrid
1. Single cross hybrid

Hybrid produced by crossing between two unrelated inbred lines.

P1 x P2

F1

Number of planting required is 3 in 2 season

P1 _- Male sterile - A line

P2 _- Male Fertile - R line

P stands for parent/ inbred line

P1 stands for parent 1
P2 stands for parent 2
P1* stands for sisterly or closely relted to P1
2. Modifed Single cross hybrid

Hybrid produced by crossing between single cross with sisterly

related cross and another unrelated inbred line.

( P1* X P1 ) x P2

F1

Number of planting required is 5 in 3 season

P1 _- Male sterile - A line

P2 _- Male Fertile - R line
3. Double Modified Single cross hybrid

Hybrid produced by crossing between to sisterly or closely related

of unrelated inbred line.

( P1* X P1 ) x ( P2* X P2 )

F1

Number of planting required is 7 in 3 season

P1 _- Male sterile - A line

P2 _- Male Fertile - R line
4. Three way cross hybrid

Hybrid produced by crossing between three unrelated inbred line.

( P1 X P2 ) X P3

F1

Number of planting required is 5 in 3 season

P1 and P2 are less combining ability individually with P3 but

single cross of P1 and P2 has high combining ability with P3
Three way crosses are more variable than single - crosses and less
variable than double-crosses
5. Modified three way cross hybrid

Hybrid produced by crossing by

( P1 X P2 ) X ( P3* X P3 )
F1

Number of planting required is 7 in 3 season

6. Double cross hybrid
Hybrid produced by crossing by two single cross or 4 unrelated
parents / inbred lines.
( P1 X P2 ) X ( P3 X P4 )
F1

Number of planting required is 7 in 3 season

They are also more variable than single or 3-way crosses thus allowing
breeders to bring more different desirable characteristics together into
one hybrid than is possible in a single cross.

Double cross plants have a longer pollination period, a condition that

tends to provide more complete filling of the ear with seed, often
resulting in higher yields.
Non conventional hybrids

I. Inter varietal hybrids

➢ Formed by inter - crossing two varieties
➢ Approximately/ equivalent to composites or synthetics
2. Top cross hybrids;
In this one of the parent is an open-pollinated variety/ synthetic and
the other is a single-cross hybrid or an inbred line.
It is used as testing the combining ability of inbreds and not for
commercial hybrid seed production

3. Inter family hybrids;

The progeny resulting from the crosses of two families originating
from same population or two different population .

4. Double top cross hybrids : progeny of a single cross and a

variety
T
h
a
n
k

y
o
u
For reading/Reference

Text book
Seed technology
by
R L Agarwal
 Self
incompatibility
 Self incompatibility

SI refers to the inability of a plant with functional pollen

to set seeds when self pollinated. It is the failure of pollen
from a flower to fertilize the same flower or other flowers
of the same plant.

(SI) is a general name for several genetic mechanisms in

angiosperms, which prevent self-fertilization and thus
encourage out-crossing and allogamy.

Self incompatibility was first reported by Koelreuter.

Reasons for self-incompatibility
1) Pollen stigma interaction.
2) Pollentube and style interaction.
3) Pollentube and ovary interaction.

General features of Self-incompatibility

➢ Prevent selfing and promotes out-breeding so increases the
probability of new gene combinations.
➢ Causes may be morphological, physiological, genetical or
biochemical.
➢ Normal seed set on cross pollination.
➢ May operate at any stage between pollination and fertilization.
➢ Reduces homozygosity.
Heteromorphic self-incompatibility
➢ The genes responsible for self- incompatibility in heterostylous
flowers are strongly linked to the genes responsible for flower
polymorphism, so these traits are inherited together.
➢ The associated concepts are distyly and tristyly.

Pin Thrum
Sporophytic self incompatibility
This type of self incompatibility was first reported by
Hughes and Babcock in 1950 in Crepis foetida.
➢ In this system incompatibility reaction of pollen is
governed by genotype of plant on which pollen is
produced, and not by genotype of pollen.
Examples: Brassicaceae : Cole crops or crucifers

Gametophytic self incompatibility

➢ This type self- incompatability was first described by
East and Mangeldorf in 1925 in tobacco.
➢ In this system, the incompatibility reaction of pollen
is determined by its own genotype and not by the
genotype of the plant on which it is produced.
Examples:Tobacco,Petunias,beets, lilies,[Link].
Importance of Self-Incompatibility In Plant Breeding
(1) Self-incompatibility may be used in hybrid seed production.
For that, two self-incompatible but cross-compatible lines are to be
interplanted; seeds obtained from both the lines would be hybrid seed.
(3) Self incompatibility provides a way for hybrid seed production
without emasculation and without make use of genetic or cytoplasmic male
sterility.
(4) Self incompatibility system permits combining of desirable genes in a
single genotype from two or more different sources through natural cross
pollination which is not possible in self compatible species.
(5) In case of pineapple, commercial clones are self- incompatible. As a result,
their fruits develop parthenocarpically & are seedless.
(6) In self incompatible fruit trees, it is necessary to plant two cross-
compatible varieties to ensure fruitfulness.
(7) There is no roughing problem in self incompatible line.
(8) Labour cost is less and seed production is more in self incompatible
mechanism.
Limitations of self-incompatibility

1. It is very difficult to produce homozygous inbred lines

in a self incompatible species.

2. Bud pollination has to be made to maintain the parental lines.

3. Self incompatibility is affected by environmental factors such
as temperature and humidity.
Incompatibility is reduced or broken down at high temperature
and humidity.

4. There is a limited use of self-incompatibility due to problems

associated with the maintenance of inbred lines through hand
pollination as it is tedious and costly.
T
h
a
n
k

y
o
u
 For reading/Reference
Self-incompatibility: a pollination control
mechanism inplants

Vijayakumar B. Narayanapur, B. Suma and J.S.

Minimol
How to cite this article : (2018). Self-incompatibility: a pollination control
mechanism in plants. Internat. J. Plant Sci., 13 (1): 201-212,
Male sterility
 Male sterility

Male sterility is characterized by non-functional pollen grains

while female gametes functions normally.
or
It is the failure of plants to produce functional anthers, pollen,
or male gametes.

Occurs in nature sporadically due to mutations or

Also caused by environmental factors
 Manifestations of Male Sterility

➢ Absence or malformation of male organs.

➢ Failure to develop normal anther sac or anther tissue

(microsporogenous )

➢ Inability of the pollen to mature or to be released from the

anther sac

➢ Inability to develop normal microspores or pollen

➢ Barriers other than incompatibility preventing pollen

 Classification of male sterility
1. Phenotypic Male Sterility (MS)

Three phenotypic male sterility

a. Structural or staminal male sterility
In which male flowers or stamen are malformed and non functional
or completely absent
b. Sporogenous male sterility/ Pollen sterility
In which male sterile individuals differ from normal only in the
absence or extreme scarcity of functional pollen grains (most
common and the only one that has played a major role in plant
breeding)
c. Functional male sterility
In which perfectly good and viable pollen is trapped in indehiscent
anther and thus prevented from functioning
 2. Genetic male sterility (GMS)

➢ GMS also called as nuclear male sterility.

➢ Generally GMS governed by single recessive gene ms.
➢ Some dominant gene governing male sterility. e.g. in safflower.
➢ GMS occurs widely in plant and in given plant species several
different ms gene act monogenically to produced male sterility
➢ MS alleles arise spontaneously or may be artificially induced

A male sterile line may be maintained by crossing it with

heterozygous male fertile (Ms ms) plants
 Types of Genetic male sterility (GMS)
1 Environmental sensitive male sterility:

1 a. Temperature sensitive Genetic male sterility (TGMS)

Complete male sterility is produced by the ms gene at higher temperature
(e.g.,23.3º C or higher temperature for rice..)
Temperature below critical point there is a normal fertility
Used to develop hybrid rice in China

1 b. Photoperiod sensitive genetic male sterility ( PGMS)

▪ Expression of ms gene is drastically affected by the prevailing photoperiod,
provided the temperature is within a critical range (e.g., 23-290 C for rice
PGMS) within this temperature range complete sterility obtained in rice
plant grown under long day condition (Day length more than 13 hr 45 min).
▪ Generally short-day condition obtain normal fertility.

2 Environmental insensitive sterility:

ms gene expression is little affected by prevailing environment

3. Transgenic male sterility (TrGMS) : Genetic engineering has produced

novel this type of dominant genetic male sterility
 3. Cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS)

➢ Male sterility is determined by the cytoplasm. CMS is the result of

mutation in mitochondrial genome (mt DNA)

➢ The cytoplasm of a zygote comes primarily from egg cell, the progeny of
such male sterile plants would always be male sterile.

➢ Nuclear genotype of male sterile line would be almost identical to that of

the recurrent pollinator strain.

➢ The male sterile line is maintained by crossing it with the pollinator strain
used as the recurrent parent in the backcross programme, since its nuclear
genotype is identical with that of this new male sterile line.
Such a male fertile line is known as the maintainer line or B line, as it is
used to maintain the male sterile line.
 4. Cytoplasmic genetic male sterility (CGMS)

➢ For CGMS, a nuclear gene for restoring fertility in male sterile line.

➢ The fertility restorer gene R, is generally dominant and is found in certain

strain of the species or may be transferred from related species.

➢ Since, this gene restorer male fertility in the male sterile line, it is known as
restorer gene.

➢ This system is also known in cotton, maize, jowar, bajra, sunflower, rice,
wheat etc.

➢ CGMS is also known as nucleoplasmatic male sterility.

 Significance of Male Sterility in Plant Breeding

✓ Hybrid production requires a female plant in which no viable

gametes are borne. Emasculation is done to make a plant devoid
of pollen so that it is made female.

✓ Genetic male sterility is used in hybrid seed production but has

limitations due to the need to maintain female parent lines as
heterozygotes & segregation of fertile & sterile plants each
generation.
 Limitations in using male sterile line

✓ Existence and maintenance of A, B & R Lines is laborious

and difficult
✓ If exotic lines are not suitable to our conditions, the
native/adaptive lines have to be converted into MS lines

✓ Adequate cross pollination should be required between A

and R lines for good seed set.
✓ Synchronization of flowering should be there between A
& R lines.

✓ Fertility restoration should be complete otherwise the F1

seed will be sterile.
✓ Isolation is needed for maintenance of parental lines and
for producing hybrid seed.
Seed certification
Before entering into seed production and Marketing a
Seed Producer must go through the principles laid down

➢ Seeds Act -1966

➢ Seeds Rules-1968
➢ Seeds Control Order-1983
➢ Indian Minimum Seed Certification Standards-
(1988 & revised 2013)
 Seed certification

A legally sanctioned system to maintain quality of seeds during

seed production, post harvest operation and distribution of seeds.

• Seed certification is a scientific and systematically designed

process to secure, maintain, multiply and make available seeds of
notified and released varieties to the farmers.

• It includes field inspection, seed quality tests and pre & post
quality check.

• Certification is a voluntary process but labelling is compulsory.

 Objectives
The main objective of the Seed Certification is to ensure the
acceptable standards of seed viability, vigour, purity and seed
health.
• To maintain and make available to the farmers, high quality seeds
and propagating materials of notified kind and varieties.

• To ensure genetic identity and genetic purity.

A well organized seed certification system helps in accomplishing

the following three primary objectives seed programme.
✓ The systematic increase of superior varieties
✓ The identification of new varieties and their rapid increase under
appropriate and generally accepted names.
✓ Provision for continuous supply of comparable material by
careful maintenance.
 Phases of seed certification
Seed Certification is carried out in six broad phases listed as under:

1. Receipt and scrutiny of application.

2. Verification of seed source, class and other requirements of the
seed used for raising the seed crop.
3. Inspection of the seed crop in the field to verify its conformity to
the prescribed field standards.
4. Supervision at post-harvest stages including processing and
packing.
5. Drawing of samples and arranging for analysis to verify
conformity to the seed standards
6. Grant of certificate, issue of certification tags, labelling, sealing
etc.
 Validity Period of the Certificate

The validity period shall be nine months from the date of test at the
time of initial certification.

The validity period could be further extended for six months

provided on retesting seed conforms to the prescribed standards in
respect of physical purity, germination and insect damage for all
seeds except vegetatively propagating material for which lot shall be
re-examined for seed standards specified for respective crop.

A seed lot will be eligible for extension of the validity period as long
as it conforms to the prescribed standards.
 Establishing Source of Seed
• To produce seed under certification shall submit to the
Certification Agency, one or more relevant evidence such as
certification tags, seals, labels, seed containers, purchase
records, sale records etc., as may be demanded by the
Certification Agency during submission of the application, its
scrutiny and/or during first inspection of the seed crop, in order to
confirm if the seed used for raising the crop has been obtained
from the source approved by it and conforms to the provisions
containing in para V.

• This requirement also applies to both parents in seed production

involving two parental lines.
 Field count

It is a representative sample of plants taken at random from a seed

plot for recording the observation on off types, pollen shedders,
diseased plants, inseparable other crop plants.

As per provision of seed certification it is necessary to examine each

and every plant in the seed plot for contaminant. It is however
impracticable to do so.

During each field inspection field counts are taken randomly

covering of the seed plot and observations are made on the plants
from each selected field counts.
The number of counts taken varies according to the area of the seed
plot. Minimum five counts are required to be taken for seed plots
having a 2.0 ha and one additional count is to be taken for every
additional area of two hectare or part thereof.

Area of seed field (ha) Number of counts

Upto 2 5
2 to 4 6
4 to 6 7
6 to 8 8
8 to 10 9
10 to 12 10
Field count ………..

Crops Number of plants / heads per

count
Castor , Cotton, Groundnut, 100 plants
Maize, Tur, Sunflower, Bulb
Crops, Tuber Crops, Broad
Spaced Vegetables.
Beans , Pulses , seasamum , 500 plants
mustard,
Lucerne , Berseem, Jute,
Soybean 1000 Plants
Cereals other than Maize 1000 Heads
Field standards
To maintain genetic purity and seed health of the standing crop

Four categories of field standards

➢ Land requirements
➢ Minimum isolation requirements
➢ Minimum specific number of field inspections
➢ Minimum specific crop standards for
▪ Off-types
▪ Diseases ( Designated diseases only)
▪ Objectionable weeds ( Designated weed species only)
▪ Inseperable crop plants
Designated diseases

Crop Designated FS CS
Disease (%) (%)
Wheat Loose smut 0.10 0.50
Sorghum Grain smut or 0.10 0.50
kernel smut,
Head smut
Tomato Early blight, 0.10 0.50
leaf spot
Okra Yellow vein 0.10 1.00
mosaic
 Objectionable weed

Crop Designated FS CS
Objectionable weed (%) (%)
Paddy Wild rice or red 0.010 0.020
rice
Wheat Hirankhuri 0.010 0.020
(Concolvulus
arvensis)
Lucerne Dodder None 0.05
Okra Wild Abelmoschus None None
spp.
Inseparable crop plants

Crop Designated FS CS
inseparable (%) (%)
crop plants
Barley Oats, wheat 0.010 0.050
Oats Barley and 0.010 0.050
wheat
Wheat Barley and 0.010 0.050
Oat
 Seed standards

➢ Pure seed (minimum)

➢ Inert matter (Maximum)
➢ Other crop seed (Maximum)
➢ Weed seeds (Maximum)
➢ Objectionable weed seeds (Maximum)
➢ Germination (Minimum)
➢ Moisture ordinary container
➢ Vapour proof container (maximum)
 Isolation requirements

Items FS CS
Fields of the same hybrids not confirming to varietal purity 300 200
requirements for certification
Fields of other hybrids having common male parent but not - 200
confirming to varietal purity requirements for certification
Fields from Johnson grass and forage sorghum with high 400 400
tillering and grassy panicle.

Sorghum hybrids with same male parent and conforming to 400 5

varietal purity requirements for certification
 Field standards

F.S. C.S
Off types 0.05 0.10
Pollen shedding plants in seed parents 0.05 0.10
Objectionable weed plants -- --
Plants/heads affected by designated 0.05 0.10
diseases

Seed standards

F.S (%) C.S (%)

Pure seed (min) 98 98
Inter matter (max) 2 2
Other crop seeds (max) 10 20
ODV (max) 10 20
Objectionable weed seeds (By number) 5/kg 10/kg
Germination (min) 75 75
Seed moisture (max) 12 12
 Reference/ reading
Seed Technology : R.L. Agrawal
 Seed Act 1966
and
Seed Rules 1968
 Seed act 1966

The object of Seed Act is to regulate the quality of certain notified

kind / varieties of seeds for sale and for matters connected therewith.

The seed act passed by the Indian Parliament in 1966 was designed
to create a 'Climate' in which the seeds man could operate effectively
and to make good quality seed available to cultivators.

Seeds rule under the act was notified in September 1968 and the act
was implemented entirely in October, 1969.

The act extent to the whole of India and it has 25 sections.

Seed legislation could broadly be divided into two groups

1. Sanctioning legislation

Sanctioning legislation authorizes formation of Advisory bodies,

Seed Certification Agencies, Seed Testing laboratories, Foundation
and Certified Seed Programmes, Recognition of seed certification
agencies of foreign countries, Appellate authorities etc.

2. Regulatory legislation

Regulatory Legislation controls the quality of seeds sold in the

market including suitable agencies for regulating the seed quality.
On quality control basis, the Seeds Act could conveniently be
divided into the following:

I. Minimum limit and labelling of the notified kind / varieties of

seed
a. Power to notify the kind / variety
b. Labelling provisions
c. Seed testing
d. Seed analyst
e. Seed inspectors
f. Penalty
g. General provisions

II. Seed Certification

III. Restriction of Import and Export of Seeds

 Seed Act, 1966
Section 3 Central Seed Committee
Section 4 Central Seed Laboratory and State Seed Laboratory
Section 5 Power to notify kinds or varieties of seeds
Section 6 Power to specify minimum limits of germination and
purity, etc.
Section 7 Regulation of sale of seeds of notified kinds or varieties
Section 8 Certification agency

Section 8A to Appointment of seed analyst, seed inspectors and their

8E powers functions and duties
Section 9 Grant of certificate by certification agency
Section 10 Revocation of certificate
Section 11 Appeal
Section 12 to To regulate, impose certain restrictions on import and
16 export of seeds of notified kind or variety
Section 17 To impose certain penalties for offences committed
under the act
Power to notify kinds or varieties of seeds
Section 5.

If the Central Government, after consultation with the

committee, is of opinion that it is necessary or expedient to
regulate the quality of seed of any kind or variety to be sold for
purposes of agriculture, it may, by notification in the Official
Gazette, declare such kind or variety to be a notified kind or
variety for the purposes of the Act and different kinds or varieties
may be notified for different States or for different areas thereof.
Power to specify minimum limits of germination and
purity, etc.
Section 6.

The Central Government may, after consultation of the

Committee and by notification in the Official Gazette, specify
(a) the minimum limits of germination and purity with respect
to any seed of any notified kind or variety:

(b) the mark or label to indicate that such seed conforms to

the minimum limits of germination and purity specified under
clause (a) and the particulars which marks or label may
contain.
Regulation of sale of seeds of notified kinds or varieties
Section 7.
No person shall, himself or by any other person on his
behalf, carry on the business of selling, keeping for sale,
offering to sell, bartering or otherwise supplying any seed of
any notified kind or variety, unless-
(a) such seed is identifiable as to its kind or variety;
(b) such seed conforms to the minimum limits of
germination and purity specified under clause (a) of
section 6;
(c) the container of such seed bears in the prescribed
manner, the mark or label containing the correct
particulars thereof, specified under clause (b) of section
6;
(d) he complies with such other requirements as may be
prescribed.
Grant of certificate by certification agency; Section 9.

(1) Any person selling, keeping for sale, offering to sell, bartering
or otherwise supplying any seed of any notified kind or variety
may, if he desires to have such seed certified by the certification
agency, apply to the certification agency for the grant of a
certificate for the purpose.
(2) Every application under sub-section (1) shall be made in such
form, shall contain such particulars and shall be accompanied
by such fees as may be prescribed.
(3) On receipt of any such application for the grant of a certificate,
the certification agency may, after such enquiry as it thinks fit
and after satisfying itself that the seed to which the application
relates conforms to the minimum limits of germination and
purity specified for that seed under clause (a) of section 6, grant
a certificate in such form and on such conditions as may be
prescribed.
To control the quality of seed during production and marketing ,
Govt. of India enacted Seed Act in 1966. For effective
implementation of the act, major provisions are:

❖ Central Seed Committee

❖ Central Seed Certification Board

❖ State Seed Certification Agencies

❖ Central Seed Testing Laboratory

❖ State Seed Testing Laboratories

 Central Seed Committee

CSC is to advise to the Central Government and the State

Governments on matters arising out of the administration
of this Act and to carry out the other functions assigned to it
by or under this Act.

It consists of
✓ Chairman to be nominated by the Central Government;
✓ Eight persons to be nominated by the Central Government
to represent such interests that Government thinks fit,
of whom not less than two persons shall be representatives
of growers of seed;
✓ One representative from each state government.
The main functions are :
1. to advice central and state govt. on all matters related to seeds
2. To advice the govt. on notification of varieties
3. To advice the govt. on the minimum limits for germination and
purity of kind/variety
4. To recommend procedure for seed certification, GOT and analysis of
seeds
5. To recommend on rate of fees to be charged for analysis of samples
by central and state Seed Testing Laboratories and for Certification
by certification agency.
[Link] recommend to central govt. regarding suitability of any seed
certification agency established in foreign country for seed act.
7. To advice central and state governments regarding suitability of
establishing Seed Testing Laboratories.
8. To send recommendations on proposals related to seed act.
9. To suggest clarification on any matters relating to seed act.
 Central seed certification board (CSCB)
Central Seed Certification Board advice the Central and state
Governments on all the matters of related to seed certification and to
co-ordinate the functioning of the agencies established under section 8.

The Board shall consist of the following members, namely:-

❖ a Chairman, to be nominated by the Central Government
❖ 4 members, to be nominated by the Central Government from out
of the persons employed by the State Governments as 'Directors 'of
Agriculture;
❖ 3 members, to be nominated by the Central Government from out of
the persons employed by the Agricultural Universities as
Directors of Research;
❖ 13 persons, to be nominated by the Central Government to
represent such interests as that Government thinks fit, of whom
not less than four persons shall be representatives of seed producers
The board may also appoint committees for specific tasks.
Seed certification, control of seed source, field inspection,
field counts, field standards
 State seed certification agency

The State Government or the Central Government in consultation

with the State Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette,
establish a certification agency for the State to carry out the functions
entrusted to the certification agency by or under this Act.
The executive wing consists of seed inspectors, seed certification officers
and seed analysts. Functions:
1. To certify the seeds of any notified variety
2. Outline the procedure for submission of application and for seed
production.
3. Maintain a list of recognized breeders
4. Verification of the application for certification
5. Take samples and inspect seed lots to confirm quality of seed lot as per
the standards of certification.
6. To ensure production of quality seed by field inspection, seed
processing, plant inspection etc. to issue certificate i.e. tags, labels etc.
7. Undertake educational programmes to promote the use of certified seed.
8. Maintain records relating to certified seed production.
 Central Seed Laboratory

The Seed Testing Laboratory at IARI, New Delhi has been

notified as CSTL.

The functions of CSTL are :

1. Initiate seed testing program in collaboration with state seed
testing laboratory to promote uniformity in test results.
2. Collect data on the quality of seeds found in the market and
make this data available to Central Seeds Committee.
3. Carry out functions assigned by Central government from
time to time.
4. Act as referee laboratory in testing seeds.
 State Seed Testing laboratory

1. To carry out seed analysis work of the state. To test the seed of
dealers for physical purity, germination, inert matter, weed
seeds, other crop seeds etc.
2. To test the seed samples of cultivators who wish to get their
own seed tested before selling,
3. To test samples sent by seed inspectors
4. To test samples of seed for seed certification agency
5. Testing required for revalidation and other purposes.
 Seed (Control) Order, 1983
ORDER
The government of India on 24th February, 1983 have declared the
seeds of food crops, fruits and vegetables, cotton seeds, seeds of
cattle fodder and jute seeds as essential commodities under section
2 of the Essential Commodities Act, 1955 (10 of 1955), the Central
Government hereby makes the order, called the Seeds (Control)
Order, 1983.

It provides to control and regulate the production, supply and

distribution of seeds by effective check on the activities of the
dealers and producers of seed.

It extends to the whole of India.

Come into force on the 30th December, 1983.
Activities about the seed (control) order,1983:-

(A) Dealers in Seed to be licensed:-

(i) Dealers to obtain licence.

(ii) Application for licence
(iii) Grant and refusal of licence
(iv) Period of validity of licence
(v) Renewal of licence
(vi) Dealers to display stock and price list
(vii) Dealers to give memorandum to purchaser
(viii) Power to distribute seeds.
(B) Seed (control) Order gave rules to Enforcement Authority:-

(i) Appointment of licensing authority

(ii) Appointment of inspectors
(iii) Inspection and punishment
(iv) Time limit for seed analysis
(v) Cancellation of licence
(vi) Appeal
 New seed policy (1988)
Objectives:

1) Liberize the import of high quality seed includes Agriculture as

well as Horticulture produce.
2) A time bound programme to strengthening the plant quarantine
facilities
4) Effective implementation of procedures for quarantine /post
entry quarantine
3) Incentives to encourage the domestic seed Industries.
4) To encourage the export of seed.
➢ Bulk import of seeds of coarse cereals, pulses and oil seeds may
replace (or) displace the local productions.

➢ Transfer of technology may not be actual one, because due to bulk

import of seeds or import of technology, instead we can import the
germplasm of superior variety if any and could be developed locally
to meet the demand (i.e.,) incorporate the advantages of exotic variety
to the local types(or) even direct multiplication's after adaptive trials.

➢ As we have superior varieties of international standard (e.g.) Maize,

Sorghum, Bajra, or even in oil seeds like groundnut etc., the bulk
import is not necessiated. Instead we need varieties suitable to
agroclimatic zones besides higher yields.

➢ Import of flower seeds could be encouraged in order to earn foreign

exchange through export of flowers and it can be imported under (OGL)
open general license. But there is a fear of introduction of new pest and
diseases as they are coming without post entry quarantine checkup.
Duties of seed inspector

The seed inspector is required to:

[Link] of frequently as may be required all places used for the

growing, storage or sale of any seed of any notified kind r variety;
2. Satisfy himself that the conditions of the certificates/labels are
being observed;
3. Procure and send for analysis, if necessary, samples of any
seeds, which he has reason to suspect, are being produced, stocked
or sold or exhibited for sale in contravention of the provisions of
the Act of the Rules.
4. Investigate any complaint which may be made to him in
writing in respect of any contravention of the provisions of the Act,
or the Rules;
5. Maintain a record of all inspections made and action taken
by him in the performance of his duties, including the taking of
samples and the seizure of stocks and to submit copies of such
records to the Director of Agriculture, or the certification
agency.
6. When so authorized by the State Government, to detain
imported containers which he has reason to suspect contain
seeds, the import of which is prohibited, except and in
accordance with the provisions of the Act and the Rules;
7. Institute prosecution in respect to breaches of the Act and
the Rules;
8. Perform such other duties as may be entrusted to him by the
competent authority from time to time.
 Reference/ reading
Seed Technology : R.L. Agrawal
Seed Marketing
Seed marketing

It is one of the most vital components of seed technology. On it

depends the size and scope of the seed industry.

• Broadly, it includes such activities as production, processing, storage,

quality control and marketing of seeds.
• Narrow sense, seed marketing refers to the actual acquisition and
selling of packed seeds, intermediate storage, delivery and sales
promotional activities.
Seed Marketing Comprises the Following:
1. Demand forecasts
2. Marketing structure
3. Arrangements for storage of seeds
4. Sales promotional activities
5. Post- sales service
6. Economics of seed production and seed pricing.
 1. Demand forecasts

a. Total cultivable area, seed rate, SRR, Seed multiplication ratio

and assessment of total potential requirement of important
crops
b. Impact of extension efforts

c. Current acreage under high yielding varieties

d. Farmers preferences w.r.t. varieties, package size, kind of

packing, quality and price.
e. Number and size of competitors

f. Kinds of publicity and sale promotional activities.

g. Climate of the area where seed is being marketed.

 2. Marketing Structure
Establishment of effective channel of seed distribution

The types of seed distribution systems in India are

a) Farmers of farmer distribution

b) Distribution by co –operatives
c) Distribution by Departments of Agriculture
d) Distribution of seeds by non-government or quasi-
government agencies.
a. Public Organization

• KSSC/ NSC/ UAS

• NGO’s/ Distributors
• RSK/ Dealers
• Farmers

b. Private Organization

• Private companies
• C/F agents
• Distributors
• Dealers
• Farmer
Marketing organization
 3. Arrangement for storage of seeds

• Need to be arranged seed stores at grass root level.

It is desirable to establish seed marketing regional offices in the

end-use areas and to arrange buffer godowns.

• Advantages; Assures timely supply, minimize the risk of

Seed getting damage.

• Disadvantages; Need of regional offices in such areas

4. Sales promotional activities
a. Print Media-News paper/news letters/Ads/ Posters /Banners

b. Electronic Media-Cinima slides/Radio and TV/Mobiles

/kisan call centres/Internet

c. Krishi melas

d. Field demonstrations

e. Folk ways-skits/Mimes

f. Project approaches-seed village concept

g. Educational Institutions approaches-ATIC

5. Post sales service

a. Technical help

b. Quick follow-Up

c. Attending the complaints

 6. Economics of seed production and pricing

Seed Production cost:

a. All costs of seed production
b. Cost of foundation seed
c. Cost of specialized planting(Hybrids; male &Female sowing)
d. Cost of other special operations(Detaselling, emasculation)
e. Cost of additional supervision required in raising a seed crop
f. Seed certification fee
g. Other expenses: Construction of separate threshing yard or
cleaning of floor and machineries.
 Seed Production cost contd……..

h. Supervision of harvesting
i. Separate harvesting
j. Drying losses
k. Sorting of undesirable ears/heads/cobs
l. Additional transportation
m. Seed processing rejection
n. Seed processing and testing chargers
o. Seed marketing costs
p. Seed storage and transportation charges
q. Distribution and sales promotional costs
 Seed Pricing
Seed pricing involves setting prices when a new product is launched or a new
distribution channel is used. Also, decisions may need to be taken to change the
price in response to competition and to the general market situation .

➢ The fixed price must be reasonable enough

➢The final marketing price of certified seeds is a result of
interacting component factors.

1. Production, processing and storage cost

2. Distribution cost
3. Whole sale margin
4. Retail margin
5. Sale promotional costs
6. Risk costs
7. Over heads
8. Profit
9. Competitors price
Factors affecting seed marketing;
• Clear-cut policy
• Availability of well identified and adapted varieties
• Adequate production,storage and testing facilities
• Official programme
• Demand forecasts
• Market Intelligence
• Transport and storage arrangements
• Nature of poduct
• Quality control programme
 Seed license
and
international seed trade
 Comprehensive List of documents to be furnished
State Seed Sale License

[Link] letter addressed to Additional Director(Organic Farming)

(License issuing authority)Head office, Bengaluru
2. Sale/Storage points-with own/rented/lease agreement copies
[Link] of required fee challan of Rs.1000/- in the Khajane2 Challan-
Head of Account:"040100103000"
[Link]/Storage points-with land marks details
[Link] License from Grama panchayath in rural ares/Town
Panchayath/ Municipalities/City corporation etc
[Link] Certificate from Karnataka
[Link] Balance of 50000/- (Bank Pass book xerox copy)
[Link] Certificate for hybrid seeds
[Link] Source Certificate
[Link] Card Copy
[Link] plan with production unit detailed address
[Link] Seed germination test report from Govt. Notified seed
test laboratories
[Link] of packing and marketing on the bag
[Link] - 5 Years Sales Details in enclosed format
[Link] relevant document
[Link] certificate copy with Notary on bond paper, Court
order copy, Company resolution copy
[Link] responsible person declaration with acceptance
with Biodata
The license comes into force with immediate effect and shall be
valid for a period of 3 years unless previously cancelled or
suspended. The renewal will be after a period of three years
under rules.
 International Trade

International trade may be defined as a contract of buying and

selling goods and services entered into between parties whose
places of business are in different countries or trade in goods and
services that cut across international borders or boundaries or
between nationals of different countries.

An international sale or export trade contract can also be

described as an agreement for the sale and delivery of goods
across international borders or boundaries and for all other
things incidental to it.
Five essentials of such international trade are:

• A contract of sale of goods.

• A contract of carriage of goods.

• The contract of insurance for the goods.

• The compliance with formalities and documentation requirements

stipulated by the exports and imports’ authorities.

• The mechanism for payment set up by the buyer.

 OECD- varietal certification for international trade

For international seed market, if at all the certification is to be ensured,

the present seed certification is not acceptable. The international seed
Certification needs to be followed.

The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD)

An international organizational founded in 1958, Secretariat at
Paris(France).

It provides multilateral forum to discuss, develop and reform economic

and social policies.
 OECD schemes
It provides an international framework for certification of agriculture
seed moving in international trade.

Applicable to eight groups of species constituting the following seed Schemes:

✓ Grasses and Legumes
✓ Crucifers and other oil or Fiber species
✓ Cereals
✓ Maize
✓ Sorghum
✓ Sugar and Fodder Beet
✓ Subterranean clover and similar species
✓ Vegetables.

Including India, 61 countries from Europe, North and South America,

the middle East, Asia and Oceania.
 Objectives of OECD seed schemes

➢ To encourage the OECD Schemes for the varietal certification of seed

are to encourage the use of “quality-guaranteed” seed in participating
countries.

➢ The Schemes authorize the use of labels and certificates for seed
produced and processed for international trade according to agreed
principles ensuring identify and purity.

➢ The Schemes facilitate the import and export of seed, by the removal
of technical trade barriers through internationally recognized labels
(passports for trade).

➢ They also lay down guidelines for seed multiplication abroad as well
as for the delegation of some control activities to the private sector
(“accreditation”).
 International Organizations-
Regulations

Organizations Role

OECD, AOSCA Varietal Certification , Ensures Identity and Purity

ISTA, AOSA Procedures-Sampling &Testing (Accreditation, OIC)
WTO- SPS, RPPOs Phytosanitary Measures (IPPC)

PVP –UPOV Protection of New Varieties of Plants (IPR)

FAO Seed Policy, Legislations & Linkages (PGFRA, MLS, SMTA,

QDS)
ISF Industries Coordination, International Movement, Trade Rules &
Arbitration
10
 For OECD seed schemes: Read chapter I
[Link] › seed_certification › pdf
Floral biology of cross
pollinated crops
 The process by which pollen grains are transferred from
anthers to stigma is referred as pollination.

Pollination is of two types:

1) Autogamy or self pollination
2) Allogamy or cross pollination

I. Allogamy
Transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one plant to the
stigma of another plant is known as allogamy or cross
pollination.

Allogamy is the common form of out breeding. Allogamy

leads to heterozygosity. Such species develop heterozygous
balance and exhibit significant inbreeding depression.
 Mechanism promoting cross-pollination

There are several mechanism that facilitate cross pollination.

1. Dicliny : Dicliny or unisexuality is a condition in which the flowers

are either staminate (male) or pistillate (female).
a) Monoecy. Staminate and pistillate flowers occur in the same plant,
either in the same inflorescene, e.g., Castor, mango and coconut, or in
separate inflorescences . E.g., Maize, cucurbits, rubber, grapes and
cassava.
b) Dioecy. The male and female flowers are present on different
plants, i.e., the plants in such species are either male or female, e.g.,
papaya, date, hemp, asparagus, and spinach
2. Dichogamy : Stamens and pistils of hermaphrodite flowers may
mature at different times facilitating cross –pollination is refered as
dichogamy.

a) Protogyny. In crop species like bajra, pistils mature before stamens.

b) Protandry. in crops like Maize and sugar beets, stamens mature

before pistils.

3. A combination of two or more of the above mechanisms may occur in

some specie. This improves the efficiency of the system in promoting
cross-pollination. For example, Maize exhibits both monoecy and
protandry.
4. Heterostyly. When styles and filaments in a flower are of different lengths, it
is called heterostyly. It promotes cross pollination, such as linseed.
5. Herkogamy.
• Hinderance to self-pollination due to some physical barriers such as
presence of hyline membrane around the anther is known as herkogamy.

• Such membrane does not allow the dehiscence of pollen and prevents
self-pollination such as in alfalfa.

• In Lucerne or alfalfa, stigmas are covered with a waxy film. The stigma
does not become receptive until this waxy film is broken.

• The waxy membrane is broken by the visit of honey bees which also
effect cross-pollination
▪ In bisexual flowers the essential organs, the stamens and stigmas, are
arranged in such a way that self-pollination becomes impossible.
6. Self-Incompatibility. The inability of fertile pollens to fertilize the same
flower or other flowers on the same plant is referred as self incompatability.
E.g., Brassica, radish, Nicotiana and other grass species.

7. Male Sterility. Male sterility refers to the absence of functional pollen

[Link] sterility is not common is natural populations. It prevents self
pollination and promotes cross pollination. It is of three types: genetic,
cytoplasmic and cytoplasmic genetic. It is a useful tool for hybrid seed
production.
Thank you
Floral biology of self
pollinated crops
 The process by which pollen grains are transferred from
anthers to stigma is referred as pollination.

Pollination is of two types:

1) Autogamy or self pollination
2) Allogamy or cross pollination

I. Autogamy
Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of same
flower is known as autogamy or self pollination.

Autogamy is the closest form of inbreeding. Autogamy leads

to homozygosity. Such species develop homozygous balance
and do not exhibit significant inbreeding depression.
Mechanism promoting self-pollination
1. Bisexuality. Presence of male and female organs in the same
flower is known as bisexuality. The presence of bisexual flowers
is a must for self pollination. All the self pollinated plants
have hermaphrodite flowers.
2. Homogamy. Maturation of anthers and stigma of a flower at
the same time is called homogamy. As a rule, homogamy is
essential for self-pollination.
3. Cleistogamy. When pollination and fertilization occur in
unopened flower bud, it is known as cleistogamy. It ensures self
pollination and prevents cross pollination. Cleistogamy has been
reported in some varieties of wheat, barley, oats and several other
grass species.
4. Chasmogamy. Opening of flowers only after the completion
of pollination is known as chasmogamy. This also promotes self
pollination and is found in crops like wheat, barley, rice and oats.

5. Position of Anthers. In some species, stigmas are surrounded

by anthers in such a way that self pollination is ensured. Such
situation is found in tomato and brinjal. In some legumes, the
stamens and stigma are enclosed by the petals in such a way that
self pollination is ensured.
Examples are greengram, blackgram, soybean, chickpea and pea.

Rice, Wheat, Barley, Oats, Chickpea, Pea, Cowpea, Lentil,

Green gram, Black gram, Soybean, Common bean, Moth bean,
Linseed, Sesame, Khesari, Sunhemp, Chillies, Brinjal, Tomato,
Okra, Peanut, etc
Floral biology includes the morphology, anthesis and mode
of pollination of flowers.
Floral morphology of a crop is studied under the following
topics.
➢ Basic structure of a flower : Terminal or auxillary raceme
Papilionaceous, Zygomorphic

➢ Sexuality of flower : Bisexual

➢ Flowering duration :
➢ Emergence of flower inflorescence :
➢ Sequence of blooming in an inflorescence :Acropetal
Chickpea flower
Sorghum
SEED PRODUCTION
Chilli
 Systematics
Division : Magnoliphyta
Class : Magnolipsida
Order : Solanales
Family : Solonaceae
Genus : Capsicum
Species : annum (2n= 2x =24)
 Botany

• Bisexual-calyx and corolla

• Flower-5 sepals and petals with white
color
• Staments are usually 5 in number
someimes six.
• Stigma is club shaped, ovary superior
and consists of 2 to 4 or more locules.
• The flowers, open by 5.00-6.00 hr
and anther dehiscence occurs between
8.00-11.00 hr.
24-Apr-22 3
C. annuum
C. pubescens
Season
➢ June-July,
➢ February-March,
➢ September- October

❖ Isolation Requirement ( m )
Foundation Certified
Varieties 400 200
Hybrids _ 400

Seed rate
Varieties : 500 g - 1 kg/ha
for hybrids - Female = 200 g and male = 50 g.
Nursery : Sow the seeds in raised nursery bed of 20 cm height, in
rows of 5 cm gap and covered with sand. Eight and ten nursery
beds will be sufficient to transplant one acre. Apply 2 kg of DAP
10 days before pulling out of seedling.

Transplanting: The seedlings of 30-35 days old are ready for

transplanting. Transplanting may be done on the ridges in the
evening.

Foliar spray: To arrest the flower drop, NAA (Planofix) can be

sprayed @ 4ml/L. Very light irrigation is also done arrest the
flower drop
Raised nursery bed
8 – 10 beds /acre.
Apply 2 kg of DAP 10days before pulling out of seedling.
60 x 30 cm
Preferably in the evening time
 Roguing
The off types in vegetables seed production plot include:

✓ Different cross compatible species.

✓ Other variety of same crops.
✓ Same variety not confirming to the prescribed field standard

In chilies and capsicums, Rouging is done thrice,

➢ First at vegetative stage based on stem and leaf character
➢ Second during flowering, the early and late bolters are
removed
➢ Third during fruit harvest for seed extraction
Field inspection
❖ Varieties
1st before flowering,
2nd during flowering and fruiting stage and
3rd during mature fruit stage and prior to harvesting.

❖ Hybrids
1st before flowering,
2nd and 3rd during flowering and fruiting stage and
4th at mature fruit stage and prior to harvesting.
Techniques of hybrid seed production

• Hand emasculation and pollination

• Use of GMS , CMS and CGMS lines

Number of hybrid fruits : 50-70 crossed fruits

Removal of non crosse fruits

Harvesting of crossed fruits : Maturity index is red ripe fruit

Only tagged fruits are harvested.

Extraction of fruits and packaging : Harvested fruits are dried and

seeds are extracted by maceration
Dried upto 8% moisture content.

Seeds should be cleaned on density gradient seed cleaner.

 Important pest and diseases of the crop

Pests :
Thrips, Aphids, Pod or fruit borer and Mites.
Diseases :
Die back or fruit rot, Powdery mildew and Bacterial leaf spot.

24-Apr-22 17
 Seed yield

300-350 kg/ha
60-65 kg/10 gunta plot

30-35g /plant

Hybrids: KT.1, (Pusa Deepti), Solar Hybrid 1, Solar Hybrid 2.

Early Bounty, Indira, Lario, Hira, Bharat.
❖ Specific standards:
Factors Foundation
Certified
Off types – Variety 0.1% 0.2%
Hybrid 0.01% 0.05%
Designated diseased plants* 0.1% 0.5%

* Designated diseases
Anthracnose caused by Collertotictum capsici and
Leaf blight caused by Altermaria solari.
 Seed standards (Variety & Hybrid)
Factors Foundation Certified
Pure seed 98% 98%
Inert matter 2% 2%
Other crop seeds 5/kg 10/kg
Weed seeds 5/kg 10/kg
Germination 60% 60%
Moisture content 8% 8%
For vapour container 6% 6%
Thank you
SEED PRODUCTION
ONION
 Systematics
Division : Magnoliphyta
Class : Liliopsida
Order : Asparagales
Family : Amaryllidaceae
Genus : Allium
Species : cepa (2n= 2x =16)
Seed production technology
Soil
Soil should contain rich organic matter (humus)
Grown in all types of soil but sensitive to high acidity
Soil PH 5.8-6.5
Sandy loam and silt loam with deep friable soil – good WHC

Climate:
Cool and dry during early development of bulb and early growth
of seed stalk.
Low humidity areas
For bolting : Temperature range 10 to 15 0 C
Long day plant but seed production also be done at day neutral
situation.
AP , KRN, MP , RJ , and GJ
 Isolation

Contaminants Minimum distance

(meters)
Foundation Certified
Field of other varieties 1000 500
Field of the same variety not confirming 1000 500
to varietal purity requirements for
certification
Cultural practice
Method of seed production
1. Seed to seed method
2. Bulb to seed method

Seed to seed method

Also called in situ method

Nursey sowing - June to August

Transplanting - August to October
Bolting starts - Januaru- February
Seeds harvest - Mid of May
Advantages

▪ Low cost of seed production

▪ Early maturity
▪ No need to store the bulbs

Disadvantages

▪ Selection of bulb is not possible so high quality seed production

is not possible
▪ Seed yield is low
Bulb to seed method

Annual method:

Seeds sown - June -July

Transplanted - August – September
Bulbs ready - November - December

Bulbs are harvested, lifted and cured

Selected bulbs are replanted - November to mid December
in another field
Bolting starts - February
Seeds ready - May

Varieties: N-53, Agrifound dark red, Baswant 780, Arka kalyan and
phule safed (Kharif varieties)
Bulb to seed method

Biennial method:

Seeds sown - Mid -October

Transplanting - End of December to first week of January
Bulbs ready - End of April to mid – May

Selected bulbs are store up to mid –October and again selected

good quality bulbs for transplanting

Varieties: Pusa red, N-2-4-1, Agrifound light red, and other rabi
varieties
Advantages

▪ Selection of true to type is possible

▪ Higher seed yield due to profuse flower stalk formation in bulbs
planted after storage

Disadvantages

▪ It takes more time

▪ More cost involved
 Storage of mother bulbs

Cold storage : 0 - 20C and RH 65-70%

At 0 -20C Sprouting of bulbs is very slow and sprouts are also less

For proper sprouting raise the temperature 15-200C for 10-15 days before
onions are removed from storage

For early bolt and more seed yield : Bulb store at 150C
Selection of Bulb

Medium sized bulbs - for maximum yield

4.5 – 6.0 cm (70.90g) for big onions
2.5 -- 3.0 cm for small onions

Big size bulbs – not economical

Too small - Full expression of bulb traits is not possible
selection of true to type is difficult
Too flat, thick necked and discoloured bulbs –rejected

Select Round shape bulb for production

Select single centred bulbs

Before planting soak the bulbs for half an hour in 100 ltrs
water + 200ml carbosulfon + 200 g bavistan
Fertilizer : NPK : 100:60:50 kg/ha

Spacing : 45 X 30 cm

Dept of sowing : 7.50cm

Bulb requirement for planting : 20 qt/ ha ( medium size)

Pollination

▪ Bee colonies should be kept

▪ Frequent irrigation during flowering and seed setting
▪ Only safe insecticides should be spray during flowering
 Roguing

Remove diseased and off type before flowering

Harvesting

When about 50% of the black seed on an umbel

Harvesting by manual method
Seed dried to 6% moisture content for moisture proof storage
container
Seed yield : 6-8 qt/ha varieties
Bolting in Onion
Definition: The term bolting in onion means pre-emergence of seed
stalks prior to time of their formation at the cast of bulb formation and
development.
 Seed standards (Variety & Hybrid)
Factors Foundation Certified
Pure seed 98% 98%
Inert matter 2% 2%
Other crop seeds 5/kg 10/kg
Weed seeds 5/kg 10/kg
Germination 70% 70%
Moisture content 8% 8%
For vapour container 6% 6%
SEED PRODUCTION
OKRA
 Systematics
Division : Tracheophyta
Class : Magnoliopsida
Order : Malvales
Family : Malvaceae
Genus : Abelmoscus
Species : esculents (2n= 2x =130)
 Floral biology
Flower : Solitary, axillary with long peduncle
Epicalyx : Long, narrow hairy bracteoles
Petals : 5 cm, yellow with crimson spot on claw
Stamens : Staminal column is united to base of petals with
numerous stamens.
Ovary : Superior
Fruit : Capsule
Stigma receptivity : on the day of flower opening
Pollen viability : 55 days (in storage at 50% RH
After pollination it takes 2-6 hrs for fertilization
Protogyny : Allogamy. -but out cross through insect can be 19%
Floral morphology
Seed production technology
Soil
Sandy loam to loam soils rich in organic matter (humus)
Soil PH 6.00-6.8
Climate:
Hot and humid weather is suitable for growth of okra
Requires long growing period of about 4-6 months with high
temperature, humidity and light depending upon climatic
comditions
For growth, flowering and fruiting: Temperature range 24-270 C
Spacing and Seed rate:

Rainy season : 60 X 30 Cm ( about 55,000 plants/ha)

Summer season : 45 X 30 cm
Seed rate:- Varieties : 8-10 kg/ha
Hybrids : 8 kg/ha (Female) 4 kg/ha (Male).
Staggered planting of parents

Male parent sowing should be done 10 days earlier than female parent
for producing sufficient pollen

Fertilizer
N:P:K; @ 100:150:120 kg/ha. Split into four splits.
Basal and others 20, 40 and 60 DAS as top dressing
Hybrid seed production -2 ways
[Link] emasculation and pollination
[Link] line

Isolation distance
Minimum distance (meters)
Foundation Certified
400 200

Planting Ratio : 8:1 or 6.1

Roguing

1. Before flowering

Check the general plant height and habit, pigmentation of leaves,

petioles and stems; remove plants with virus symptoms.

2. Flowering
Check the relative size and color intensity of flowers; remove
plants with virus symptoms.

3. Fruiting
Check that fruit is true to type; remove plants with virus symptoms.
 Emasculation
• The emasculation of flower start in the afternoon.
• For this select flower bud which have light yellowish calyx which
are about to be opened next day.
• Do not emasculate greenish flower buds which may not be matured.
• The petals are overlapping each other and care is to be taken while
removing petals without causing any injury to the pistil.
• The style of okra is very delicate here. With a help forceps the
corolla should be cut and opened in outward direction.
• Then with the help of thumb slowly take out the different layers of
petals and take out anther bundle without leaving any anther
 Pollination:

• Pollination will start 40 days after sowing of female parent.

Pollination is to be done between 8 am to 1 pm.
• Pollinate the female bud by gently dusting the pollen to all surface
of stigma.
• Put the identification mark around the stalk of pollinated bud.
• About 25 to 30 buds per plant pollination period vary for 15-25
days.
Emasculation and Pollination
Pests in Okra
Diseases in Okra
 YVMV (Yellow Vein Mosaic Virus)
• Is an important seed borne disease in okra transmitted
by white flies.
• The best way is to remove affected plants or grow only
resistant inbred lines.
• Avoid okra seed production in summer. Control attack
of white flies by spraying confidor (imida) @ 0.5 ml / L
 Harvesting and seed extraction:
• The pollinated fruits are ready for harvest after 60 days of
termination of pollination.
• The fruit colour should be light brown and delayed harvesting may
lead to shattering of fruits. Also rains during harvesting may lead to
discoloration of seeds.
• Dry the seeds to minimum of 8 % moisture by drying in shade.
• The primary cleaning should be done at farmer level which should
be free of inert matter and black seed.
• Seed Yield: Average 10-15 q/ha.
Field standards
factors FS CS
Off-types 0.10 0.20
ID(Meter) 400 200

Seed standrads
PS 98 98
IM 1.0 1.0
OCS None 5/kg
Ws Nil Nil
Odv 10/kg 20/kg
Germination % 65 65
moisture 8 8
SEED PRODUCTION IN VARIETIES
AND HYBRIDS OF CASTOR
 Systematics

Kingdom : Plantae
Division : Magnoliphyta
Class : Magnoliopsida
Order : Malpighiales
Family : Euphorbiaceae
Genus : Ricinus
Species : Communis (2n= 20)
 ✓ Cross pollinated crop
✓ Protogynous
✓ Wind pollinated
✓ Inflorescence is –raceme, Primary, secondary,
tertiary racemes and continues.
✓ Racemes are monoecious, pistillate (30-50%) and staminate flowers

✓ Proportion of flowers is influenced by the environment of the plant,

genotypes
nutrition.

24-Apr-22 3
Staminate Pistillate
Sex expression in Castor
▪ Normally monoecious with high cross pollination
▪ Complexity of sex
▪ High sensitivity to environment
✓ Climate
✓ Nutrition
✓ Management
▪ Quick degeneration of varieties / parental lines
▪ Female tendency more in Rabi & male in Summer and Kharif
▪ Male : High temp., old age, Low nutrition
▪ Female : Low temp., young, high nutrition
▪ Ideal : Mostly female with bottom 2 – 3 whorls male
 Maintenance of Female Parent

Conventional method
▪ 25 per cent monoecious plants allowed
▪ Remove all deviants in respect of diagnostic characters

▪ Identify pistillate plants conforming to well defined

morphological characteristics of the female parent

▪ Count the ultimate number of female and male plants in each

row and remove the monoecious plants over and above the
stipulated percentage
▪ Examine female plants for reversion
▪ Harvest the female plants
 Maintenance of Female Parent
Renovated method
▪ Roguing of all monoecious prior to flowering
▪ Verify individual female plant for various morphological
characters

▪ Most of the female flowers on primary raceme fail to set fruits

consequent to non availability of adequate pollen
▪ A host of interspersed late male flowers sprout to pollinate
female flowers
▪ Observe all plants regularly for any reversion
▪ Rogue out all plants which revert on secondary or tertiary or
quaternary order spikes
▪ Collect the seed from all female plants
Roguing

Diagnostic character: Stem color, bloom, capsule spines,

plant type etc.

Stages of roguing:

Vegetative stage, flowering stage and maturity stage

 Season and planting time
➢Summer and kharif (male promoting) ideal for varieties, males

➢ Female parents (summer or very early kharif)

➢ Rabi / Winter ideal for Hybrid Seed Production

Varieties and male parents

FS & CS June

Female Parents
FS January 2nd FN or May last week

Hybrid Sept. 2nd FN

Castor hybrids released so far by CVRC

Hybrid Female Male

GAUCH-1 VP-1 VI-9

GCH-2 VP-1 JI-35

GCH-4 VP-1 48-1

GCH-5 GEETA SH-72

DCH-32 LRES 17 DCS 5

GCH-6 JP 65 JI-96
DCH-177 DPC-9 DCS-9
DCH-519 M 574 DCS-78
SEED PRODUCTION
Cotton
 Botany

• Bisexual-calyx and corolla

• Flower-5 petals of different colour
• Flower has 3 large bracts

• Often CP-Extend of CP-3-20 %

• > in American cotton(5-15%)
• < in Asiatic cotton(1-2 %)

• Fibres short (<21 mm), Medium (21-25

mm), medium long (26-28 mm), long
(28-34 mm) and extra long (>35mm)
24-Apr-22 2
 Flower structure & locules

➢Stigma-3-5 lobes ▪Fruit-boll-3-5 locules

➢Ovary-3-5 carpels ▪Each locule has 5-8 seeds.
➢Each carpel-7-10 ovules-seed ▪30-100 bolls/plant

24-Apr-22 3
Techniques of hybrid seed production

• Hand emasculation and pollination

• Use of gametocides (FW=450)

• Use of GMS and CGMS lines

 HSP-GMS method
First reported in American cotton-by Justus Leinweber (1960)

Demerits
Merits
• Rouging of 50 % fertile plants
• < labour req.
• < hybrid seed yield/unit area
• High GP
• Hand pollination is [Link]
• High boll sett % maintenance of MS line
• Conversion of MS line is tedious

24-Apr-22 5
 Merits of CGMS

• Easy & quick conversion of A line

• Hybrid seed production-easy.
• Reduced labour requirement
• Less cost.
• High genetic purity
• High boll setting

24-Apr-22 6
 Cotton hybrid development

Name of the hybrid Year

H4 1964
VARALAXMI 1971
•DCH 32 1980
•DHH 11 1994
•DHB 105 1995
•DHH 543
•DHB 290

24-Apr-22 7
 Agronomic practices

• Land requirement
• Free from volunteer plants
• Well drained deep black to medium black soils

• Season
• First week of June – Southern districts
• First week of July – Northern districts
 30 m

Female Plot Male Plot

30 m 10 Guntas 5m 2 Guntas 30 m

30 m

Method of planting & isolation for Hybrid Cotton Seed Production Plot
24-Apr-22 9
 Staggered sowing of male for different hybrids developed by at
ARS Dharwad

Varalaxmi i. Sow 10%male and 100%female .

ii. Sow 30%male 7 days after first male sowing.
& DCH 32 iii. Sow 30%male 7 days after second male sowing.
iv. Sow 30%male 7 days after third male sowing

DHH 11 i. Sow 50%of male

ii. Sow remaining 50% of male and female one
week after first male sowing.

24-Apr-22 10
 Spacing
• Female: 120-150 cm x 100 cm
• 120 X 60cm -Ideal
• Male : 60 x 60 cm

Seed rate
– 4.5 kg/acre- female parent
– 1.25 to 1.5 kg/acre –male parent

24-Apr-22 11
 Influence of planting density on the
yield of Bt. cotton

23 22.11
22
Yield (q/ha)

20.74
21 20.1
20 18.99
19
18
17
90 x 60cm 120 x 60cm 150 x 60cm 180 x 60cm

Spacing
 Fertilizer application :

Basal dose:35:40:40 kg NPK/acre

Top dressing-3 equal splits 15 kg each

Female plot- Urea 40-45, 60-65, &90-100 days after sowing

Male plot- Urea 30-35, 40- 45 &75-80 days after sowing

24-Apr-22 13
 HSP-4 methods of emasculation

• Thumb nail method

• Pinching off top of corolla
• Straw tube method
• Petal removal & brushing of anthers by hand
• Blade method

24-Apr-22 14
Selection of Bud
15
24-Apr-22
Emasculation 16
 Bagging
24-Apr-22 17
 Exposing the flowers to sunlight

24-Apr-22 18
 One male flower is used to pollinate 4-5 female emasculated buds

24-Apr-22
Pollination 19
 Tying of thread to emasculated bud
24-Apr-22 20
24-Apr-22 21
 Crossed Bolls

24-Apr-22 22
 Important steps in hybrid seed production
• Rough out off types-before flowering
• Choose optimum size of bud
• Emasculation-2-6 pm
• Complete & perfect emasculation
• Cover emasculated buds with butter paper
• Remove un emasculated flowers each day
• Collection of male flowers from male parent
• Expose the male flowers to sunlight
• Pollination-8-11.00 pm
• Tie a thread-pedicel-pollinated bud
• Close crossing programme-10 weeks
• Remove all flowers that open after completion of crossing
• Pick completely opened bolls along with threads

24-Apr-22 23
Post picking operations

Select a good and specified gin by certifying agency for ginning

Delinting properly
Hand cleaning
Drying
 COTTON APHID

Major Insect pests of cotton

Sl. Insect Pest Scientific Name Crop age

No. (days)
THRIPS Adult
Sucking pests :

1. Jassids Amarasca bigutulla 1 - 50

2. Aphids Aphis gossypii 1 - 50
3. Thrips Thrips tabaci 1 - 60
4. White fly Bemesia tabaci 35 - 110
Boll feeders :
WHITEFLY Adult
5. Red Cotton Bug Dysdercus cingulatus 50 -110
Dysdercus koengnii
6. Dusky cotton bug Oxycarenus laetus 45 - 100

7. Spotted boll worm Earias vitella 35 - 110

Earias insulana
PINK BOLLWORM
8. Pink Bollworm Pectinophora gossypiella 65 - 100
9. American Bollworm Helicoverpa armigera 65 - 110
 Important diseases of the crop:

Balckarm, Alternaria leaf spot,

helminthosporium leaf spot, root rot, grey mildew and
fusarium wilt

Take up timely plant protection measures

24-Apr-22 26
 Physiological disorder

• Leaf reddening-high anthocyanin pigment

• Night temp <15oC Day temp-15-20 oC
• Spray MgSo4-1%
• Spray Urea 2% or DAP 2%
• Shedding off flower bud and bolls-excess ethylene production
• Adverse climatic factors or imbalance of nutrition or of growth regulators
• Day tem <15oC, cloudy weather
• Spray Plano fix @ 4 m1/1itre of water at flowering and boll formation and
development
• Urea spray (1-2%) or NNA+DAP
• Bad boll opening
• Soil salinity
• N deficiency in light sandy of soil or
• Abnormal high temp during boll formation, water deficiency
• Application of nitrogen fertilizers and frequent irrigation

24-Apr-22 27
 Seed Standards
Seed Standards (Certified seeds)
Particulars Varieties Hybrids
Pure seed (minimum) 98.0% 98.0%
Inert matter (maximum) 2.0% 2.0%
Other crops (maximum) 5/Kg 10/Kg
Weed seeds (maximum) 5/Kg 10/Kg
Germination (minimum) 75% 75%
Moisture (maximum) 10.0% 10.0%
For vapour proof containers (maximum) 6.0% 6.0%

Genetic purity (for those produced by 90.0%

emasculation) Female Self plants: 8.5%
Offtypes: 1.5%
For Bt transgenics Bt toxin level 450 nano g/[Link] or /g seed
(minimum)
Purity for Bt protein expression 90% (9 out of 10 seeds tested
should be Bt+ve)
Thank you
HYBRID SEED PRODUCTION
SUNFLOWER
 Systematics
Division : Phanerograms
Class : Dicotyledanae
Sub class : Gamepetalae Botany
Order : Asterase
Family : Asteraceae ➢ It is distinguished from all other
Genus : Helianthus cultivated plants by its single
Species : annus (2n= 2x =34) stem and large inflorescence.
tuberosus (2n=6x=102 ➢ The inflorescence is capitulum .
➢ It is having a bisexual flower.
 Floral biology

➢ It is protandrous in nature

➢ Flowering starts in the early morning 6-10 am

➢The pollen grain viability up to 12 hrs

➢ The stigma receptivity up to 2-3 days

 Parents involved in seed production of hybrids
Single Cross Hybrids

CMS A line : The Cytoplasmic Male Sterile line which is the female parent / seed
parent of the hybrid
CMS B line : The sterility maintainer line of female parent (CMS A line)
RHA line : The fertility restorer line used as male parent to restore fertility by
combining with CMS A to develop fertile hybrid.

Three-way Cross Hybrids

CMS A line : The Cytoplasmic male sterile line which is the female parent / seed
parent of the hybrid
CMS B line : The sterility maintainer line of female parent (CMS A line)
Inbred parent : An additional inbred line or variety (doesn’t possess fertility
(line/variety ) restorer genes) is used to combine with CMS A line to develop
sterile hybrid. This will serve as female parent / seed parent of
three-way cross hybrid.
RHA line : The fertility restorer line used as male parent to restore fertility by
combining with sterile single cross hybrid as synthesized above to
develop three-way cross hybrid.
Seed Production Technology

Season : Rabi : October- November

Summer : December- January
Selection of land and soils: Variety of soils, it performs best in well drained deep,
neutral and fertile soils.
Isolation : 600 -1000 mtrs.

Spacing : 60 cm X 30 cm

Seed rate : Foundation Certified Seed Production

CMS A line :3.75 kg/ha CMS A line :3.75 kg/ha
B line :1.25 kg/ha RHA line : 1.25 kg/ha

For the line multiplication of CMS B and R lines, a total quantity of

4kg/ha of seed is quite sufficient in foundation stage seed production.
Seed Treatment:
Disease and pests :Thiram/Mancozeb/Capton @ 2g/kg of seed

Downy Mildew incidence : Metalaxyl @ 6g/kg of seed

sunflower Necrosis : Imidachloprid @ 5g/kg

Sowing: Ridges and furrows - Irrigation - hand dibbling 2-3 seeds per hill.

Planting Ratio : 3:1 F:M Row ratio method of sowing of parents

Block method of sowing parental lines
Thinning : Done within 10-12 days of sowing

Manures and fertilizers : 60:90;60 NPK

Sulphur can be supplied in the form of zinc sulphate @ 10 kg /ha and boron,
in the form of borax can be applied as directed spray to capitulum at 0.2% (2g/l)
spray or as dust (2kg/ha) at the time of ray floret opening stage to enhance
the seed filling.
Irrigation: Interval of 15-20 days - black soils
8-10 days - red soils.
Sensitive/Critical stages for moisture stress: Germination, bud initiation,
flower opening and seed filling stages.

Weeding and Inter-cultivation : up to 30-35 days of sowing – weed free- Inter

cultivation

Roguing : Pollen shedder and Off types

Pollination : 8-10 days 3-4 honey bee colonies per ha.

Crop Protection: Diseases mainly caused by fungal and virus origin

Alternaria leaf spot /blight, rust, downy mildew, powdery mildew
and necrosis virus diseases.
Major insect pests : Defoliators, sucking pests and
capitulum/head borer
Harvesting :

➢ The crop matures in about 90 to 100 days depending upon the hybrid.

➢ Physiological maturity- back of the head turns to lemon yellow in colour

to prevent loss in quality.

➢ Different lines under production are harvested separately and threshed.

➢ The harvested heads should not be heaped after harvest as it deteriorates

the seed quality.

➢ After threshing, the seed should be cleaned and dried to a moisture level
of 8-10 per cent

➢ Properly stored by keeping away from other variety seeds to avoid

contamination/ admixture.

Seed Yield A line (F1 hybrid): 7.5 - 12.5 q/ha

B line/ R line : 3.5 -5.0 q/ha
 SEED PRODUCTION AND POST HARVEST TECHNOLOGIES IN SOYBEAN
[Link] and [Link]
National Seed Project
University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad-580 005, Karnataka, India

Seed is the basic input in agriculture. The quality of seed used by farmers determines
the status of agriculture they practice. However, for maximum gain in productivity in any
crop, use of both improved varieties and improved integrated crop management practices are
required. Not only do they contribute to increased productivity individually, but they also act
synergistically.
Seed of improved varieties is a costly input; more so in the case of oilseed crops,
where the non-availability of improved variety seed is a major constraint in most of the
oilseed growing countries. With little interest of private sector in oilseeds seed enterprise due
to reasons such as low seed multiplication ratio, bulky nature of the produce, quick loss of
seed viability, high cost of transportation, low profit margin, self pollinated nature of the crops
(groundnut and soybean), the task of making the seeds of improved varieties available to
farmers in required quantities and at the right price lies with the public sector seed agencies.
Unfortunately, the public sector seed agencies have not been able to meet the demand of good
quality seed of improved varieties of oilseed crops in many countries. There remains a large
gap between the seed demand and seed supply resulting in low area coverage by the improved
varieties in these crops. The problem is further accentuated by the low seed multiplication
ratio in crops like groundnut and soybean. Unless enterprising and progressive farmers and
NGOs come forward to take up formal/informal seed production, this situation is likely to
remain unchanged. This article aims to provide information on seed production and post
harvest practices of soybean seed crop requires a treatment different from that of a
commercial crop.
Soybean is a major oilseed crop of the country covering an area of 6 million hectares.
Owing to phenomenal spread of soybean cultivation in India, the demand for its seed has
increased tremendously. The seed requirement for the present area is 45 lakh quintals while
the availability of quality seed is only about 3.7 lakh quintals. The percent seed replacement
rate is about eight per cent. The average annual breeder seed production of soybean under the
aegis of AICRP on soybean, is about 16000 quintals. There are nearly 35-40 varieties in the
active seed chain.
Seed production in soybean has several problems. Soybean seed is classified in the
least storable group. Besides its inherent low viability, soybean seed is also highly prone to

D:\My doc1\Motagi\BNM\BNM1\Soybean seed prodn & Post harvest tech [Link]\c-1

1
mechanical injury during processing and transportation. The seed is so sensitive that even
before its harvest, it can be adversely affected by field weathering. These factors affect seed
germination and vigor severely and at times even maintaining the minimum germination
standard (70%) till next season becomes difficult. The seed multiplication ratio in soybean is
low and this coupled with high seed requirement, forms the major bottleneck in augmenting
the availability of quality seed. Further, large quantities are prone to be rejected as either
being undersized or on the basis of the presence of other distinguishable varieties (ODVs).
Essentials for maintaining high quality in soybean seed
• Restriction of generations: Generally, multiplication of seed of soybean varieties should
be limited to two generations beyond the stage of foundation seed.
• Authentic seed source: Original stock of seed should be obtained from recognized source.
• Land history: On the plot where the seed production is to be taken, another variety of
soybean must have not been grown and if possible even the same variety unless previous
production was certified for seed, should not be grown. Soybean being highly prone to
shattering will result in voluntary plants to cause mechanical mixture and deterioration of
seed quality in succeeding crops.
• Isolation: To avoid any chance of cross pollination and mechanical mixture, plots growing
different varieties of soybean should be separated by at least 3 meters.
• Field inspection: To ensure that the production conforms to the required field standards,
two inspection by the authorized agency / monitoring team specially at the time of
flowering and pod maturity should be carried out. Thorough roguing of offtypes and
diseased plants should be attended before harvest the seed crop.
• Cleanliness of harvesting and threshing machinery: To avoid mechanical mixture of
soybean seed, it is necessary that harvesters, threshers, threshing floors, storage bags,
conveyers and soils etc. are thoroughly cleaned before starting harvesting and post harvest
operations of seed crop.

Factors affecting seed quality

Problems relating to germination and seedling vigour as well as various attributes of
quality arise due to genetic and several other reasons such as lack of experience in handling
soybean seed, desire to have more quantity of seed even after compromising with the quality,
very early or late harvesting, poor seed storage conditions, unfavourable weather during
harvesting etc. Due to the very nature of soybean seed, which is ranked as poor reproduction

D:\My doc1\Motagi\BNM\BNM1\Soybean seed prodn & Post harvest tech [Link]\c-1

2
unit, the above mentioned factors sometimes become so critical that the seed viability and
germination in soybean seed is drastically reduced.
Environmental conditions and maturity: Climatic conditions during the pre-maturity period
of the seed, when it loses maximum moisture, till its harvest, are very critical from the view
point of seed germinability. During this period, when the seed is passing through post
maturation phase, alternate wetting and drying termed as weathering of the seed results drastic
reduction in seed viability and longevity. However, the degree of damage varies from variety
to variety. Generally, early maturing genotypes are more prone to weathering losses. While
climatic conditions are beyond control, the loss can be minimized by harvesting soybean seed
at 15-17 per cent moisture when it has attained physiological maturity.
The availability of breeder seed of high genetic purity determines the success of entire
seed production programme. Breeder seed should be genetically so pure as to guarantee that
subsequent generation i.e. foundation seed confirms to the prescribed standards of genetic
purity. The production of nucleus and breeder seed is personally supervised by a qualified
plant breeder. While the breeder seed is the progeny of nucleus seed, nucleus seed is itself
produced by bulking the genetically pure and true to type single plant progenies. The highest
norms of genetic purity can only be endured by rigorous and uniform seed production
techniques.
Seed production techniques:
Seed source
Proper class of seed should be used for seed production. The breeder seed should be
used for foundation seed and foundation seed should be used for certified seed production.
Season, planting time, isolation
Soybean is predominantly a kharif crop in India. Optimum planting dates are those
that result in prompt emergence and longest vegetative period for adapted cultivars. The most
appropriate sowing period for pre-monsoon planting with irrigation is second week of June
and for planting with the onset of monsoon is last week of June to second week of July. The
planting in central and southern zones should be completed by first week of July, while in
northern zone, the optimum time extends upto third week of July.
Soybean being a highly self pollinated crop with outcrossing of less than 1 %, the
minimum isolation distance required is 3 m.

Seed rate, agronomic management

D:\My doc1\Motagi\BNM\BNM1\Soybean seed prodn & Post harvest tech [Link]\c-1

3
 Seed rate is directly related to plant population which determines the yield. The
recommended plant population for grain crop is 4.5 lakh/ha is central zone, and 4.0 lakh/ha
in northern zone. The seed rate to obtain this population are dependent upon seed index and
germinability. The requirement is 65, 80 and 100 kg/ha for small, medium and bold seeded
varieties respectively. Generally, for every 1 g increase in seed index, the seed rate should be
increased by 5 kg. For seed purpose, however, a population of 3.2 to 3.6 lakhs/ha is
appropriate. Hence, only 80% of the commercial seed rate is to be used. These seed rates are
based on 70% germination the seed rate can be adjusted according to the actual germination
percentage of nucleus seed.
Land
The field for seed production should preferably be one compact block, well leveled
and well drained. The field should be free from volunteer plants. After field preparation,
recommended basal manurial schedule should be applied before planting.
Sowing
The seed should be treated with Thiram + Carbendazim (2:1) @ 3 g/kg seed to prevent
seedling rot and ensure good stand. This should be followed by inoculation with rhizobium
culture. The seed plot is sown with a cleaned seed drill in rows 45 cm apart. The seed should
be placed at a depth of 3/5 cm. The shallower depths are recommended for heavy and/or wet
soils and deeper depth are chosen for dry/light soils. A gap of 1 m is kept after every 18-20
rows for inspection of the plants. The agronomic practices, like weed management, inter-
culture operations, disease and pest management should be as per the local recommendations.
Stages of field inspection/roguing
The inspection of seed plot should be undertaken at 3 stages. First inspection at
flowering stage, second at pod filling and third at maturity stages. The off type plants are
identified on the basis of cultivar character enumerated in Table: 1 and rogued out. The
roguing should be carried out under the supervision of plant breeder and rogued plants should
be removed from the field.
Precaution during harvesting and processing
The soybean crop reaches harvestable maturity when the pods have lost their green
color and attain the mature pod color characteristic of the variety and seed has become hard.
The crop should be promptly harvested at this stage to avoid seed shedding and field
deterioration. The soybean seed is highly prone to mechanical damage during harvesting if
the seed moisture is below 13%. Therefore, desiccation should be avoided for the seed crop.
If the crop is to be harvested by hand, it should be done, when the moisture is 17-18%. After

D:\My doc1\Motagi\BNM\BNM1\Soybean seed prodn & Post harvest tech [Link]\c-1

4
a few days drying when the seed moisture reaches 13-15%, the crop should be threshed either
by tractor treading i.e. by beating with stick. For direct combining, the seed moisture should
be around 14%, the combine should be set carefully to avoid seed damage.
The processing should be carried out at seed moisture of 12-13%. An air screen
cleaner is the most effective for soybean seed. The recommended sieve size for processing is
8.0 mm round for top screen and 4.0 mm oblong for bottom screen.
Packaging, labeling and storage
The seed should be dried to 8-9% moisture content and packed in moisture proof bags
of 30-40 kg capacity. Polylined (400 gauge) jute canvas bags or HDPE bags are most suitable.
It should be properly labeled and stitched. Soybean seeds deteriorate rapidly under high
temperature and high humidity conditions of tropics. The seed therefore need special storage
conditions to maintain their viability. A cool and dry store is recommended. The temperature
in storage room should be between 20-27C and relative humidity 50-60%. The activity of
storage insect and fungi is very low at this temperature and RH and the seeds can be stored
for 8-9 months safely.
Certification standards: The seed certification standards for soybean is given in Table: 2

Table 1: Important morphological characters and stages of observation in soybean

Character Stage Variation

D:\My doc1\Motagi\BNM\BNM1\Soybean seed prodn & Post harvest tech [Link]\c-1

5
 Hypocotyl: anthocyanin Cotyledons completely Absent/present
pigmentation unfolded
Hairs on pods Maturity Present/absent
Color of hairs on pods Maturity Grey/tawny
Flower color Flowering White/violet
Plant height Maturity Short/medium/tall
Leaf: shape of lateral leaflet Flowering Lanceolate, triangular,
pointed ovate, ovate
Leaf: intensity of green color Flowering Small, medium, large
Leaf: intensity of green color Flowering Light, medium, dark
Pod: intensity of brown color Maturity Light, medium, dark
Seed size Maturity Small, medium, large
Seed shape Maturity Spherical, spherical-
flattened, elongated,
elongated-flattened
Seed: ground color of testa Maturity black Yellow, green, brown,
Seed: hilum color Maturity black Grey, yellow, brown,
Flowering (days) 50% plants with at least --
one flower open
Maturity (days) All pods ripe, beans final --
color, dry and hard

Table 2: Seed Certification standards for soybean

Field standards FS CS
Minimum inspection (No.) 2 2
Isolation distance (m) 3 3
Maximum off-types (%) 0.1 0.5
Seed standards FS CS
Physical purity (Minimum) % 98 98
Inert matter (Maximum) % 2 2
Other distinguishing varieties (Maximum) (No./kg) 5 10
Other crop seeds (Max. No./kg) None 10
Weed seeds (Max. No./kg) 5 10
Germination (Minimum) % 70* 70*
Moisture (Maximum) %
a) Ordinary container 12 12
b) Waterproof container 7 7
* Including hard seeds

D:\My doc1\Motagi\BNM\BNM1\Soybean seed prodn & Post harvest tech [Link]\c-1

6
HYBRID SEED PRODUCTION
RICE
 Systematics

Division : Phanerogams
Class : Monocotyledon
Sub class : Glumiflorae
Order : Cyperales
Family : Graminae (Poaceae)
Genus : Oryza
Species : sativa (Asian rice)
Glaberrima ( African rice)
2n= 24
Hybrid seed production using the CMS system involves the following two steps

• Maintaining `A’ line (by crossing A line with the B line)

• Production of hybrid seed (by crossing A line with the R line )

Schematic presentation of hybrid rice seed production technology

 Factors affecting hybrid seed production

➢ Choice of field
➢ Isolation
➢ Seeding time
➢ Planting pattern
➢ Weather conditions during flowering
➢ Roguing
➢ Synchronization in flowering of the parental lines
➢ Supplementary pollination
➢ Post harvest operations.
Choice of location

➢Fertile field with proper irrigation and drainage system,

➢ Sufficient sunshine during flowering
➢ No serious disease and insect problems.

Weather conditions during flowering

➢ Daily mean temperature of 24-300 C.
➢ Relative humidity ranging from 70-80 percent
➢ The differences between day and night temperature should be 8-100C.
➢ Sufficient sunshine with moderate wind velocity.
➢ There shouldn’t be rains continuously for 3-4 days during the
period of flowering.
➢ Seed yield will be adversely affected if the temperature is
below 200C and above 350C.
 Isolation
Space isolation : Atleast 100 meter distance between hybrid seed production
plots and plots of other varieties, and 500 meter distance for CMS line maintenance.
varieties, and 500 meter distance for CMS line maintenance.
Time isolation : It means that the heading stage of the parental lines in hybrid
seed production plot should be 21 days earlier or later than that
of other varieties grown in the vicinity.
Barrier isolation : Natural topographic features, Crop barrier and
Artificial barrier
 Seeding and transplanting sequence : to attain the complete synchronization in
parental lines and long duration availability of pollens, male parent (B/R line) must
be sown in three staggerred date (at 3-4 days interval) and transplanted as per
patterns given
I. In case seed parent (A line) has 10 days longer growth duration than pollen parent (R line)

[Link]. Seed/ Pollen parent Seeding sequence Seedling age for

transplanting (days)
1 A line 0 day 25
2 First R line 6 th day 29
3 Second R line 10th day 25
4 Third R line 14 th day 21
II. In case seed parent (A line) has 10 days shorter growth duration than pollen parent (R line)
[Link]. Seed/ Pollen parent Seeding sequence Seedling age for
transplanting (days)
1 First R line 0 day 29
2 Second R line 4 th day 25
3 Third R line 8th day 21
4 A line 14 th day 25
II. In case seed parent (A line) has same growth duration than pollen parent (R line)

[Link]. Seed/ Pollen parent Seeding sequence Seedling age for

transplanting (days)
1 First R line 0 day 29
2 Second R line and A 4 th day 25
line
3 Third R line 8th day 21
Transplanting : A and R lines are to be transplanted when they attain the age of 21-25 days.
One day old seedling may cause half day delay in floweing and vice-versa.
1-2 seedlings per hill of the `A’ line and 3-4 seedlings per hill of B/R (male lines)
Staggered sown seedlings of R line should be properly mixed before transplnting
Factors influencing row ratio: The ratio of pollen parent (R line) to seed
parent (A line) is determined by the characteristics of the parental lines.

➢Height of the pollinator

➢ Growth and vigour of the pollinator
➢ Size of the panicles and amount of residual pollen
➢Duration and angle of floret opening in CMS lines
➢ Stigma exertion of CMS lines
Roguing : Important stages for roguing are maximum tillering, flowering and
just before harvesting.
Roguing at maximum tillering
Roguing at flowering: Off-type plants that flower very early or very late
Plants different in respect of leaf size, shape, angle, panicle
shape, size and pigmentation
Plants have plumpy yellow anthers in A line
Imperfect panicle exertion occurs in CMS
Highly infested with pests and diseases.
Roguing just before harvest : Different seed characters- grain size,
shape, colour and pigmentation
 Synchronization in flowering of the parental lines
Advancement in flowering
By spraying 1% solution of Phosphoric acid before 3rd stage of panicle development
(up to 7-9th days of panicle initiation)
By application of single super phosphate @50-60 kg/ha in male row and 100 kg/ha in
female row.
This causes 4-5 days advancement in flowering.

Delaying in the flowering

By spraying 2% solution of urea or 50-60 kg/ha nitrogen in male and 75-100 kg/ha in
female rows before 3rd stage of panicle development.
This causes 4-5 days delay in flowering
Out-crossing encouragement
Supplimentary pollination : Supplementary pollination is a technique of shaking
the pollen parent so that the pollen is shed and effectively dispersed
over the A line plants.
Flag leaf clipping
Gibberallic acid (GA3) application
Most of the wild abortive (WA) based CMS lines have imperfect panicle exertion

Favourable effects of GA3

•Helps in enhancing the panicle exertion.
•Increasing the duration of floret opening.
•Increases the stigma exertion and stigma receptivity.
•Can be used to adjust the plant height.
•Is helpful in adjusting the flowering between parental lines.
•Is useful in widening flag leaf angle.
•Increases the growth rate of secondary and tertiary tillers so as to make them bear panicles.

Timing of GA3 application

First spray (40%) : 5-10 % panicle emergence stage
Second spray (60%): Immediately next day

Morning 8-10am and Evening 4-6 PM

Avoid cloudy days, rainy days and high wind velocity days

keep 3-5 cm of water in the field while spraying GA3.

Continued……
 PROBLEMS IN HYBRID RICE SEED PRODUCTION

I. Problems in parental lines and hybrid seeds

•The CMS line IR 58025 A used for the development of rice hybrids in India,
is having certain defects.
•Presence of aroma, susceptible to pest and diseases, production of split husk seed.
Low storage potential of parental lines and hybrid seed.

[Link] level problems

•Problems in synchronization of parental lines due to climatic variation in different
agroclimatic regions.
•Poor seed set due to non-synchronised flowering of parents resulting in low seed
yield of 400-500 kg/ha which is highly uneconomic to the producers.
•Problem in main field planting due to wide variations in growth period of parental lines
of certain hybrids.
•Restricted use of GA3 due to high cost
•Isolation problems in project areas.

III Problems in storage and marketing

•Risk involved in carry over stock of hybrid seed due to low storage potential.
•Low profit margin while compared with other hybrids like cotton, tomato etc.
IV Problems in seed certification
•Providing 100 meter of isolation is very difficult for hybrid seed production.
•Time/barrier isolations are not permitted in India as per, Seeds Act.
•Even, if time isolation is permitted it is very difficult to adopt in project area.
•Rejection of more seed lots due to high germination standards.

V Problems in seed production and distribution system

•No well established seed production system in India like China.
•No separate agency like State Seed Corporation in all the States to monitor the
seed production and popularization of public bred hybrids.
 Methods determine the difference in seedling date for synchronization between
male and female parents.

➢ Growth Duration Difference (GDD) method.

➢ Leaf Number Difference (LND) method.
➢ Effective Accumulated Temperature (EAT) method
Nursery Management
•Female and male (A x R) seedlings have to be raised in separate seed beds.
•Sparse sowing in nursery beds at 25 g/sq.m will give thick seedlings.
•Application of DAP at 50 g/sq.m as basal in the nursery will ensure
robust seedling with 2-3 tillers at the time of planting.
•Seedlings of 20 to 25 days old have to be planted.
•Seed rate at 20 kg of female and 10 kg of male are required to plant in one ha.
•Female and male parents should be sown in different dates according to their duration.
Sometimes 2-3 staggered sowing of male line have to be taken up for synchronization
of flowering.
•In general, the days of staggering slightly vary from location to location and season to
season.
•Other nursery operations are as usual.
Prediction of heading date
The method which is widely used and found to be effective is by examining
the development of young panicle which is classified into 8 developmental stages.
The synchronization in flowering can be predicted by using such criteria.

In practice, about 30 days before heading, the male and female parents in
the seed production field are sampled and their young panicles within the main culms
and tillers are carefully observed with a magnifying lens every three days
 Usually female and male parent will take 27 and 32 days respectively from
panicle initiation to heading in 8 stages.

Developmental stages of panicle formation to flowering

Stage Developmental stages Approx. days Approx. panicle

No. Before flowering length (mm)
I Panicle primordia 30 0.2
II Primary branch primordia 27 0.4
III Secondary branch primordia 24 1.5
IV Stamen and Pistil primordia 20 2.0
V Pollen mother cells 17 10-25
VI Meiotic division 12 80
VII Mature pollen 6 190-250
VIII Ripe stage of pollen 4 260
IX Completed spikelets 1-2 270
X Flowering - -
Guidelines for successful seed production

These guidelines include.

•Selection of seed and pollen parent with synchronized anthesis.

•Selection of seed parent with long exserted stigma, longer duration and wide
angle
of flower opening.
•Selection of pollen parent with a high percentage of residual pollen per anther
after
anther exsertion.
•Synchronization of flowering
•Use of optimum row ratio between A and B/R line.
•Use of seed and pollen parent with short horizontal flag leaf or long erect flag
leaves.
•Use of GA3 to improve panicle exsertion and prolong anthesis.
•Planting of seed parent rows across the prevailing wind direction and use of
supplementary pollination.
•Selection of optimum time of flowering of parental lines in seed production
plots.