CHAPTER 5

MEMORY & FORGETTING

IMHAPS
Institute of Mental Health and Psychological Sciences

[Link] imhapsacademic@[Link] +91-86101 15082

 MEMORY
Learning depends on memory for its ‘permanence’, and memory would have no ‘content’
without learning. Hence, we could define memory as the retention of learning and experience.
The term memory is derived from the Greek word “Mnemosyne” –Greek Goddess of memory.
Memory is the set of processes used to encode, store, and retrieve information over different periods
of time. Memory is like a computer where we store information and memories. Just as we take back
the information from the computer whenever we need, we can “recall or retrieve” information from
memory.
Memory processes:
Any model of memory should comprise of three processes.

Encoding:
Encoding is the initial learning of information. It is how the information coming from sensory
input is changed into a form so it can be stored in the brain. When you strike the keys on a computer
keyboard, your actions are turned into binary codes that the computer understands. Similarly
information in your memory is stored in codes that your brain can process.
Encoding information occurs through automatic processing and effortful processing. Automatic
processing is usually done without any conscious awareness and effortful processing requires a lot of
work and attention on our part in order to encode that information.
Types of encoding
▪ Semantic encoding: The encoding of words and their meaning
▪ Visual encoding: The encoding of images
▪ Acoustic encoding: The encoding of sounds, words in particular
Storage:
Once the information has been encoded, we have to somehow retain it. Storage is the creation
of a permanent record of information. It is similar to hard disk in which we store the information.
Types of storage
▪ STM – Short Term Memory
▪ LTM – Long Term Memory
Retrieval:
Finally memories must be taken out of storage to be useful. The act of getting information out of
memory storage and back into conscious awareness is known as retrieval.

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 Information Processing Model of Memory/ Modal Model of Memory
Information processing model of Memory was first proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard
Shiffrin (1968). Their model of human memory, called Atkinson-Shiffrin (A-S), is based on the belief
that we process memories in the same way that a computer processes information.

Sensory Memory:
The stimuli from the environment are processed first in sensory memory: storage of brief
sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes. It is very brief storage up to a couple of seconds. It
is also known as sensory register as it stores all the information which is received through sense organs.
Types of sensory memory:
▪ Iconic memory: Also known as visual sensory memory, iconic memory involves a very brief
image. This type of sensory memory typically lasts for about one-quarter to one-half of a
second.
▪ Echoic memory: Also known as auditory sensory memory, echoic memory involves a very
brief memory of sound a bit like an echo. This type of sensory memory can last for up to three
to four seconds.
▪ Haptic memory: Also known as tactile memory, haptic involves the very brief memory of a
touch. This type of sensory memory lasts for approximately two seconds.
Short Term Memory:
Short-term memory (STM) is a temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory
memory, sometimes it is called working memory. It collects the information from sensory memory
and transfers it to LTM with a series of rehearsals. This step of rehearsal, the conscious repetition of
information to be remembered, to move STM into long term memory is called memory consolidation.
Short-term memory storage lasts about 20 seconds. George Miller (1956), published a paper titled
“The magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two” by using the digit span test, found that most people
can retain about 7 items in STM. Some remember 5, some 9, so he called the capacity of STM 7 plus
or minus 2.

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 Working memory:
Currently short term memory is called as working memory. It is a memory structure proposed
by Baddeley that enables short term storage and mental manipulation of information.
Working memory is a multi-component system which includes the central executive, visuospatial
sketchpad, phonological loop, and episodic buffer.

Central executive:
▪ A central executive part of memory supervises or controls the flow of information to and from
the three short-term systems.
▪ Plans and coordinates but does not store information
▪ Focuses attention, selects strategies, transforms information, coordinates behaviour
▪ Integrates information from other parts of the system.

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 Visuospatial sketchpad:
▪ The visuospatial sketchpad deals with visual and spatial information. Visual information refers
to what things look like.
▪ It is likely that the visuospatial sketchpad plays an important role in helping us keep track of
where we are in relation to other objects as we move through our environment
Phonological loop:
▪ The phonological loop is a component of working memory model that deals with spoken and
written material.
▪ It is subdivided into the phonological store (which holds information in a speech-based form)
and the articulatory process (which allows us to repeat verbal information in a loop).
Episodic buffer:
▪ The original model was updated by Baddeley (2000) after the model failed to explain the results
of various experiments. An additional component was added called the episodic buffer.
▪ The episodic buffer acts as a 'backup' store which communicates with both long-term memory
and the components of working memory.
Long Term Memory:
Long-term memory (LTM) is the continuous storage of information. Unlike short-term
memory, the storage capacity of LTM has no limits. It encompasses all the things you can remember
that happened more than just a few minutes ago to all of the things that you can remember that
happened days, weeks, and years ago. Information that is important or meaningful is transformed to
the third memory system called long term memory after the elaborate rehearsals.

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 Types of LTM:
Long-term memory is divided into two types: explicit and implicit
1) Explicit memories (Declarative memories):
Explicit memories are those that consist of facts and information that are explicitly stored and
can be consciously recalled. Declarative memory is assumed to be stored in the hippocampus and
related structures. It is of two types:
a) Episodic Memory – This is also known as “autobiographical information”
– memories of an individual’s past history. The information is organized
chronologically. For e.g., first day of school, completion of schooling,
graduation, first day on the job, wedding day, birth of first child – all
personal information.
b) Semantic Memory – This memory contains all the non-personal
information like days of the week or months of the year, simple math skills,
the seasons, words and languages. Semantic memory is very important for
education.
2) Implicit memories (Non declarative memories):
Implicit memories are memories that are not part of our consciousness. They are memories
formed from behaviors. Implicit memory is also called non-declarative memory. Procedural memory
is a type of non-declarative memory. It is the memory for skilled actions, such as how to brush your
teeth etc. These memories appear to register in lower brain areas, especially the cerebellum.
Exceptional Memories:
▪ Eidetic Memory: In this kind of memory, a person has visual images clear enough to be
scanned and retained for at least 30 seconds. Internal images can be viewed mentally, with eyes
closed.
▪ Flashbulb Memory: The phenomenon of flashbulb memory was proposed by Brown and
Kulik (1982). Memories of some specific event are so clear and vivid that they are seen as a
snapshot of the event. For e.g. our memory of being involved in a car accident, or hearing the
news of the death of a friend.
Levels of Processing Model of Memory:
The levels of processing model was given by Robert S. Lockhart and Fergus I. M. Craik in
1972. They introduced this model as an alternative to prior memory theories (Atkinson & Shiffrin)
which had divided memory into sensory, working and long-term stages.
Craik & Lockhart believed that the depth of mental processing affected memory function. Memories
that were deeply processed led to longer lasting memories while shallow processing led to memories
that decayed easily.
Shallow processing: Shallow processing only thinks about the surface of something, meaning it soon
decays and is forgotten.
It occurs in four ways:
▪ Structural: Processing how an object or sound looks

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 ▪ Phonemic: When we process how something sounds
▪ Graphemic: Processing letters contained in a word
▪ Orthographic: Processing the shape of something
Deep or Semantic Processing: Deep and semantic processing involves us thinking deeply about
something which causes the memory of it to be easily accessed.
It occurs in three ways:
▪ The process of relating an object/situation etc. to something else
▪ When the meaning of something is thought of
▪ When we process the importance of something
There are three factors which determine if a memory remains:
▪ Maintenance Rehearsal: The process of repeating the information in its original form without
relating it to anything else
▪ Elaborative Rehearsal: The process of repeating information in a way that relates it to
something that you have already stored in memory and when the information is analyzed in a
deeper way
▪ Distinctiveness: This factor makes the memory of a particular item easier to discriminate from
memories of other items.
The levels of processing model suggests that the only one of the above factors which improves Long-
Term Memory (LTM) is elaborative rehearsal.

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 FORGETTING
Forgetting refers to loss of information from long-term memory. The first formal research on
forgetting was conducted by Hermann Ebbinghaus. Using himself as his subject, he tirelessly
memorized 420 lists of “nonsense syllables” such as ‘PHY’, ‘BOZ’, and ‘TXT’,with 14000 practice
repetitions and measured how easy it was to relearn the given list of words after varying periods of
time. He found out that forgetting occurred systematically and developed the “Forgetting Curve”
Theories/ Causes of forgetting:

Causes of forgetting

Decay hypothesis Interference effect Repression

Retrieval failure

Retroactive interference Proactive interference Amnesia

interference
Psychogenic
Organic

Retrograde
Anterograde

Interference theory:
It states that the forgetting is caused by the interference between the new learning and the
previous learning. It can occur in two conditions: Proactive interference and Retroactive interference.
1. Proactive interference: when old information hinders the recall of newly learned information.
For example, we may find it difficult to remember a friend’s new phone number because of
interference from having learned the old phone number

2. Retroactive interference: It happens when information learned more recently hinders the recall
of older information. For example, this week you are studying about Freud’s Psychoanalytic

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 Theory. Next week you study the humanistic perspective of Maslow and Rogers. Thereafter, you
have trouble remembering Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development because you can only
remember Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.
Interference also plays a role in what is known as the serial position effect, or the tendency to
recall the first and last items of a list.

Retrieval Failure :
Retrieval failure is also known as “cue dependant forgetting”. Information in the memory is
intact but it is out of reach and the person is not able to recall it immediately. It is also known as ‘tip
of the tongue’ phenomenon. For example if you were asked what you were doing on 26th December
2004, your reply may be “How should I know?” But if you were reminded that it was the day of the
tsunami, then you might remember.
Decay or disuse theory:
The trace decay theory of forgetting states that all memories fade automatically as a function
of time. When we learn information, it forms a memory trace in the brain, as time passes the memory
trace tends to decay thus it results in forgetting. For example: According to decay hypothesis you may
no longer remember an old phone number because the memory trace faded away.
Motivated forgetting:
Motivated forgetting is what Freud referred to as repressing memories. According to Freud,
there are times when an event or an action is so painful that we can't deal with the memory of it, so we
repress the memory completely. By pushing the memory into the subconscious and actively repressing
it, we are unable to recall the memory.

Theories of Forgetting

Decay or Disuse Theory: When the learned Interference Theory: The newly learned
material is not used then it leads to forgetting material interfere with previous learning leads
forgetting

Motivated Forgetting: Repression of Retrieval Failure: Forgetting caused due to the

experience particularly painful and distressful lack of proper retrieval cues
causes forgetting