SCIENCE 7- LESSON NOTES

I. MICROSCOPY
Microscopy is the scientific study of small structures using a microscope.
A microscope is a device that allows you to see items too small for the naked eye.
1. Eyepiece (Ocular Lens) - Used for viewing and magnifying the image
2. Objective Lenses - Used to switch between magnifications (low, medium, high)
3. Stage - Supports the slide and holds the specimen in place
4. Diaphragm - Regulates the amount of light that reaches the specimen
5. Mirror or Light Source - Adjusts the amount of light by focusing it upward
6. Arm - Connects the eyepiece to the objective lenses
7. Coarse Adjustment Knob - Moves the stage up and down for focusing
8. Fine Adjustment Knob - Used for fine, detailed focusing of the image
9. Base - Supports the entire microscope
Types of Microscopes
A. Light Microscope- A basic microscope that uses light to magnify objects. The lenses refract the light so objects beneath
appear closer.
Types: Simple microscope, Compound microscope, Dissection or stereo microscope
B. Electron Microscope- A microscope that uses beams of electrons to generate images.
Two types:
 TEM (Transmission Electron Microscope) – electrons pass through a very thin specimen.
 SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope) – scans the surface of the specimen by focusing an electron beam.

II. PLANT AND ANIMAL CELL

What is a Cell?
 Cells are the primary building blocks of life. They come in all shapes and sizes.
 The smallest cell is the Mycoplasma gallisepticum, a disease-causing bacteria in birds.
 The largest cell is the ostrich egg, which can reach up to 6 inches in diameter.
 Cells were first recorded by Robert Hooke around 1665.
3 tenets of cells: *All organisms are made up of cells. *All life functions of an organism happen within the cell.
* All life functions of an organism happen within the cell.
Types of Cells Type Description
Prokaryoti Lack a defined nucleus; genetic material dispersed in the cytoplasm
c
Eukaryotic Have a defined nucleus
Parts of Plant Cell
Cell Wall- Protective part of the plant cell that gives it its rectangular shape.
Cell Membrane- Thin barrier that surrounds the cell of all living organisms.
Nucleus -Round organelle in the center of the cell. Controls all activities of the plant cell. The nucleolus produces
ribosomes, which make proteins.
Vacuole- Helps maintain water balance and is essential for plant growth and survival.
Golgi Apparatus- Processes and packages proteins and lipid molecules. Involved in sorting and transporting them within
and outside the cell.
Chloroplast- Produces food in the form of sugars through photosynthesis. Essential for growth and survival of plants.
Mitochondria-Powerhouse of the cell; generates energy (ATP). Contains its own DNA and ribosomes for replication and
protein production.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)- Smooth and rough types. Helps transport, process, and store proteins and other molecules.
Lysosome- Breaks down and recycles macromolecules that are no longer needed by the cell.

Animal Cell- An animal cell is the smallest biological unit of life found in animals. Composed of various organelles with
distinct functions.
Parts of an Animal Cell
 Nucleus – Controls all activities of the cell.
  Vacuole – Helps maintain water balance in animal cells.
 Golgi Apparatus – Processes and packages proteins and lipids.
 Lysosome – Breaks down certain materials inside the cell.
 Cell Membrane – Protects and keeps cell contents intact.
 Mitochondria – Powerhouse of the cell.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum – Smooth and rough types; involved in synthesis and transport.
III. CELLULAR REPRODUCTION
Cellular Reproduction
 Cellular growth and maturation (Interphase) Cell division (Mitosis, Meiosis)
Why Cells Reproduce
 Growth and development, Repair and replacement, Regeneration, Reproduction
 A Cell Must Replicate Its Genetic Information
 A DNA molecule wraps around histone proteins to create tight loops known as nucleosomes.
The nucleosomes coil and bundle together to form a kind of fiber known as chromatin fiber.
Chromatin
 A less condensed form of DNA and proteins (like histones). Occupies the nucleus during interphase (cell growth).
Chromosome
 A highly condensed form of chromatin. Forms during cell division (mitosis and meiosis).
 Uncoils back into chromatin after division is complete.
Chromatid – one of two identical copies of a chromosome that have been replicated and are joined together.

Cell Cycle

G1 (Gap 1) Phase Cell Division

 Longest phase. Rapid growth. Karyokinesis (1st step in mitosis)
 Organelles are formed.  Division of the nucleus containing
 Enzymes needed for the S phase are produced. chromosomes into two daughter cells equally.
S (Synthesis) Phase  Involves: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and
 DNA is duplicated (replication). telophase.
 Each chromosome is made up of 2 sister
Cytokinesis
chromatids.  Division of cytoplasm into two daughter cells.
G2 (Gap 2) Phase  Second and final step in mitosis.
 Preparation for cell division. Assembly of proteins
(like microtubules) takes place.

Stages of Mitosis
1) PROPHASE  The contraction (shortening) of the spindle fibers
 Chromatin begins to condense into discrete
pulls the sister chromatids apart.
chromosomes.  Each pole now contains a complete set of
 Nucleolus disappears.
chromosomes.
 Mitotic spindle begins to form. 4) TELOPHASE
 Centrosomes move apart to opposite poles.  Spindle fibers disappear; chromosomes return to
chromatin form.
2) METAPHASE  Nuclear envelope reforms around each set of
 Centrioles reach opposite poles of the cell. chromosomes.
 Mitotic spindle extends between them.  Nucleolus reappears in each new nucleus.
 Chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate.  Cytokinesis begins.

5) CYTOKINESIS
 Inward pinching of the cell membrane.
 Starts at the middle of the cell and moves
3) ANAPHASE
outward.

MITOSIS
 Takes place in body cells (diploid).
Results in 2 genetically identical daughter cells.
  Occurs only in eukaryotes.
Importance:
 Growth and development. Repair and replacement of worn-out tissues. Asexual reproduction.

CHROMOSOME NUMBER
Type Description Example
Haploid (n) Contains one set of chromosomes Egg cell – 23, Sperm cell – 23
Diploid (2n) Contains two sets of chromosomes (1 maternal + 1 Body cells – 46
paternal)
 Meiosis produces haploid cells.
 Mitosis produces diploid cells.
MEIOSIS
 Meiosis I – Reductional division; reduces chromosome number from diploid to haploid.
 Meiosis II – Equational division; does not change chromosome number.
 Production of sex cells (gametes).
 Results in 4 haploid daughter cells.
 Contributes to genetic variability.
MEIOSIS I
1) PROPHASE I
 Chromosomes start to coil and shorten. 3) ANAPHASE I
 Nuclear envelope disintegrates.  Homologous chromosomes separate.
 Homologous chromosomes pair up.  Sister chromatids remain attached to each other.
 Crossing over occurs (contributes to genetic
variability). 4) TELOPHASE I
 Chromosomes reach opposite poles.
2) METAPHASE I  Cleavage furrow appears; cytoplasm divides.
 Homologous chromosomes align at the  Nuclear membrane forms.
metaphase plate.
MEIOSIS II (Follows similar stages to mitosis but starts with haploid cells.)

IV. CELLULAR REPRODUCTION

Meiosis + Fertilization = Sexual Reproduction
 Meiosis makes the gametes (n).
 Fertilization fuses gametes to make a zygote (2n).
 A zygote contains two sets of chromosomes – one set from the father, one set from the mother.
 The zygote undergoes mitosis until an embryo is formed.
(embryo → baby → adulthood)
Sexual Reproduction
 Meiosis makes the gametes (n).
 Fertilization fuses gametes to make a zygote (2n).
 A zygote contains two sets of chromosomes – one set from the father, one set from the mother.
 The zygote undergoes mitosis until an embryo is formed.
(embryo → baby → adulthood)
Sexual Reproduction vs. Asexual Reproduction
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION The process by which an organism self-reproduces.
Asexual Reproduction in Unicellular Organisms
Unicellular organisms can reproduce an exact copy of themselves through binary fission.
Asexual Reproduction in Animals
Hydras: Budding
Many hydras reproduce asexually by producing buds on the body wall, which grow into miniature adults and break away
when mature. Bud → New organism
Planaria: Fragmentation
The body of the parent breaks into distinct pieces, and each piece can produce an offspring.
Echinoderms: Regeneration
Starfish can regrow missing limbs and even produce new organisms through regeneration.
Asexual Reproduction in Plants
Plants produced this way are genetically identical to the parent plant.
Natural Vegetative Propagation
 New plants arise from specialized reproductive structures or vegetative parts.
 No seed formation occurs.
Examples of Natural Vegetative Propagation:
Runners or Stolons
New plants arise from the nodes of a horizontal stem above the ground. → Example: Strawberries
Rhizome
New plants arise from the nodes of a horizontal, rootlike underground stem. Young rhizome → node → new plant
Corm
New plants arise from very short, thick underground stems with thin, scaly leaves.
Tuber
New shoots arise from an axillary bud on a short, swollen, fleshy underground stem. Example: Potato. Buds → New shoots
Bulb
New bulbs arise from an axillary bud on a very short stem with thick, fleshy leaves. Example: Onion, Garlic
Artificial Vegetative Propagation
Performed by humans using specific techniques to propagate plants.
Cutting
Leaves, stems, or roots are cut from one plant and planted in soil to grow new plants.
Budding and Grafting
Small stems from one plant are attached to the larger stems or roots of another plant.
Tissue Culture
Pieces of tissue from one plant are placed in a sterile medium and used to grow new plants.
Sexual Reproduction in Animals
Internal Fertilization
 A male gamete (sperm) is introduced into the female’s body, where it fertilizes the egg.
 Common in terrestrial animals and mammals (dry environments). Produces fewer offspring.
 Higher survival rate due to protection from environment and predators.
External Fertilization
 Gametes (sperm and eggs) are released into the external environment, where they combine to form a zygote.
 Common in aquatic animals (moist environments). Produces large numbers of offspring.
 Low survival rate due to environmental factors, dehydration, and predation.
Which is Better?
Asexual Sexual
Does not require special cells or a lot of energy Lots of variation within a species
Can produce offspring quickly Able to live in a variety of environmental settings
Limited ability to adapt Able to adapt to changes in the environment
Faces massive die-off if environmental factors change Needs more time and energy; smaller population sizes
Conclusion: It depends! Both forms of reproduction have advantages and disadvantages depending on environmental
conditions and organism type.

V. LEVELS OF BIOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION

VI. TROPHIC LEVELS AND TRANSFER OF ENERGY
Ecological Relationships:
Relationship Description Example
Predation One organism (predator) hunts and eats another Lion eating a zebra
(prey).
Competition Two or more species compete for the same resources. Goats fighting over grass
Mutualism Both organisms benefit. Bees pollinating flowers
Commensalism One benefits, the other is unaffected. Barnacle on a whale
Parasitism One benefits, the other is harmed. Tapeworm inside a dog
Amensalism One organism is harmed while the other is unaffected Black Walnut Tree
Homeostasis- is the ability of an organism or an ecosystem to maintain stable internal conditions despite changes in the
external environment. Example: Humans regulating body temperature; predator-prey balance
C. Producers and Consumers
Producers Consumers
Make their own food through photosynthesis. Obtain energy by eating other organisms.
Examples: Grass, Trees, Algae Primary consumers – herbivores (e.g., rabbit)
Secondary consumers – carnivores (e.g., snake)
Tertiary consumers – top predators (e.g., eagle)
Omnivores – eat both plants and animals (e.g., bear)

The energy pyramid shows how energy decreases as it moves up

each trophic level.
Only about 10% of energy is passed from one trophic level to the
next.
Example: If plants capture 1000 kcal from sunlight, only 100
kcal goes to herbivores, 10 kcal to carnivores, and 1 kcal to
top predators.
Why is energy lost as heat?
Because organisms use some of the energy for metabolic activities (like
respiration and movement), and this energy is released as heat.