Chapter 1

Topological spaces

1.1 Topological spaces. Open and closed sets. Bases. Clo-

sure and interior of a set

Example 1.1.7(discrete topology)

Let X be an arbitrary set and O = 2X . Clearly (X, O) is a topological space.
Every set A ⊆ X is clopen. Any set containing x is a neighbourhood of x. The family of all
singletons of X is a base for (X, O). This is a base of minimal cardinality; therefore the weight
w(X) = |X|. For every x ∈ X the family consisting of the singleton {x} is a base for (X, O) at x;
hence χ(X) = 1 satisfies the first axiom of countability.

Example 1.1.8(cofinite topology with a distinguished point)

Let X be an arbitrary infinite set, x0 a point in X and O the family consisting of all subsets
of X that do not contain x0 and of all cofinite subsets of X. One verifies readily that (X, O) is a
topological space.
All one-point subsets of X, except for the set {x0 }, are clopen; the set {x0 } is closed but not
open. The family consisting of all singletons {x} with x 6= x0 and of all cofinite sets is a base
for (X, O). This is a base of minimal cardinality; therefore the weight w(X) = |X|. The family
consisting of all singletons {x} with x 6= x0 and of all sets of the form X \ {x} is a subbase for
(X, O). For every A ⊆ X we have
{ {
A, A finite, ◦ A, A cofinite,
A= A =
A ∪ {x0 }, A infinite, A \ {x0 }, A coinfinite.

This implies any two infinite closed subsets intersects at x0 .

1.2 Methods of generating topologies

Example 1.2.2(Sorgenfrey line)

Let K be the set of all real numbers and let B be the family of all intervals [x, r), where x < r
and r is a rational number. One can readily check that the family B is a base.
Members of B are clopen. Obviously, |B| = c; we shall show that w(K) = c. Let R be a family
of open subsets of K such that < c. There exists a point x0 ∈ K which is not the infimum of any
member of R; hence the open set [x0 , x0 + 1) cannot be represented as the union of a subfamily of
R and therefore R is not a base for K.

Example 1.2.4(Niemytzki plane)

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CHAPTER 1. TOPOLOGICAL SPACES Examples in Topology

Let L be the closed upper half plane; denote by L1 the line y = 0 and let L2 = L \ L1 . For
every x ∈ L1 and r > 0 let U (x, r) be the set of all points of L inside the circle of radius r tangent
to L1 at x and let Ui (x) = U (x, 1/i) ∪ {x}. For every x ∈ L2 and r > 0 let U (x, r) be the set of all
points of L inside the circle of radius r and center at x and let Ui (x) = U (x, 1/i). One can readily
check that the collection {B(x)}x∈L , where B(x) = {Ui (x)}∞ i=1 , is a neighbourhood system.
The set L1 is closed with respect to this topology.

Example 1.2.6(cofinite topology)

Let X be an arbitrary infinite set and C the family consisting of all finite subsets of X and X
itself. The family C is a family of closed sets.
All cofinte sets and the empty set are the only subsets of X which are open. Any two non-empty
open subsets of X have non-empty intersection.

Example 1.2.8(a distinguished point)

Let x0 ∈ X and X contains more than one point. Define A = A ∪ {x0 } for every ∅ 6= A ⊆ X
and let ∅ = ∅. This is a closure operator.
The set {x0 } is closed but not open; other singletons are open but not closed.

Example 1.2.10(a distinguished subset)

Let X be an arbitrary set containing more than one point and let X0 ⊆ X such that |X\X0 | > 1.
Define A◦ = A ∩ X0 for every A ⊂ X and let X ◦ = X. This is an interior operator. If X0 = ∅, X
is the anti-discrete space.
All subsets of X0 and the whole space X are the only open subsets.

1.3 Boundary of a set and derived set. Dense and nowhere

dense sets. Borel sets

Example 1.3.9(boundary, derived set, and density)

• (discrete topology) The boundary and the derived set of any subset are empty. The
only dense subset is the space itself. The density d(X) = |X|; hence X is separable iff
|X| ≤ ℵ0 .
• (1.1.8) The point x0 is the only accumulation point; other points are isolated. The
density d(X) = |X|; hence X is separable iff |X| ≤ ℵ0 .
• (Sorgenfrey line) The set of rationals as well as the set of irrationals are both dense and
codense; hence K is separable.
• (Niemytzki plane) The set L2 is dense and the set L1 is nowhere dense; hence L is
separable. The derived set of L1 is empty and L2 is dense in itself.

1.4 Continuous mappings. Closed and open mappings. Home-

omorphisms

Example 1.4.4, 1.4.5, 1.4.6(continuous function)

(Sorgenfrey line) Let [x, r) ∈ B. As [x, r) is clopen, the formula
{
0, x ≤ y < r,
f (y) =
1, otherwise

2
Examples in Topology CHAPTER 1. TOPOLOGICAL SPACES

defines a continuous function f : K → I. Thus K is T3 12 . Indeed it’s T6 .1

(Niemytzki plane) Let x ∈ L. For every y ∈ Ui (x) \ {x} denote by y ′ the point at which the
ray −→ intersects the circle bounding U (x). The formula
xy i


0, y = x,


1, y ∈ L \ Ui (x),
f (y) = −
→
 |xy|


 −→′ , y ∈ Ui (x) \ {x}
|xy |
defines a continuous function f : L → I. Thus L is T3 21 .
(1.1.8) We shall show that for every continuous function f : X → R there exists a countable Fσ
set X0 ⊆ X such that f (x) = f (x0 ) for every x ∈ X \ X0 .
The set Xi = X \ f −1 ((f (x0 ) − 1/i, f (x∪
0 ) + 1/i)) is closed and does not contain x0 ; thus it’s
finite. One can readily verify the set X0 = Xi has the required property.

Example 1.4.15(open and closed mapping)

The mapping r : R → I defined by


0, x ≤ 0,
r(x) = x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1,


1, x ≥ 1
is closed but not open.
The mapping f : L → R projecting the point of the Niemytzki plane to its first coordinate is
open but not closed.
The mapping g : K → {0, 1} from the Sorgenfrey line to the discrete space {0, 1} defined by
{
0, x < 0,
g(x) =
1, x ≥ 0

is open-and-closed.

Example 1.4.17(closed mapping may increase weight and character)

Let X = R and Y = (R \ N) ∪ {y0 } where y0 ∈/ R. Assign to any point x ∈ X the point
{
x, x ∈ R \ N,
f (x) =
y0 , x ∈ N,

and consider on Y the quotient topology generated by the closed sets C = {A ⊆ Y | f −1 (A) closed}.
One can readily check that f : X → Y is closed, and that neighbourhoods of y0 ∈ Y are of the
form (U \ N) ∪ {y0 }, where U is open in X and contains N.
Let (Ui \ N) ∪ {y0 } be an arbitrary sequence of neighbourhoods of y0 . Choose a point xi ∈
Ui \ N such that xi > i. The set U = X \ {xi }i∈N is open in X and contains the set N; thus
V = (U \ N) ∪ {y0 } is a neighbourhood of y0 . Since no element of our sequence is contained in V ,
it followed that the space Y has no countable base at y0 . Thus χ(Y ) > ℵ0 and w(Y ) > ℵ0 , while
w(X) = χ(X) = ℵ0 .
The map f : X → Y consists in ”identitying the closed subset N ⊆ X to a point”.

Example 1.4.19(scalar multiply under different topologies of R)

1 For every open set U ⊆ K the interior V of U with respect to the natural topology of R is the countable

union of open intervals (a, b) each of which is an Fσ -set in K, and thus V is an Fσ -set in K; now, for every point
a ∈ A = U \ V an interval [a, x(a)) is contained in U , and for distinct a, b ∈ A we have [a, x(a)) ∩ [b, x(b)) (because
otherwise a or b would belong to V ), since every interval contains a rational number, |A| ≤ ℵ0 and U = V ∪ A is an
Fσ -set in K.

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CHAPTER 1. TOPOLOGICAL SPACES Examples in Topology

Let X = R equipped with one of the following topologies: (1) the discrete topology; (2) the
natural topology; (3) the topology in 1.1.8 with x0 = 0; (4) the Sorgenfrey topology; (5) the cofinite
topology; (6) the topology in 1.2.8 with x0 = 0; (7) the anti-discrete topology.
For a > 0 the mapping fa : X → X defined by x 7→ ax is a homeomorphism. For a < 0 the
mapping fa is also a homeomorphism except for the topology (4), where fa is not continuous.

Example 1.4.20(classification of discrete spaces and cofinite pointed spaces)

Let X and Y be any two sets of the same cardinality equipped with discrete topology. Obviously,
every bijection from X to Y is a homeomorphism. On the other hand, if the discrete spaces X
and Y have distinct cardinality, then they cannot be homeomorphic. Thus the discrete space X
depends only on the cardinality |X| up to a homeomorphism. The discrete space of cardinality κ
will be denoted by D(κ).
The same holds for infinite sets X and Y with topology defined as in 1.1.8; here however
homeomorphism must map x0 to y0 , the distinguished accumulation point. The space obtained
from a set of cardinality κ ≥ ℵ0 will be denoted by A(κ).
Clearly all discrete spaces D(κ) are T6 . The spaces A(κ) is normal but not perfectly normal
when κ > ℵ0 1 .

1.5 Axioms of separation

The cofinite topology is a T1 -space which is not T2 .
The anti-discrete space is regular but not T1 , hence not T3 .
Example 1.5.6(T2 -space which is not T3 )
Let X = R and Z ⊆ X the set of reciprocals of all nonzero integers. For every x ∈ X let
Ui (x) = (x − 1/i, x + 1/i) and
{
{Ui (x)}∞i=1 , x 6= 0,
B(x) =
{Ui (x) \ Z}∞ i=1 , x = 0.

The collection {B(x)}x∈X is a neighbourhood system; hence X is a Hausdorff space. The set Z is
closed in X and 0 ∈/ Z; and yet for any open sets U1 , U2 such that 0 ∈ U1 and Z ⊆ U2 we have
U1 ∩ U2 6= ∅, so that X is not regular.

Example 1.5.9(T3 -space which is not T3 12 )

Let M0 be the closed upper half-plane, let z0 = (0, −1) and M = M0 ∪ {z0 }. Denote by L the
line y = 0 and by Li the segment [i − 1, i] × {0} in L. For each point z = (x, 0) ∈ L denote by
A1 (z) = {(x, y) ∈ M0 | 0 ≤ y ≤ 2} and by A2 (z) = {(x + y, y) ∈ M0 | 0 ≤ y ≤ 2}, and let B(z)
be the family of all sets of the form (A1 (z) ∪ A2 (z)) \ B, where B is a finite set such that z ∈/ B.
Furthermore, for each point z ∈ M0 \ L let B(z) = {{z}} and, finally, let B(z0 ) = {Ui (z0 )}∞ i=1 ,
where Ui (z0 ) = {z0 } ∪ {(x, y) ∈ M0 | x ≥ i}. One can easily verify that the collection {B(z)}z∈M
is a neighbourhood system; hence the space M is a Hausdorff space.
We shall show that M is regular. First of all, let us observe that for each z ∈ M0 the family B(z)
consists of clopen subsets of M . Thus, to establish the regularity of M , it suffices to show that for
every closed set F ⊆ M such that z0 ∈ / F there exist open sets U1 , U2 such that z0 ∈ U1 , F ⊆ U2
and U1 ∩ U2 = ∅; one readily checks that the sets U1 = Ui0 +2 (z0 ) and U2 = M \ (Ui0 +2 (z0 ) ∪
Li0 +1 ∪ Li0 +2 ), where F ∩ Ui0 (z0 ) = ∅, have the required properties.
Now, let us consider a continuous function f : M → I such that f (L1 ) = {0}. To prove that the
space M is not completely regular it suffices to show that f (z0 ) = 0. It follows directly from the
continuity of f and the fact that the set Ki = {z ∈ Li | f (z) = 0} is infinite, which we are going

1 Every F -set in A(κ) that does not contain x is countable, which implies the open set A(κ) \ {x } is not F
σ 0 0 σ
when κ > ℵ0 . On the other hand, every countable normal space is perfectly countable.

4
Examples in Topology CHAPTER 1. TOPOLOGICAL SPACES

to establish by induction. Obviously, the set K1 = L1 is infinite. Assume now that |Kn | ≥ ℵ0 and
consider a countably infinite set Kn′ ⊆ Kn . Arguing as in Example 1.4.6, one readily sees that for
every z ∈ Kn′ there exists∪a countable set A0 (z) ⊆ A2 (z) such that f (A2 (z) \ A0 (z)) = {0}. The
projection A of the union {A0 (z) | z ∈ Kn′ } onto L is countable. Now, for every t ∈ Ln+1 \ A the
set A1 (t) meets each of the sets A2 (z) \ A0 (z) with z ∈ Kn′ , so that by the continuity of f we have
f (t) = 0; it follows that Ln+1 \ A ⊆ Kn+1 which implies that |Kn+1 | ≥ ℵ0 . Thus Ki is infinite and
the proof is concluded.

Example 1.5.10(T3 12 -space which is not T4 )

We have to show that the Niemytzki plane is not normal, which is completely regular as shown
in Example 1.4.5. We have already observed that the derived set of L1 ⊆ L is empty. It follows
that Ad = ∅ for every A ⊆ L1 and that every such A is closed in L. Let us take the set C consisting
of all points in L2 having both coordinates rational; clearly C is a dense subset of L.
Assume that L is normal. Thus for every A ⊆ L1 there exists disjoint open sets UA , VA ⊆ L
such that A ⊆ UA , L1 \ A ⊆ VA . To every A ⊆ L1 assign the set CA = C ∩ UA . We shall show
that CA 6= CB for A 6= B, which will yield a contradiction, because L1 contains 2c distinct subsets,
while C contains only 2ℵ0 = c distinct subsets. Take then A, B ⊆ L1 such that A 6= B; by the
symmetry of assumptions we can assume A \ B 6= ∅. Since A \ B ⊆ UA ∩ VB , we have UA ∩ VB 6= ∅,
and this implies, due to the density of C, that ∅ 6= C ∩ UA ∩ VB ⊆ CA \ UB ⊆ CA \ CB ; hence
CA 6= CB .
R, I, Sorgenfrey line K are T6 because of second countability.
Every countable regular space is normal. However, there exists countable regular spaces that
is not first countable (1.6.19, 1.6.20, 2.3.37).
There exists first countable T5 spaces in which all singletons are Gδ -sets, that are not T6 .
T1 , T4 /normal, T5 /completely normal, and T6 /perfectly normal are the only axioms of separa-
tion invariant under closed mappings.
Remark (T2 , T3 , T3 21 not invariant under closed mappings)
To obtain a closed mapping of a T3 21 -space onto a not T2 space, take any non-normal Tychonoff
space X, a pair of disjoint closed subsets A, B ⊆ X cannot be separated by disjoint open sets, and
to identify A and B to points a, b. (cf. 2.4.12)

Example 1.5.21(T0 not invariant under clopen mappings)

Let X = Z equipped with the topology consisting of the sets {x ∈ X | x ≥ n} for n ∈ Z;
obviously X is a T0 -space. Let Y = {0, 1} with the anti-discrete topology and let f (x) = 0 if x is
even and f (x) = 1 if x is odd. One readily sees that f is open-and-closed.

Example 1.5.22(T0 not invariant under open mappings)

Let’s map X = R onto the two-point anti-discrete space Y = {0, 1} by assigning 0 to all
rationals and 1 to all irrationals. One readily checks that the mapping f is open.

1.6 Convergence in topological spaces: Nets and filters. Se-

quential and Fréchet spaces

Example 1.6.18(Fréchet space which is not first-countable)

The space Y defined in Example 1.4.17 is a Fréchet space that is not first-countable. Indeed,
if y ∈ A for an A ⊆ Y , and y 6= y0 or else y = y0 and y0 ∈ A, then there exists a sequence of
points of A converging to y. Suppose then that y0 ∈ A \ A. Observe that there exists a natural
number k such that A contains a sequence {yi } converging to k in R; the contrary means that
(every
∪ natural) number i has a neighbourhood Ui ⊆ R disjoint from A, and this would imply that
( Ui ) \ N ∪ {y0 } is a neighbourhood of y0 in Y which is disjoint from A, a contradiction to

5
CHAPTER 1. TOPOLOGICAL SPACES Examples in Topology

the assumption that y0 ∈ A. It follows that the sequence {yi }, which converges to k ∈ N in R,
converges to y0 in Y .

Example 1.6.19(Sequential
∪∞ space which is not Fréchet)
Let X = {0} ∪ i=1 Xi , where Xi = {1/i} ∪ {1/i + 1/(i2 + n)}n∈N ; one can easily verify that
Xi ∩ Xj = ∅ whenever i 6= j 1 . All points of the form 1/i + 1/j will be isolated points, i.e.,
B(x) = {{x}} for every x of that form. For an x of the form 1/i we take as B(x) the family of
all sets {1/i} ∪ {1/i + 1/(k + n)}n∈N for k = i2 , i2 + 1, · · · . Finally, as members of B(0) we take
all sets obtained from X by removing a finite number of Xi ’s and a finite number of points of the
form 1/i + 1/j in all the remaining Xi ’s. One can readily show that the collection {B(x)} ∪ x∈X is a
neighbourhood system, hence X is a Hausdorff space. Since all members of the base x∈X B(x)
are clopen, the space X is regular. It follows that X is perfectly normal.
One easily observes that the point 0 belongs to the closure of X \ {0, 1, 1/2, · · · }, but there is no
sequence in that set which converges to 0, so that X is not a Fréchet space. Thus X is a countable
space that is not first-countable.
We shall now show that X is a sequential space, i.e., that every set A ⊆ X which together with
any convergent sequence contains its limit, is closed in X. Let us take an x ∈ A. If x 6= 0, then
B(x) is a countable base at x, and A contains a sequence converging to x. Now, let us consider
the case when x = 0 and assume 0 ∈ A \ A. There exists a subsequence {xi } of the sequence
1, 1/2, 1/3, · · · such that every neighbourhood of each xi meets A, because the contrary would
provide a neighbourhood of 0 disjoint from A. It follows that A contains all terms of the sequence
{xi } and as that sequence converges to 0, we have 0 ∈ A, contrary to the assumption.

Example 1.6.20(countable T6 -space which is not sequential)

By a modification of the space X in the above example we can define a countable perfectly
normal space that is not a sequential space. In fact, it suffices to consider Y = X \{1, 1/2, 1/3, · · · }
and take as open sets all the intersections Y ∩ U , where U is open in X. One readily observes
that convergent sequences in Y are eventually constant, thus the set Y \ {0} together with any
convergent sequence contains its limit. Since Y \ {0} is not closed, Y is not a sequencial space.

1 Suppose i > j > 0, then 1/i + 1/(i2 + m) < 1/(i − 1) ≤ 1/j < 1/b + 1/(b2 + n).

6
Chapter 2

Operations on topological spaces

2.1 Subspaces

Example 2.1.5(embed discrete spaces)

The discrete space of cardinality c is embeddable in the Niemytzki plane, homeomorphic to
the closed subspace L1 . The discrete space of cardinality ℵ0 is embeddable as a closed subspace
N ⊆ R; in the sequel, we shall often assume D(ℵ0 ) = N.

Remark (T5 -space which is not T6 )

The space A(κ) is not perfectly normal for κ > ℵ0 , and yet is hereditarily normal because all
its subspaces are of the form A(ν) or D(ν) with ν ≤ κ.

2.2 Sums
2.3 Cartesian products

Example 2.3.10(projection not closed)

The projection p : R2 → R onto the x-axis is not closed. Indeed, the set F = {(x, y) ∈ R2 |
xy = 1} is closed in R2 but p(F ) = R \ {0} is not closed in R.

Example 2.3.12(T4 , T5 , T6 not multiplacative)

The Sorgenfrey line K is perfectly normal. It turns out that the Cartesian product K ×K is nor
normal. Indeed, K ×K contains a closed subset homeomorphic to D(c) - the set {(x, y) | x+y = 0}
- and a countable dense subset. Thus K × K is not normal.
There exists T6 -spaces with T4 but not T5 squares.
There are T5 -spaces X, Y such that X × Y is T4 but not T5 (2.3.36).
Example 2.3.28(closed mapping not multiplacative)
Let f1 = idR and f2 : R → {0}. Both f1 , f2 are closed, however, the Cartesian product f1 ×
f2 : R2 → R × {0} is the projection onto the x-axis, which is not closed. Indeed, {(x, y) | xy = 1}
is closed in R2 but its image R \ {0} is not closed in R.

Example 2.3.31(closed diagonal mapping)

Let fi donote the projection of the plane R2 onto the axises. The diagonal f1 4f2 is the identity
mapping, so it is closed, but neither f1 nor f2 is closed. Hence closedness of the diagonal f1 4f2
does not imply f1 and f2 are closed.

7
CHAPTER 2. OPERATIONS ON TOPOLOGICAL SPACES Examples in Topology

The diagonal mapping of infinitely many closed mapping may not closed. Let X = N and
Yi = D = {0, 1}; the mappings fi : X → Yi , where
fi (j) = 1 for j ≤ i, fi (j) = 0 for j > i,
are closed, and yet the diagonal f = 4i∈N fi : N → Dℵ0 is not closed. Indeed, the set f (N) contains
all points of the form (0, · · · , 0, 1, 1, · · · ) but does not contain the point (0, 0, · · · ), so that f (N) is
not closed in Dℵ0 .

Example 2.3.33(open diagonal mapping)

Let f1 = f2 = idR . The image of R under the diagonal f = f1 4f2 is not open in R2 , so that
the diagonal of two open mappings is not necessarily open. In the above example, the restriction
f ↾ R : R → f (R) is a homeomorphism. One can easily find two open mappings of the interval I
into itself such that the restriction of diagonal is not open.

Example 2.3.36(T4 -space which is not T5 )

We shall show that normality is not a hereditary property. Let X = A(ℵ0 ), Y = A(c), and x0
and y0 be the accumulation points of X and Y respectively.
The Cartesian product X × Y is a normal space. This follows from the fact that fpr every pair
of disjoint closed subsets of X × Y there exists an clopen set V × W containing (x0 , y0 ) and disjoint
from at least one of the closed sets, and from normality of the subspace X × Y \ (V × W ).
We shall show that the subspace Z = X × Y \ {(x0 , y0 )} is not normal. Since the sets A =
(X \ {x0 }) × {y0 } and B = {x0 } × (Y \ {y0 }) are disjoint and closed in Z, it suffices to show that
for each pair of open sets U, V ⊆ Z such that A ⊆ U and B ⊆ V we have U ∩ V 6= ∅. To begin
with, let us note that for every x ∈ X \ {x0 } the point (x, y0 ) ∈ U , so
∪ that there exists a finite
set F (x) ⊆ Y \ {y0 } such that {x} × (Y \ F (x)) ⊆ U . The set C = {F (x) | x ∈ X \ {x0 }} is
countable, and thus there exists a point y ∈ Y \ (C ∪ {y0 }); clearly (X \ {x0 }) × {y} ⊆ U . Now,
the point (x0 , y) ∈ B belongs both to the closure of the set (X \ {x0 }) × {y} and to V , so that
U ∩ V 6= ∅.

Example 2.3.37(countable space with nowhere countable character)

In Examples of Section 1.6 we decsribed two countable spaces that are not first-countable; both
of them have character ≤ ℵ0 at all but one point. Now we are goint to define a countable space
with character > ℵ0 at all points.
∏
The Cantor cube Dc = s∈S Ds , where Ds = D and |S| = c, contains a dense countable
subspace X; we shall prove that χ(x, X) > ℵ0 for every x ∈ X.1 It suffices to show that for every
sequence {Ui } of neighbourhoods of x in X there exists a neighbourhood U ⊆ X of x such that
Ui \ U 6= ∅.
For every i ∈ N there exists a finite set Si∏⊆ S and a family {Wsi }s∈S of non-empty subsets of
D such that Wsi = D for s ∪∈ S \ Si and X ∩ s∈S Wsi ⊆ Ui .
Let us take an s0 ∈∏S \ i∈N Si and consider the neighbourhood U = X ∩ p−1 s0 ps0 (x) of x. The
−1
set (D \ ps0 ps0 (x)) ∩
c
∏ s∈S W i
s is non-empty and open in D c
so that - by the density of X in Dc
- we have (X \ U ) ∩ s∈S Wsi 6= ∅. Thus Ui \ U 6= ∅.

2.4 Quotient spaces and quotient mappings

If f : X ↠ Y is a continuous surjection, then f = f¯q where f¯: X/E(f ) ,→ Y is a continuous
injection. Consider the continuous injection f : D(c) → I. Then X/E(f ) is discrete, so that f¯ is
not a homeomorphism.
Example 2.4.11(infinite covering of S 1 )

1 Note that χ(x, D κ ) = κ. Meanwhile, dense subspace of a regular space has the same character at all points.

Thus χ(x, X) = c actually.

8
Examples in Topology CHAPTER 2. OPERATIONS ON TOPOLOGICAL SPACES

Let f : R → S 1 be defined by f (x) = (cos 2πx, sin 2πx); obviously xE(f )y iff x − y ∈ Z. Clearly
f is an open mapping and hence a quotient mapping. It follows that R/E(f ) is homeomorphic to
S 1 . One easily verifies that f is not closed.
The restriction g = f |I is closed but not open; in particular, g is a quotient mapping and
I/E(g) is homeomorphic to S 1 . The Cartesian product g × g : I 2 → T 2 also is a quotient mapping.

Example 2.4.12(identification closed subsets to points)

Suppose we are given a space X and a sequence A1 , · · · , Ak of disjoint closed subsets. Denote by
E the equivalence relation on X corresponding to the decomposition of X into the sets A1 , · · · , Ak
and remaining singletons {x}. For every closed set A ⊆ X the union of all equivalence classes that
meet A is equal to the union of A and those Ai ’s with Ai ∩ A 6= ∅, hence q : X → X/E is closed.
One can readily verify that X \ (A1 ∪ · · · ∪ Ak ) and X/E \ {q(A1 ), · · · , q(Ak )} are homeomorphic.
The space obtained by identifying to a point a single closed subset A ⊆ X is denoted by X/A.

Example 2.4.16(restriction of quotient that is not quotient)

Let g : I → S 1 be the quotient mapping; the restriction g ↾ A : A|tog(A) = S 1 to the open
subset A = (0, 1] is injective but is not a homeomorphism, so that g ↾ A is not a quotient mapping.
Moreover, the combination h = idS 1 ∪ (g ↾ A) : S 1 ⊕ A → S 1 is a quotient mapping, but the
restriction h ↾ A = g ↾ A to the clopen subset A of S 1 ⊕ A is not a quotient mapping.

Example 2.4.17((restriction of quotient that is not quotient))

Let X = (0, 1/2] ∪ {1, 1 + 1/2, 1 + 1/3, · · · } with the subspace topology of R and let E the
equivalence relation on X defined by xEy whenever |x − y| = 1 or x = y.
One easily observe that the set A = {1} ∪ [(0, 1/2] \ {1/2, 1/3, · · · }] ⊆ X satisfies q −1 q(A) = A
and the restriction q ↾ A is injective. Since 1 ∈ A is isolated and q(1) is not isolated in q(A), the
restriction q ↾ A is not a homeomorphism, so that q ↾ A is not a quotient mapping.
If one restricts oneself to a suitable countable subspace of X, one obtains the space in 1.6.19.

Example 2.4.20(product of quotient that is not quotient)

Let X1 = Y1 = R \ {1/2, 1/3, · · · } with the subsapce topology and let f1 = idX1 : X1 → Y1 . Let
X2 = R, Y2 = R/Z+ and let f2 : X2 → Y2 be the natural mapping, which is closed. We shall show
that the Cartesian product f = f1 × f2 : X1 × X2 → Y1 × Y2 is not a quotient mapping.
The set F = {(1/i + π/j, i + 1/j) | i, j = 2, 3, · · · } is closed in X1 × X2 with F = f −1 f (F ).
Since (0, [1]) ∈ f (F ) \ f (F ), the set f (F ) is not closed in Y1 × Y2 . It follows that f is not a quotient
mapping.

2.5 Limits of inverse systems

2.6 Function spaces I: The topology of uniform convergence
in C(X) and the topology of pointwise convergence

Example 2.6.7(C(X, Y ) may not normal)

Taking Y = K the Sorgenfrey line and X = D discrete, infer from 2.3.12 that C(X, Y ) need
not be normal even for perfectly nommal Y .