MEMORY

❖​ Introduction: Memory is the most significant function of brain. We cannot imagine

a life without memory. Fluency of our speech depends upon our memory only. We
would neither have our history nor our identity without memory. It is the base of all
the knowledges. Basically, All the higher mental process depends on memory.
▪​ Since many years psychologists have been studying memory in different ways.
Gradually the concept of memory has been changed. In short it is a mental
process.
▪​ The word “Memory” has two different meanings
1. It is a process of storing new information acquired
for recall in future
2. It is a process of recalling specific past experience
stored in the brain.
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✔​DEFINITION: According to C.T. Morgan “Memory is the process of encoding,
storage and retrieval of information.”
Memory is direct use of what is learned in the past.

✔​The term “Memory” is derived from the Latin word “Memoria” which means “long
Remembrance” or “Historical account”.

❖​ STAGES / PROCESS OF MEMORY:

✔​Basically, there are three stages or process of memory
1.​ Process of encoding
2.​ Process of storage
3.​ Process of retrieval

1.​ Process of Encoding:

Encoding is the first stage of memory. Encoding is the process of receiving sensory input
and transforming it into neural codes. This neural code can be stored. This is a process
where information is registered, classified and organized meaningfully. It is the condition
previous to storage.
In encoding information is received and some meaning is derived.
✔​For example, the dialogue of an actor in a film, musical tunes or lines of a song or
reading from a book and such other information get organized and classified in the
context of mental set of an individual.
2.​ Process of storage:
✔​It is the process of holding information in memory.
✔​Storage is considered to be a memory Bank of brain.
✔​It is the process of retaining all encoded information into memory. Storage is a
process by which information is stored in our brain. It is called as Retention.
✔​Encoding the precondition to storage.
✔​The effectiveness of process of storage depends upon the nature & intensity of
encoding process. (or on efforts we make for encoding).
3. Process of retrieval:
✔​Retrieval is the last stage in the process of memory.

✔​It is the process of actually remembering something when you want to.
✔​Retrieval means recovering (recalling) encoded information from the storage.
It is the process of gaining again encoded and already stored information when
it is needed.
✔​More the efforts for encoding the information, better the process of retrieval.
The quality and success of retrieval of information depend upon the intensity
of encoding and storage of information.
✔​Many psychologists say that if we successfully complete three stages of
memory i.e. encoding, storage & retrieval then only we will able to remember
the material properly.
✔​Let us take an example to understand above-mentioned three processes of
memory. Suppose you met with an accident while returning from Surat by
dashing your car against a tree. The various components of this event of
accident were encoded into your memory. After sometime, when police
enquire, you retrieve stored information about the accident and narrate details
 on that basis. Thus, information is encoded first, then information is stored or
retained and then information is retrieved.

❖​ Types of Memory
✔​Psychologists have broadly classified memory into three types:
(1) Sensory Memory (SM)
a)​ Auditory memory
b)​ Visual Memory
(2) Short term Memory (STM)/ Working Memory
(3) Long term memory (LTM)

A.​Explicit/ Declarative memory

1)​ Episodic Memory
2)​ Semantic Memory
B.​Implicit/ Non Declarative Memory/ Procedural Memory
(1) Sensory Memory (Sensory Register):
✔​Information is first received through our sense organs like eyes, ears etc. Such
information is held for very short period of time in the sensory memory. The basic
function of this memory is to retain impression of sensory stimuli for some
moments only. It is also known as “Sensory Register”. Sensory memory is a very
primitive type of memory storage.
✔​Various researches have shown that auditory(echoic) sensory memory will last for
about 1 to 2 seconds whereas visual (iconic) sensory memory will last for about
0.30 seconds.
✔​Sensory memory is of 2 types:
1.​ Visual memory – It is regarding the object or a person which we have seen. e.g
number of vehicle etc.
2.​ Auditory memory – A person can retain heard voices in his mind for less than a
second.

Example: If you have experienced visual after – images (the trail of light that stays after
the bulb is switched off) or when you hear reverberations of a sound when the sound has
ceased, it’s from visual or auditory sensory register.

(2) Short term Memory (STM) (Working Memory):

✔​Information that is attended and recognized is passed from sensory memory to
short-term memory where it is held for 20-30 seconds.
 ✔​Short term memory includes immediate memory of stimuli perceived right now.
This memory stores extremely limited information.
✔​If the information which is passed on to short-term memory is repeated attentively
(more rehersal) then the information passes from short-term memory to long-term
memory.
✔​Short memory is often referred as “working memory” or “temporary memory”.

✔​For example, suppose your teacher ask you to listen to a series of digits (2579104)
and tells you to recall immediately, you can immediately recall these digits correctly
after listening to them but after few seconds this memory fade away. This is called
as short term memory.
✔​According to Psychologists average 7 digit at a time can be remembered.
Therefore, telephone number and digit of vehicle number plate do not exceed
beyond 7 digits.
✔​On the whole the immediate memory span is 7 ± 2. It means that a normal
person can recall maximum 5 to 9 items correctly after one presentation only.
The limited capacity of short-term memory can be increased. If the digits or items are
organized into meaningful units, one can remember more digits or items.
Example: Suppose your teacher ask you to listen the following series of digits and to recall
correctly after one presentation like1, 9, 4, 7, 1, 9, 5, 0, 1, 7, 2, 7 you fail to recall all items
if you read out rapidly but they can be remembered very easily if you organize the
same digits in three meaningful units of 4 digits (1947, 1950, 1727). This is known as
chunking. (A chunk means pieces of information that hang together in a meaningful way.)
In short process of chunking & rehearsal or repetition can help in transferring
information from short term memory to long term memory.
If we organize material in small small groups, if we often repeat the things and if
maintenance of rehearsals and elaborative rehearsals then we can enhance recall.

(3) Long Term Memory (LTM):

✔​It is permanent storehouse of all information that may be as recent as what you
ate for breakfast yesterday to as distant as how you celebrated your sixth birthday.
Long term memory is long standing memory
✔​From Short Term Memory information enters into Long Term Memory. If one
thing is repeated again and again it's impression will be very strong and will retain
for longer period of time.
 ✔​Storage capacity: In long term memory there is no fixed limitation of storage
capacity, it has vast capacity. Storage in long-term memory lasts for days, months,
years or even for lifetime.
✔​During the life span whatever knowledge, we have received, expertise we have
developed, designations we have got, and honour we have received are stored in
long term memory.
●​ The incidents which happened in life, experiences, information, facts, sweet or sour
incidences are stored in long-term memory.
●​ Types of Long Term Memory:
A.​ Explicit/ Declarative memory
1) Episodic Memory
2) Semantic Memory
B.​ Implicit/ Non Declarative Memory/ Procedural Memory
1.​ Episodic Memory:
Episodic memory represents autobiographical facts about personal experiences. "When
did you start going to school? Which games were you playing in the school? Who were
your friends? Who were your teachers? When did you pass 10th standard examination?"
All these questions are pertaining to your personal experiences. pleasant as well as highly
painful experiences are remembered for longer period of time.
(2) Semantic Memory:
Semantic memory contains general, non-personal knowledge about the meaning of facts
and concepts without reference to specific experiences. For example, remembering the
principles of Grammer, mathematical formulas, different kinds of vitamins etc.
B. Implicit/ Non Declarative Memory/ Procedural Memory/ Procedural Memory:
The memory of how to perform a skilled task is called procedural memory. This kind of
memory is very complex. For example, riding a bicycle, playing table tennis, swimming
etc. These skills are never forgotten throughout the life.

VARIOUS SHORT NOTES:

MEMORY MODELS
Before understanding a memory model, first we should understand what model is.
Usually scientists build models to meet two major goals of science like accurate
description of subject matter, explanation with clarification etc. generally, a model is
proposed after a large quantity of data is gathered on a given topic or subject.
Psychologist have developed various models for memory and forgetting, of which two
most widely accepted models are given below:
A.​ Stage model by Atkinson & Shiffrin
B.​ Process model by Craick & Lokhart
 A.​ Stage model of Atkinson & Shiffrin (A Three- system Model of Memory):
In this model, the memory encompasses three planes.
1.​ First plane is Sensory Memory
2.​ Second plane is Short Term Memory
3.​ Third plane is Long Term Memory

In the Atkinson – Shiffrin theory memory starts with the sensory input from the
environment. This input is held for a very brief time – several seconds only- in a sensory
register associated with the sensory channels(vision, hearing, touch etc.) information
which is attended to and recognized in the sensory register may be passed on to Sjort
Term Memory(STM)(, where it is held for perhaps 20-30-seconds. Some of the
information reaching short term memory is processed by being rehersal, by more
attention, repeatition etc will passed into Long Term Memory(LTM). Information not so
processed is lost. When items of information are placed in Long Term Memory, they are
organized into catagories, where they may reside for days , months, years or for life time.

( Note: in this short note You can write down process of memory and sensory memory,
short term memory & Long term memory with diagram of stage model in detail )
B.​ Process Model by Craik and Lokhart: In this model, human beings are compared
to computers. In computers feeding of data is called input. The input is further
processed, which is the main function of a computer. Now this information is
stored in computer memory. This storage of information can be further displayed
as output. Similarly, this input of computer can be compared to receiving various
 information via sensory channels in a human being. Then, the received information
is processed (which is the main function of our mental and cognitive activity) and
stored. Later this stored information is produced as an output that becomes our
behavior i.e., what we say or do. Memory is the process that is responsible for the
transformation of this input into output.

●​ DISCUSS DIFFERENT WAYS OF ENHANCING RECALL-MEMORY / IMPROVING

MEMORY
Following memory techniques and strategies can help you to improve your memory.
1.​ Chunking & rehearsal or repetition can help in transferring information from
short term memory to long term memory. (A chunk means pieces of information
that hang together in a meaningful way.)
E.g., suppose you want to remember your credit card number-3245194708970009. The
number has now to be broken down in chunks of 4 digits and each chunk has to be
associated with some memory. '3245'-could be a house no., 1947'-Independence year,
'0897'-car no. and the last '0009'- is easy to remember. One needs to use their creativity
to chunk the number in such a way that it is easy to remember.
2.​ Organizing and ordering material can significantly improve memory.
3.​ The Funnel approach (general to specific): This means learning general concepts
before moving on to specific details. When you understand the general concepts
first, the details make more sense. Many text book chapters are organized in a
"general to specific" format.
4. Vivid associations: When learning something new and unfamiliar, try pairing it with
something you know very well. Such as images, jokes, music etc.
5. Active learning: All of the memory techniques (already discussed) require active
learning. Even if you attend every lecture and read every assignment, there is no
guarantee that you will learn and remember the information. Thus, you always attend to
and think about what you are learning actively.
6. Visual memory: Some people remember information best when it is encoded visually,
include charts, cartoons, diagrams, tables, outlines, pictures or any other visual material.
7. Talk it out: Repeat the ideas in your own words (indicates true understanding of
information). Repeating information aloud can help you encode the information (auditory
encoding) and identify how well you learned it.
8. Visualize yourself teaching the material: An effective way to enhance recall and
understanding of dense material is to teach it to an imaginary audience.
9. Grouping: It means organizing material by grouping similar concepts of or related ideas
together. Arranging the material into related groups eg. grouping all sports into one of
following categories-winter sports, track and field sports using a ball and so on.
10. Mnemonics
e.g. VIBGYOR (Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange & Red)
11.​ The method of loci: The word loci mean places. The memory pegs in this
system are images of a scene. In this technique we create an imaginary route
 about anything that can be clearly visualized and which contains a number of
discrete items in specific locations as memory pegs. E.g., if you want to
remember a list of vegetables to be bought on your way back home. The list
includes beans, brinjals, potatoes, carrots, capsicum and cucumber. Now start
imagining that as you enter the kitchen beans are on the floor, brinjals are on
the right-hand side shelf, potatoes are on the left-hand side shelf, carrots are
near the mixer and capsicum and cucumber are on the refrigerator. Now
rehearse this scene well and recollect it when you reach the market.
12. Minimizing Interference: Maximum interference is caused when very similar
materials are learned in a sequence. Avoid this. Arrange your study in such a way that you
do not learn similar subjects one after the other.
13. Practice and rehearsal: Relearning the same material for a number of times will lead
to better retention and recall.
FACTORS AFFECTING MEMORY:
The factors affecting memory are as follows:
A. Degree of Attention:
Attention is an essential component for all types of memories described above. All
information that is attended to gets noticed by our senses and is further processed
through the STM and then the LTM. So Attention is important factor for attention.
B. Interest and Motivation:
We often experience this phenomenon in that if we are interested in music, we will
remember the tune and lyrics of the songs for a long time.
C. Emotional state and emotional value: Research has shown that emotional states have
an effect on the memory. You are more likely to remember information when in a positive
mood, whereas information presented in a negative mood (sad, angry), is less likely to be
remembered.
D. Aging and Memory:
It is seen that semantic memory improves or remains the same with aging. So the ability
to remember general concepts and facts which are not related to specific experiences is
not affected. The long-term memory and the episodic memory tend to decline with age.
We often find old people walking into the room and forgetting what they have come for,
or going to the grocer and forgetting the items to be bought.
E. Socialization and Memory:
Studies have shown that socialization (mixing with family and friends) has a positive effect
on memory. Individuals with a strong social network were found to retain more memories
than peers who are isolated.
F. Illness and Memory:
There are certain illnesses which affect memory. Dementia as seen in Alzheimer's and
other forms of neurodegenerative dementia, defects in cognitive functioning, thyroid
disorders, alcoholism, mental health issues, cancer treatments and stroke are some
illnesses which can lead to mild to severe memory loss.
G. Meaningfulness:
More meaningful and well organized learning material, better the process of encoding,
storage and retrival. In short meaningful material can be able to remember in a better
way.
H. Amount of learning material
More the amount of learning material less effective is the memory. If the amount of
learning material is less than the process of encoding, storage and retrieval will be easier.
In short it has direct effect on the influence of memory
●​ OLD AGE & MEMORY
Effects of ageing on Semantic memory: It is related to experience. As people grow older,
semantic memory typically remains stable or even improves. To keep your semantic
memory, there are some simple things you can do. Like reading, crosswords and puzzles.
Senile dementia (Senile-old age):
Senile dementia (the word senile refers to old age) is characterized by deficits in many
intellectual abilities like memory, attention, judgement, and abstract thought, for
example- that can occur in aged people. The old person with this disorder has trouble
learning and cannot recall well what happened last month, yesterday, or even a few hours
ago.
Senile dementia is usually the result of a reduction in blood flow to the brain.
Arteriosclerosis deprives brain cells of adequate supplies of oxygen and nutrients so that
some cells die and others malfunction. The brain is said to atrophy.
The amnesia in Alzheimer's disease is related to deficiencies in the brain neurotransmitter
chemical
acetylcholine.
Alzheimer's disease begins relatively early in life and, unlike senile dementia, where death
quickly ends the suffering, life continues with progressive mental deterioration. The
amnesia, for instance, often goes from a relatively mild anterograde memory problem to
a profound anterograde and retrograde deficit – both the recent and remote past are
largely gone.

●​ BASIC DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SHORT TERM AND LONG TERM MEMORY

1. Storage in Short term memory is about 30 seconds
Where as
Storage in long-term memory lasts for days, months, years or even for lifetime.
2. Storage capacity in short term memory is limited only up to 7 items. Where is
In long term memory there is no fixed limitation.

3. Visual images, various sounds are stored in short term memory. Where as
Meaningful sentences are always stored in long term memory.
4. Forgetting in short term memory is quick. Where as
Forgetting in long-term memory is slow & partial
5. Retrival in short term memory is without any error.
Where as,
Retrival in long term memory is not possible without error.
6. Short term memory is much adversely affected due to brain injury where as long term
memory is not so much affected with the head injury.
Location of Memory in brain:
Three brain structures are critical to the information of memories, the medial temporal
lobe, certain diencephalic nuclei and the basal forebrain.
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
●​ FORGETTING OR NATURE OF FORGETTING
​ Like the Memory forgetting is considered to be a natural process. We remember a
lot but at the same time before get a lot more. In our life it is necessary to
remember, it is equally necessary to forget also. Painful events are gradually
forgotten as the time passes away and this is only reason it has been told that
“Time is the best healer of illness”.
​ Definition: Failure of storage and retrival of information is known as “Forgetting”.

​ According to certain modern Psychologist, forgetting is an apparent loss of

information already encoded and stored in the memory. Complete forgetting of
anything is a rare possibility.
●​ Reasons / Causes of Forgetting
​ There are certain reasons / causes of forgetting:
1.​ Decay of memory traces
2.​ Interference
3.​ Failure of retrieval
4.​ Motivated forgetting
5.​ Organic causes
1. Decay of Memory traces:
​ Certain Neuro chemical as well as certain physiological changes occur at the time of
process of encoding of experiences of event in the brain. These are known as
“Memory traces”.
​ As the time passes certain to increase gradually diminished. Many Psychologists
believe that decay of memory traces are responsible for the process of forgetting.
2. Interference
​ According to the theory of interference about forgetting experiences before or after
learning cause interference in our memory
​ Basically interference are of two types:
1. Retro - active interference
2. Pro - active interference
 ​ This can be better understood by an example:

​ Example: Suppose you have find out an impact important or required telephone
number from the telephone directory and as soon as you are about to dial, a
member of your family immediately ask a question regarding anything like time,
mobile no, weather etc. In this situation it will be difficult for us to remember the
number because of interference of our family member. This type of interference is
known as retroactive interference. It is a disturbance caused by later learning to the
earlier learning.
3. Failure of retrival
​ This situation usually happens while we're trying to remember certain arrythmetic
or difficult words. In this situation, if someone gives more clue or hint then we can
able to recall that sentence very easily.
​ This can be explained with the help of example: suppose you heard a film song for
the first time a week ago. You try to recall initial lines of that particular song but
you find it difficult to recall it. At this time if your friend comes to you and suggest
one word, suddenly you can able to recall that particular lines of the song. This
condition occurs because of failure of retrieval. In this condition you cannot say
that information is not present in memory.
4) Motivated forgetting:
●​ We forget some information situated in long-term memory because we do not
want to remember it. So many time absence of motivation to remember is
responsible for forgetting.
5) Organic Causes of Forgetting:
●​ Generally forgetting this rarely caused by the organic reasons but certain type
of accidents or injury to brain may lead to such type of forgetting. For this type of
people, it is difficult to retrieve the older things and this process is known as
forgetting due to organic causes.
●​ Generally forgetting is rarely caused by some organic lesion. Though physical illness
of certain type or even accident causes serious injuries to the brain. Out of this in
certain cases these injuries will affect in our memory this effect is known as
“Organic amnesia”. On retrieving serious injury on head sometimes person forgets
the events that happened before the accident. Due to certain disease condition
when degeneration process occurs in the neurons, it will affect the function of the
memory. This is known as “Pathogenic amnesia”
●​ Different ways of assessing different types of Memory
OR
Measurement of the process of retrieval
●​ Methods of Measurement of Memory
1.​ Method of recall
In this method the subject is asked to repeat orally or in writing about the information
already given to him.
2. Method of recognition: In this method the material is shown to the subject. After
some time, some new material is mixed up with the previous material and later on
subject is asked to recognize the original previous material.
3. Re-learning method
This is a time-consuming method. This method suggests that how quickly an individual
can learn the material. According to this method give a list of irrelevant things are given to
individual person, note down the time which is required to remember these irrelevant
things.
After the time interval, again give the same list for the same purpose and gradually by
repeating this thing, (times should be noted perfectly) gradually the time required for the
remembering such irrelevant things will be decreased.

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