This study will adopt a mixed-methods approach, combining laboratory experiments

with a systematic literature review. The experimental work will investigate the effects
of lime and geogrid reinforcement on the behavior of expansive soils subjected to
cyclic wetting–drying conditions, simulating climate change impacts.
A soil mixture comprising 70% Berea red soil (to be collected near Howard College
Gate 1) and 30% bentonite will be prepared to replicate expansive soil conditions.
Both disturbed and prepared samples will be tested in untreated, lime-stabilized, and
geogrid-reinforced forms to compare performance.
Laboratory tests will include Grain Size Distribution, Atterberg Limits, Proctor
Compaction, Free Swell Index, California Bearing Ratio (CBR), and Oedometer tests.
Standard geotechnical equipment, such as the Casagrande apparatus, oedometer,
compaction molds, and CBR apparatus, will be used.
Data will be analyzed using Microsoft Excel to assess swelling and shrinkage
potential, strength (CBR), and compressibility (oedometer results). All laboratory
procedures will follow institutional ethical and safety standards, with proper use of
PPE and strict handling protocols for lime.

Experimental procedures

Oedometer test
OEDOMETER TEST PROCESURE (in the appendix)
2. Dial gage reading to 0.01 mm
3. Loading device.
4. Stop watch of a phone.
5. Sample trimming equipment as available or necessary.
Sample preparation
2000g of expansive soil oven dry/air dry
2000g of expansive soil(70% red barea soil + 30% bentonite) passing sieve 4.75 mm NO 4
7.4% moisture applied to the soil. Soil thoroughly mixed mix on protor tray.
3 layers of soil used during the proctor test. Oedometer ring place after the first. 25 blows
done per layer. Ring removed from mould and trimmed careful. Size of the 70mm diameter,
20 mm height. Porous stone and filter papers placed top and bottom.
Time used:
time intervals of approximately 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 15 and
30 min, and 1, 2, 4, 8 and 24 hr
Load applied: 5, 10, 20, 40, 80 kpa
Carefully trim a sample to fit the 'consolidation ring. Weight the sample and determine the
sample height Hi and the diameter of sample.
Free swell index test
Free Swell Index Test(IS: 2720 (Part40))
Procedure (I will put this in the appendix)
The Free Swell Index (DFS) test is a simple and widely used method for assessing the
swelling potential
of fine-grained soils, particularly clayey soils suspected of being expansive.
Test Procedure:
• A representative soil sample is first oven-dried and sieved through a 0.425 mm (No. 40)
sieve.
• Two 100 mL graduated cylinders are prepared:
o One filled with 100 mL of distilled water
o The other filled with 100 mL of kerosene (used as a non-polar, non-swelling medium)
• 10 grams of the sieved soil sample is placed into each cylinder.
• The contents are stirred thoroughly to ensure the soil particles are fully dispersed and to
remove
trapped air.
• Both cylinders are then left undisturbed for 24 hours, allowing the soil to fully settle and
expand.
Calculation:
After the settlement period, the final volume of soil in each cylinder is recorded. The
Differential Free

Swell (DFS) is calculated using the following formula:

where,
Vd= Volume of sample after sedimentation in distilled water (ml)
Vk= Volume of sample after sedimentation in kerosene (ml)

CBR
Determination of CBR
This test was conducted according to AASHTO T 193-99 (2003)
on samples compacted in a compression machine in 5 equal
layers with 55 blows and soaked for 6 days. BOTH SOAKED AND UNSOAKED TESTS
WERE DONE. SINCE THE SOIL IS STABILISED WITH LIME. THE SAMPLE WERE
CURE FOR 7 AND 28 DAYS. Curing were done by covering the samples with plastic bag to
prevent the change in moisture content. But for the sample which were not cure the test for
unmsoaked samples were done imidiate. Thereafter the samples were tsken to the cbr
machine were the test was conducted. After the test sample was break and the pice of the
sample was taken for moisture determination.
According to this standard, the
CBR value gives the relationship between force and
penetration when a cylindrical plunger of a standard crosssection
is made to penetrate the soil at a given rate. The
CBR then is defined as the ratio of the applied force to a
standard force at certain values of penetration, expressed as
a percentage. The CBR was taken as the average resistance
to penetration of 2.5mmand 5.00mm of a standard
cylindrical plunger of cross sectional area of 1935 mm2 for
the top and bottom of the specimen expressed as a
percentage of - kN and - respectively which are the
resistances of the plunger in crushed aggregate for the same
penetrations.

Atterberg limit
Liquid limit
LIQUID LIMIT TEST (ASTM D4318)
The liquid limit is determined by performing trials in which a portion of the specimen is
spread in a brass cup, divided in two by a grooving tool, and then allowed to flow together
from the shocks caused by repeatedly dropping the cup in a standard mechanical device.
The multipoint liquid limit requires three or more trials over a range of water contents and the
data from the trials plotted to make a relationship from which the liquid limit is determined.
The one-point liquid limit uses the data from two trials at one water content multiplied by a
correction factor to determine the liquid limit.
Apparatus:
1. Liquid limit device with Casagrande grooving tools.
2. Sieve No. 40 (425 μm).
3. Soil-mixture equipment: porcelain/mixing dish, spatula, plastic squeeze bottle.
4. Balance readability of 0.01 g.
5. Container for the determination of water content.
6. Oven maintaining a uniform temperature of 110 ∓ 5 °C.
Specimen preparation:
Obtain a representative portion from the total sample sufficient to provide 150 to 200 g of
material passing the 425-μm (No. 40) sieve. Mix it thoroughly with distilled water on the
glass plate or mixing dish using the spatula. Place the prepared mixture in a storage dish,
cover to prevent loss of moisture and allow to cure for at least 16 h (overnight). After the
standing period and immediately before starting the test, thoroughly remix the soil.
Test Procedure: Casagrande apparatus – Multipoint method
1. Using a spatula, place a portion of the previously prepared soil in the cup of the liquid limit
device at the point where the cup rests on the base. Squeeze it down to eliminate air bubbles
and spread it into the cup to a depth of about 1 cm at its deepest point. The soil pat should
form an approximately horizontal surface.
2. Form a groove in the soil pat using the grooving tool to cut a clean straight groove from
back to front through the sample at the center of the cup. The tool should remain
perpendicular to the surface of the cup as groove is being made.
3. Turn the crank of the apparatus at a rate of 2 rps. Count the number of drops required to
close the groove along a distance of 13 mm. If the number of drops exceeds 50, then go
directly to step 5, otherwise record the number of drops (𝑵) on the data sheet.
4. Take a sample, using the spatula, from edge to edge of the soil pat where the groove came
into contact for water content determination. Place the sample into a container of known mass
(𝒘𝒄), immediately weigh the container with the wet soil, record its mass (𝒘𝒄+𝒘𝒔), and place
it into the oven. Leave it in the oven overnight and then weigh the container containing the
dry soil (𝒘𝒄+𝒅𝒔). Return the soil remaining in the cup to the dish. Wash and dry the cup and
grooving tool for the next trial.
5. Remix the entire soil specimen in the mixing dish. Add a small amount of distilled water to
increase the water content and decrease the number of drops required to close the groove.
6. Repeat the previous steps for at least two additional trials producing successively lower
numbers of drops to close the groove. It is recommended that the three trials cover the drops
range of (25-35) (20-30) and (15-25), respectively.

PLASTICLIMIT TEST
The plastic limit is determined by alternately pressing together and rolling into a 3.2 mm (1⁄8-
in.) diameter thread a small portion of plastic soil until its water content is reduced to a point
at which the thread crumbles and can no longer be pressed together and re-rolled. The water
content of the soil at this point is reported as the plastic limit.
Apparatus:
1. Smooth glass surface for rolling the thread.
2. Container for the determination of water content.
3. Balance readability of 0.01g.
4. Oven maintaining a uniform temperature of 110 ∓ 5 °C.
Specimen preparation:
Take about 20 g or more of soil from the material prepared for the liquid limit test. Reduce
the water content of the soil to a consistency at which it can be rolled without sticking to the
hands.
Test Procedure: Hand rolling method
1. Select a (1.5-2.0) g portion from the prepared specimen and form it into an ellipsoidal
mass.
2. Roll the soil mass between fingers/palm and the glass plate with just sufficient pressure to
form a uniform thread of 3.2 mm diameter (The rate of rolling should be a bout 80-90 strokes
per minute, counting one stroke when the hand moves forward and backward to the starting
point), taking no more than 2 minutes.
3. If the diameter of the thread becomes less than 3 mm without cracks, it shows that the
water content is more than the plastic limit. Knead the soil to reduce the water content, and
roll it again to a thread.

4. Repeat the process of alternate rolling and kneading until the thread crumbles and the soil
can no longer be rolled into thread.
5. Collect the pieces of the crumbled soil thread (at least 6 g) in a moisture content container,
and determine its water content.
6. Repeat the procedure on another specimen to make another container holding at least 6 g
of soil, and determine its water content.

Linear shrinkage procedure (sans 3001: Part GR10)

• Fill the trought with a sample of soil paste working from one side of the trough to form
a diagonal surface.
• From the other side of the trough repeat the above procedure
 • Remove the excess material along the top of the trough
• Place in the oven and dry the sample overnight
• Gentle push the dried material so that it slides to the end of the trought.
• Measure and record the shrinkage gap between the open end of the material and the end
of the trough using a callipers.

Sieve analysis: (which standard is this?)

Write down the weight of each sieve as well as the bottom pan to be used in the analysis
Record the weight of the given dry soil sample
Make sure that all the sieves are clean, and assemble them in the ascending order of sieve
sizes. Place the pan below 75 um. Carefully pour the soil sample into top sieve and place the
cover over itr
Place the stack from the shaker and carefully weigh and record the weight of each sieve with
its retained soil
Remember to weigh and record the weight of the bottom pan with its retained fine soil.

This manual outlines the standard method for determining the particle size distribution
(grading) of fine and coarse aggregates using sieves, as defined by AASHTO Designation: T
27-14 (ASTM Designation: C136-06).
1. Scope and Significance
This method covers the determination of the particle size distribution of fine and coarse
aggregates by sieving. The results are used primarily to determine the grading of materials
proposed or being used as aggregates, ensuring compliance with applicable specification
requirements.
Note on Fines: Accurate determination of material finer than the 75-µm (No. 200) sieve
cannot be achieved by this method alone. Test Method T 11 (Materials Finer Than 75-µm
Sieve in Mineral Aggregates by Washing) should be employed to quantify this material.
2. Referenced Documents
This standard relies on the following documents:
• M 92: Wire-Cloth Sieves for Testing Purposes
• M 231: Weighing Devices Used in the Testing of Materials
• T 2: Sampling of Aggregates
• T 11: Materials Finer Than 75-µm (No. 200) Sieve in Mineral Aggregates by
Washing
• T 248: Reducing Samples of Aggregate to Testing Size
3. Apparatus
1. Balance: The balance must have sufficient capacity, be readable to 0.1 percent of the
sample mass, or better, and conform to the requirements of M 231.
2. Sieves: Sieve cloth and standard frames must conform to the requirements of M 92.
For testing coarse aggregate, it is recommended that sieves mounted in frames larger
than standard 203.2 mm (8 in.) diameter be used to reduce the possibility of
overloading.
3. Mechanical Sieve Shaker (Optional/Recommended): If used, it must create motion
(bouncing, tumbling, or turning) to present different orientations to the sieving
surface. The sieving action must be adequate to meet the criterion described in
Section 4.5 in a reasonable time period. Use of a mechanical shaker is recommended
when the sample size is 20 kg (44 lb) or greater, but it may be used for smaller
samples. Note that excessive time (more than approximately 10 minutes) may
result in degradation of the sample.
4. Oven: An oven capable of maintaining a uniform temperature of $110 \pm
5^{\circ}\text{C}$ ($230 \pm 9^{\circ}\text{F}$).
4. Procedure
4.1. Sampling and Sample Size
1. Sampling: Sample the aggregate in accordance with T 2.
2. Reduction: Thoroughly mix the field sample and reduce it to an amount suitable for
testing using the procedures described in T 248. The resulting sample for testing must
be the end result of reduction; reduction to an exact predetermined mass is not
permitted.
3. Minimum Mass:
o Fine Aggregate: Minimum size of the test sample, after drying, shall be 300
g.
o Coarse Aggregate or Mixtures: The minimum mass required depends on the
Nominal Maximum Size (NMS):
▪ 9.5 mm (3/8 in.): 1 kg (2 lb)
▪ 19.0 mm (3/4 in.): 5 kg (11 lb)
▪ 37.5 mm (1 1/2 in.): 15 kg (33 lb)
▪ 125 mm (5 in.): 300 kg (660 lb)
4.2. Sample Drying
If the test sample has not been previously subjected to T 11 washing, dry the sample to
constant mass in an oven maintaining a temperature of $110 \pm 5^{\circ}\text{C}$ ($230
\pm 9^{\circ}\text{F}$).
4.3. Combined T 11 (Washing) and T 27 (Dry Sieving)
If the amount of material finer than the 75-µm (No. 200) sieve is to be determined by T 11:
• Aggregates $\mathbf{12.5 \text{ mm} (1/2 \text{ in.)}}$ or less: Use the same test
sample for both methods. First, test the sample according to T 11 through the final
drying operation, and then dry sieve the sample as stipulated in this method (T 27).
• Aggregates greater than $\mathbf{12.5 \text{ mm} (1/2 \text{ in.)}}$: A single test
sample may be used, or separate samples may be used for T 11 and T 27.
4.4. Sieving Setup and Load Limits
1. Initial Weighing: Determine and record the mass of the dry material that will be
placed on the sieves to the accuracy of the balance defined in Section 6.1.
2. Sieve Selection: Select sieves with openings suitable to furnish the required
information. Nest the sieves in order of decreasing size of opening from top to
bottom.
3. Sieve Overload Prevention: Limit the quantity of material retained on a given sieve
to ensure all particles have the opportunity to reach the sieve openings:
o Sieves smaller than 4.75-mm (No. 4): The quantity retained shall not exceed
$7 \text{ kg/m}^2$ ($200 \text{ g}$ for a standard 203.2-mm (8-in.) diameter
sieve).
o Sieves 4.75 mm (No. 4) and larger: The quantity retained in kilograms shall
not exceed the product of $2.5 \times (\text{sieve opening, mm} \times
\text{effective sieving area, m}^2)$.
4. Overload Methods: Prevent overload by inserting an additional intermediate sieve,
splitting the sample into two or more portions (and combining results later), or using
larger sieve frames.
5. Splitting Fine Material: For coarse and fine aggregate mixtures, the portion finer
than the 4.75-mm (No. 4) sieve may be reduced in size using a mechanical splitter
according to T 248. If this is done, the mass of each size increment ($A$) of the
original sample is computed using the following formula: $$A = \frac{W_1}{W_2}
\times B$$ Where $W_1$ is the mass of the fraction finer than 4.75-mm (No. 4) sieve
in the total sample, $W_2$ is the mass of the reduced portion actually sieved, and
$B$ is the mass of the size increment in the reduced portion sieved.
4.5. Sieving Operation
1. Place the sample (or portion) on the top sieve. Agitate the sieves by hand or
mechanical apparatus.
2. Sieving Adequacy Check: Continue sieving until, after completion, not more than
0.5 percent by mass of the total sample passes any sieve during 1 minute of
continuous hand sieving.
3. Hand Sieving Large Particles: For particles retained on sieves 75 mm (3 in.) or
larger, hand sieve by rotating the particles to determine if they will pass through the
opening, but do not force them.
 4. Final Weighing: Determine the mass of each size increment (retained on each sieve
and in the pan) to the nearest 0.1 percent of the total original dry sample mass.
4.6. Test Validation
The total mass of the material after sieving should check closely with the total original dry
mass placed on the sieves. If the two amounts differ by more than 0.3 percent, based on the
total original dry sample mass, the results should not be used for acceptance purposes.
5. Calculations and Reporting
5.1. Calculations
1. Percentages: Calculate percentages passing, total percentages retained, or
percentages in various size fractions to the nearest 0.1 percent based on the total mass
of the initial dry sample.
2. Washed Samples: If the sample was first tested by T 11, the mass of material finer
than 75-µm (No. 200) determined by washing must be included in the sieve analysis
calculation, and the total dry sample mass prior to washing in T 11 is the basis for
calculating all percentages.
3. Fineness Modulus (FM): When required, calculate the FM by adding the total
percentages of material in the sample that is coarser than each of the following sieves
(cumulative percentages retained), and dividing the sum by 100:
o 150 µm (No. 100)
o 300 µm (No. 50)
o 600 µm (No. 30)
o 1.18 mm (No. 16)
o 2.36 mm (No. 8)
o 4.75 mm (No. 4)
o 9.5 mm (3/8 in.)
o 19.0 mm (3/4 in.)
o 37.5 mm (1 1/2 in.) and larger, increasing the ratio of 2 to 1.
5.2. Reporting
The report shall include one of the following forms, depending on the specifications:
1. Total percentage of material passing each sieve, or
2. Total percentage of material retained on each sieve, or
3. Percentage of material retained between consecutive sieves.
Reporting Format:
• Report percentages to the nearest whole number.
 • Exception: If the percentage passing the 75-µm (No. 200) sieve is less than 10
percent, it shall be reported to the nearest 0.1 percent.
• Report the fineness modulus, when required, to the nearest 0.01.

Hydrometer

What is the Hydrometer Test of Soil?

Measuring the particle size distribution of fine-grained soils like clay and silt is best
performed using the soil hydrometer test. This sedimentation method is familiar to all
geotechnical laboratories.

The Hydrometer Analysis of Soil

The hydrometer analysis of soil, based on Stokes’ law, calculates the size of soil particles
from the speed at which they settle out of suspension from a liquid. Results from the test
show the grain size distribution for soils finer than the No. 200 (75µm) sieve. However, when
combined with a sieve analysis, the hydrometer tests offers a complete gradation profile of
soils containing coarser materials.

ASTM D7928:
The American Society for Testing and materials test method (ASTM) D7928 offers different
options for sample preparation, hydrometer type, hydrometer offset, sample agitation, and
more. Final calculations for particle size and distribution depend on which of the options
were chosen and are not straightforward. We encourage the user to read and understand the
entire published ASTM standard before running the test.
This blog presents an overview of the essential steps, techniques, and lab testing equipment
required. For this blog post, we will follow the ASTM D7928 standard test method. This
standard replaces the older, withdrawn D422 method. AASHTO T 88 is a test method similar
to D422 currently used by state transportation departments.

151H vs 152H Hydrometer

Periodic readings to determine the volume of suspended solids in the liquid are the critical
measurements in this test. The hydrometer instrument is a buoyant glass tube calibrated to
measure the relative density of liquids. There are two types of soil hydrometers for use in
soil suspensions.