Necessity of Heating, Ventilation, & Air Conditioning control of environmental conditions within buildings has been

well established over the years as being highly desirable for various types of occupancy & comfort conditions as well
as for many industrial manufacturing processes.

The above virtues are the functional requirements of a building. A building provides suitable conditions for living and
working only if these requirements are fulfilled.

HEAT & HUMIDITY- It was only in recent times that interest & technology permitted development of understanding of
heat & heating, and substantial improvements in comfort were made. Comfort heating now is highly developed
science & in conjunction with air conditioning, provides comfort conditions in all seasons .

Control of humidity in buildings now is very important part of heating, ventilation & air conditioning. Today, it is
possible to alter environment in buildings in any manner, to suit any particular need, with great precision and control.

THERMAL CAPACITY- Thermal capacity of a substance is indicated by quantity of heat required to raise temperature
of 1lb of substance 1°F. In HVAC calculations, thermal capacity is usually expressed by the British Thermal Unit (BTU).

One BTU is the amount of heat that is required to increase the temperature of 1lb of water 1°F at or near 39.2°F,
which is the temperature at which water has its maximum density. Conversely, if 1 BTU is removed from 1lb of water,
its temperature will be reduced by 1°F.

SPECIFIC , SENSIBLE & LATENT HEAT

SPECIFIC HEAT of substance is ratio of heat content or thermal capacity of a substance to that of water.

When heat energy is added / taken away from substance, resulting changes in temperature can be detected by sense
of touch. This is called SENSIBLE HEAT.

Sensible heat of substance is associated with sensible change in temperature. In contrast, LATENT HEAT of substance
is always involved with change in state of substance, such as from ice to water and from water to steam or water
vapour.

ENTHALPY

Enthalpy is a measure of the total heat (sensible and latent) in a substance and is equivalent to the sum of its internal
energy plus its ability or capacity to perform work, or PV/J, where P is the pressure of the substance, V its volume and
J its mechanical equivalent of heat.

Specific enthalpy is the heat per unit of weight, BTU/lb., and is the property used on psychometric charts and in
HVAC calculations.

COOLING BY EVAPORATION

If there is no external source of heat, and evaporation occurs, then water itself must provide necessary heat. Portion
of sensible heat in liquid will be converted into latent heat of vaporization. As a result, temperature of liquid
remaining will drop. Since no external heat is added or removed, it is called adiabatic cooling.

Human beings also cooled adiabatically by evaporation of perspiration from skin surface. Similarly in hot climates
with relatively dry air, air-conditioning is provided by vaporization of water into air. And refrigeration is also
accomplished by evaporation of refrigerant.
HEATING BY CONDENSATION

Many thermal processes occur without addition or subtraction of heat from the process. Under these conditions, the
process is called adiabatic.

When a volume of moist air is cooled, a point will be reached at which further cooling cannot occur without reaching
fully saturated condition, that is, 100% saturation or 100% relative humidity. With continued cooling, some of
moisture condenses and appears as liquid. The temperature at which condensation occurs is called the dew point
temperature.

MAJOR FACTORS IN HVAC DESIGN

There are various necessary concepts for managing heat energy, aiming to develop a better understanding of its
effects on human comfort. These concepts must be well understood if they are to be applied successfully to the
modification of the environment in building interiors, computer facilities, and manufacturing processes

Major factors in HVAC design include:

Building's thermal load,

Building Envelope,

Local climate

Ventilation rate and indoor air quality.

SIGNIFICANCE OF DESIGN CRITERIA

Achievement of the desired performance of any HVAC system, whether designed for human comfort or industrial
production or industrial process requirements, is significantly related to the development of appropriate and
accurate design criteria. Some of the more common items that are generally considered are as follows:

Temperature and Air Quality

Direct conditions that people or processes experience

Outside design and Inside design temp: Winter and Summer

Filtration efficiency of supply air

Humidification and Dehumidification

2. Air Movement and Pressure

How air moves within and out of the building.

Ventilation & Exhaust Requirements

Air Change Rates

Positive, Negative, and Balanced Pressure Areas

3. Energy and Efficiency

This covers how the system can save money and be more environmentally friendly

Energy Conservation Devices

Economizer System

Enthalpy Control System

Infiltration & Exfiltration

4. Special Applications and Controls

This final category covers unique requirements

Contaminated Exhaust & Fume Hoods

Controls

TEMP. DETERMINED BY HEAT BALANCES

In cold weather, comfortable indoor temperatures may have to be maintained by a heating device. There must
be heat balance between heat in & heat out when heating & reverse in cooling. Comfortable inside conditions
can only be maintained if this heat balance can be controlled or maintained.
Rate at which heat is gained or lost is a function of difference between inside air temperature to be maintained &
outside air temperature. Such temperatures must be established for design purposes to properly size and select
HVAC equipment that will maintain the desired design conditions.

METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER

Heat always flows from a hot to a cold object. This direction of heat flow occurs by conduction, convection or
radiation and in any combination of these forms.
Thermal Conduction - Conduction is the transfer of heat through direct contact between solid materials. Heat
moves from a warmer object to a cooler one

Thermal Convection - Convection is the transfer of heat through the movement of fluids (liquids or gases like
air). Warm, less dense air rises, while cooler, denser air sinks, creating a circulating current.

Thermal Radiation- Radiation is the transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves. This type of heat transfer
does not require a medium and can travel through a vacuum, like the heat from the sun.

THERMAL INSULATION

A substantial reduction in heating and cooling loads can be made by the judicious use of thermal insulation in wall
and roof construction.

Addition of insulation results in an increase in thermal resistance R, or a reduction in coefficient of heat

transfer U of the walls and roof.
Any material with high resistance to flow of heat is called insulation. Many kinds of insulation materials are used in
building construction.

CONVECTION

When heating device, convector, operates in cool space, heat from convector transmitted to cooler walls &
ceiling by convection.
Heating, accomplished with convectors with hot water or steam as heating medium. It is mounted at floor level
against an exterior wall. As cool air near floor comes in contact with hot surfaces of convector, air quickly becomes
very warm & rises rapidly along cold wall surface above the convector. Additional cold air at floor level then moves
into convector to replace heated air. In this manner, entire room will become heated. This process is called heating by
natural convection.

RADIATION

Most common form of heat transfer is by radiation. All materials & substances radiate energy & absorb
radiation energy. Sun is a huge radiator, & earth is heated by this immense source of radiated energy, which is
often called solar energy.
When radiation from sun is intercepted by walls, roofs or glass windows, this heat is transmitted through them &
heats interior of the building and its occupants. The reverse is also true. If rate of radiation is high, occupants will be
uncomfortable.

THERMAL CRITERIA – BLDG INTERIORS

Three very important conditions to be controlled in buildings for human comfort:

Dry bulb temperature,

Relative humidity and

Velocity or rate of air movement

Measurements of these conditions should be made where average conditions exist.

Except in rare cases, RH usually should not exceed 60%. In summer, a RH of 45 to 55% is acceptable. In winter, 30 to
35% desirable to prevent condensation on windows & in walls & roofs.

ENERGY SOURCES FOR SPACE HEATING, DOMESTIC WATER & MECHANICAL COOLING

SPACE HEATING

2.1.1 NATURAL GAS / PROPANE

Propane is a byproduct of natural gas processing and petroleum refining. It is compressed into a liquid for
storage and transport.

Heating fuel for more than 2/3rd new houses in USA. Distinct advantages:

Burns cleaner

Portability and Availability: Since it is stored as a liquid in tanks, it can be delivered by truck to any location,
making it an excellent option for rural or off-grid homes.

Higher Energy Density: Propane contains more energy per unit of volume than natural gas. This means you
need less of it to produce the same amount of heat.

Versatility: Propane is used for a variety of appliances, including stoves, water heaters, and outdoor grills,
providing a flexible, single-fuel solution for a home.

In rural locations where natural gas is not available, tanked propane can be used. However, propane comes at a
higher cost and attention is needed to assure uninterrupted supply.
2.1.2 ELECTRICITY
Has formidable advantages:
It is quiet.

Cleanest of all the systems.

Eliminates need for heating unit, flue, large ducts, or pipes.

Results in reduction in installation cost.

Ultimate in control
Disadvantage is its high operating cost. Noise can be concern with heat pumps, since they do require outdoor coil or
unit packaged with a compressor.

2.1.3 OIL
Once inexpensive & commonly used for home heating. Since 1970s, price has risen, without cost advantage, it
is hard for oil to overcome these disadvantages:
Storage space requirements.

Delivery problems.

A “dirty” fuel.

Environmental issues and regulations (underground tanks, etc.)

Additional maintenance.

2.1.4 OTHER FUELS

Past few years have seen a remarkable resurgence in use of wood for house heating & many of new house
designs are incorporating wood burning equipment as supplement to normal heating equipment.
Disadvantages:
Generates soot.

Requires a large storage area.

Seasoned hardwood must be burned.

Requires work & attention but can be economical if wood is for free.
DOMESTIC HOT WATER

Selecting energy source for hot water is often pre-determined by how house is heated. If house is served by
natural gas, then it is common to also have natural gas domestic hot water heater. If gas is not available, then
electric water heater with well-insulated tank is common choice. In warm climates, another option to consider
is heat pump hot water heater that extracts heat from within house to heat water.
Solar water heaters use simple technology & are likely to continue as a viable option in future.

MECHANICAL COOLING

Use of climate sensitive design utilizing sun control, natural ventilation, landscaping, fans, & perhaps window
units can eliminate “need” for central cooling.
When houses, mechanically air conditioned, primary energy source used is electricity to drive compressor. Very
common is coupling of cooling coil with warm air furnace & ducted distribution system. Option in warm but dry
climates are evaporative coolers which use “adiabatic” process to lower dry bulb temp. of house air while increasing
RH.

SELECTION CRITERIA

2.4.1 CLIMATE: Colder the climate, more important it is to select heating fuels that are relatively low in cost &
to install high efficiency heating system equipment.
2.4.2 AVAILABILITY: Sometimes regional issue affects choice. Availability will also be function of house’s
remoteness.
2.4.3 DELIVERED ENERGY COST: One can get information from reliable sources.
2.4.4 RELIABILITY & MAINTAINABILITY:
Systems with few moving parts are most reliable and require little maintenance

2.4.5 OTHER FACTORS: Central systems and packaged units provide automatic, thermostatic controlled
operation. Systems utilizing gas and electricity operate continuously and do not have to be monitored. Fuel
choice has environmental impacts both at the house and upon society at large. For special applications, such
as weekend cottages, it may make sense to take advantage of the simplicity and dependability of electric
resistance heat coupled with use of a wood stove.
In all cases combining climate design energy conservation and energy source / system, provides for optimal
combinations that are most effective for long term reliability and low energy / environmental impact.

3 HEATING SYSTEMS

TYPES

A direct heating system heats the air by passing it directly through or around combustion flames, or by using a
heating element. These systems are often referred to as "space heaters".

Gas-fired space heaters

Electric space heaters

Electric baseboard heaters

Radiant space heaters

Wood-burning stoves/Pellet stoves

Advantages:

Generally inexpensive to purchase and install.

Portable (e.g., electric space heaters) for use in different areas.

Useful for heating single rooms or small, specific areas, or for supplemental heat.

Simplified and reduced maintenance due to less complexity.

More affordable, and easier to repair, replace, or relocate.

Customizable to specific needs and smaller than indirect heaters.

Better suited for precise temperature control in some applications.

An indirect heating system uses thermally conductive components to transfer heat, meaning there is a separation
between the heat source (e.g., combustion) and the air or water being heated. The heat is transferred through an
intermediate substrate, such as a metal heat exchanger or steel.

Furnaces

Boilers

Heat pumps

Solar heating systems

Advantages:

Improved Air Quality and Safety: These systems prevent indoor air contamination and reduce explosion risks by
venting combustion byproducts separately.

Energy Efficiency: Recirculating heated air or water saves energy and money while maintaining a consistent humidity
level.

Convenience and Versatility: They can use the same ductwork for both heating and air conditioning and are generally
quieter.

Long-Term Savings: Despite high initial costs, some indirect systems like solar heating can lead to significant long-
term savings on heating expenses..

3.1 Components of the Heating System

The main components of any modern heating system in HVAC are:

Thermostat,

Heat source,

Heating system,

Heat exchanger, and

Heat distribution system

3.3 HEAT EXCHANGER

Its primary function is to move heat from the burning fuel (or heat source) to the air or water that is intended to be
heated.

A crucial aspect of heat exchangers, especially in indirect heating systems, is that they create a separation between
the heat source and the heated medium (air or water). This separation prevents combustion byproducts, such as soot
or nitrous oxides, from contaminating the indoor air or product.

The heat distribution system is one of the main components of a heating system, providing a path for heat to enter
each room inside your home.

Heat can be distributed in water or in air. As water has a higher specific heat capacity than air, it requires smaller
pipes in comparison to air ducts for the same transfer.

Water distribution can be ‘gravity’ feed or pressurized. An open system will require a header tank, whereas a
pressurized system is sealed and requires a pressurization unit. Pressurize systems can be used to carry water at
temperatures higher than 100°C, and are sometimes used for commercial and industrial systems.

DISTRIBUTION LOSSES

There will be heat loss associated with the distribution system. Pipes and ducts should be well insulated. There will
also be standing ‘case’ heat losses associated with the boiler, which may be considered useful (although it is
uncontrolled) if they contribute to space heating.

SEASONAL ENERGY USE

Seasonal energy use can be calculated from the design heat loss but using some form of seasonal temperature
instead of a design temperature. Also, an allowance has to be made for system efficiency and incidental heat gains.
The seasonal temperature can be in form of heating season average temperature or degree days.

If average temperature is used, then some account of seasonal heat gains is required. Degree days already assume
some level of useful heat gains in relation to a base temperature, which is temperature below which heating is
required. Standard base temperature is 15.5°C, which takes account of typical internal heat gains.

HEAT GAINS

There will be heat gains from internal activities & solar effects. For domestic buildings, internal heat gains can be
estimated depending on whether household has high, medium or low activities. Not all internal gains will usefully
supplement heating. Some may cause overheating, & some may occur where or when they are not required.

HEAT LOSS

Ventilation is biggest source of heat loss in low energy building. Amount of heat loss depends on building ‘s air
tightness, how much building is ventilated & if heat is recovered from ventilation air.

ENERGY BALANCE

It is important to understand a building from an energy perspective. A good way to do this is to study the building’s
energy balance. An energy balance shows where energy comes from and where it goes out. In addition, the size of
different heat flows is determined.

4 SYSTEM SELECTION

In interest of energy efficiency and sustainability, architect should begin with climate sensitive design that takes
advantage of passive solar heating and natural ventilation for cooling. Energy conservation measures should be
evaluated to provide a house that can be naturally comfortable much of the time, without being overly dependent on
energy consuming mechanical systems.

To the extent possible, conventional systems should be thought of as providing “supplemental” heating and cooling.

1. Heating with warm air using furnace with ducted air supply for heat distribution. Most furnaces are fueled by
natural gas or fuel oil. Use of electric furnaces is limited to warm climates because of operational cost and code
requirements. Systems with ducted air can also provide air-conditioning, when fitted with cooling coil inside and
condensing unit outside.

2. Heating by hot water using a boiler and terminal heaters. Such systems use small pipes usually 20mm
diameter for heat distribution at house perimeter. If mechanical cooling is desired, individual window or through wall
units are typically used. Installed in climates where need for mechanical cooling is not overwhelming.

3. Electric resistance baseboard heat should be considered in warm climates where allowable by code & where
electric charges are low.

4. In very hot climates central air conditioning system consisting of air handler & cooling coil & ducted air
supply system is common. Small amount of heat needed is normally provided by an electric resistance coil in the
supply duct.

HEATING EQUIPMENTS
Installations for air conditioning system may be used advantageously for central heating system with additions such
as hot water & hot water coil or strip heater bank. Electrical heating may be actively discouraged & instead heating
through Superheat of cooling unit, Heat pump, Reverse cycle operation of unitary system & Solar hot water system
are desirable.

Compared to electrical heating or thermal heating through boiler, preference should be for the systems working on
refrigeration principle.

Ventilation:

Ventilation is the process of moving outdoor air into a building or room and distributing it inside.

Three Basic Elements of Building Ventilation

◦ Ventilation Rate: The quantity of outdoor air that is provided into the space, and the quality of that outdoor air.

◦ Airflow Direction: The overall airflow path in a building, which should ideally be from clean zones to dirty zones
(e.g., isolation rooms or laboratories).

◦ Air Distribution or Airflow Pattern: How efficiently external air is delivered to each part of the space and how
effectively airborne pollutants are removed from each area.

Process of supplying fresh air & removing contaminated air by natural or mech. means to or from a room is termed
ventilation. To provide excellent conditions to live & work, although adequate ventilation is prime requirement but
air movement, temperature, humidity conditions & purity of fresh air are also equally important. Simultaneous
control of temperature, humidity, air motion, and air purity is known as air conditioning.

Thermal insulation serves to maintain constant heat or temperature inside building irrespective of temperature
changes outside.

Importance of Ventilation: Why does it matter?

Improved Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)

Replaces stale air with fresh air.

Removes moisture, smoke, cooking odors, and other indoor pollutants.

Dilutes contaminants like radon and VOCs.

Reduces dust accumulation.

Health and Safety Benefits

Prevents dampness and mold growth, which can cause health issues.

Replenishes oxygen and controls odors.

Enhanced Comfort and Productivity

Maintains a pleasant environment by improving airflow.

Helps moderate temperature and humidity.

Improves productivity in commercial settings.

Energy Efficiency and Building Longevity

Controls heat and moisture, protecting the building's structure.

Can improve energy efficiency, especially with heat recovery systems.

Protects building materials from moisture damage, extending the life of the building.

Buildings can be ventilated using three primary methods:

◦ Natural Ventilation: Driven by natural forces (wind, thermal buoyancy).

◦ Mechanical Ventilation: Driven by mechanical fans and equipment.

◦ Hybrid (Mixed-Mode) Ventilation: Combines natural and mechanical approaches.

Ventilation systems can also be classified by their supply and exhaust mechanisms:

◦ Natural supply and natural exhaust.

◦ Natural supply and mechanical exhaust.

◦ Mechanical supply and natural exhaust.

◦ Mechanical supply and mechanical exhaust.

Natural Ventilation

It uses natural forces such as winds and thermal buoyancy (due to indoor and outdoor air density differences) to
draw outdoor air through purpose-built openings in the building envelope

Driving Forces:

◦Wind-driven ventilation: Arises from pressure differences created by wind around a building, pushing air through
openings.

◦Buoyancy-driven ventilation: Occurs due to temperature differences between the interior and exterior, causing
warmer, lighter air to rise and exit, while cooler, denser air enters lower down.

• Common Openings: Includes windows, doors, solar chimneys, wind towers, and trickle ventilators.

Advantages:

◦ Can provide a high ventilation rate more economically by utilizing natural forces and large openings.

◦ Generally more energy-efficient, particularly if heating is not required.

◦ Typically incurs low capital, operational, and maintenance costs for simple systems.

◦ Well-designed systems can allow for higher levels of daylight.

◦ Can achieve very high air-change rates exceeding minimum requirements when properly designed and operated.

Natural Ventilation: Challenges and Limitations

Unreliable & Hard to Control: Performance depends on unpredictable weather, making it difficult to control airflow
and ensure consistent ventilation.
Poor Pollutant Control: Can't filter outside pollutants and may spread indoor contaminants due to uncontrolled
airflow.

Practical Limitations: Requires open windows, which isn't always possible due to noise, privacy, safety, or building
design.

Health Risks: Can contribute to the spread of infectious diseases if not managed correctly.

Mechanical Ventilation: Controlled Air Movement

It uses mechanical fans to supply air into or exhaust air from a room. Fans can be installed directly in windows or
walls, or within air ducts.

Key Components

Often driven by Air Handling Units (AHUs).

AHUs are insulated boxes typically containing:

Filter racks or chambers: To remove harmful microorganisms, particulates, gases, odours, and vapours.

Fans (blowers): To move air.

Heating and/or cooling elements: For temperature control.

Sound attenuators and dampers: For noise control and airflow regulation.

May also include dehumidification components (e.g., in swimming pools).

Ductwork: Connects AHUs to interior spaces, supplying and extracting air.

Mechanical Ventilation: Specific Types

Based on Room Pressure

Positive Pressure System: Pushes more air into a room than it removes. This forces air to leak out, which prevents
humid, outside air from entering. It's often used in warm, humid climates.

Negative Pressure System: Removes more air from a room than it supplies. This draws air in from outside. It's used in
cold climates to prevent moisture buildup in walls and in rooms with pollutants, such as bathrooms and kitchens. It's
also critical for infection control in hospitals.

Based on Supply/Exhaust

Supply-Only Systems: Use fans to push fresh air into a building. Stale indoor air then escapes through leaks.

Extract-Only Systems: Use exhaust fans to pull air out of a room, often in areas like kitchens or bathrooms. A
drawback is they can create pressure imbalances and drive moisture into walls.

Balanced Ventilation System: This is the most effective type. It supplies and exhausts air at the same rate, preventing
pressure issues and creating a controlled, clean environment.

Mechanical Ventilation: Advantages

Reliable Airflow: Provides consistent, controlled airflow regardless of outside weather conditions.
Superior Air Quality: Allows for advanced air filtration to remove pollutants, dust, and odors.

Precise Control: Integrates with air conditioning for exact temperature and humidity control, and allows for
controlled airflow paths.

Reduced Noise: Significantly cuts down on outside noise pollution.

Versatility: Works anywhere with electricity and can be installed in most buildings.

Hybrid (Mixed-Mode) Ventilation:

It leverages natural driving forces for airflow but integrates mechanical ventilation to supplement airflow when
natural rates are insufficient.

Application and Flexibility

This type of ventilation is ideal when natural ventilation alone isn't enough due to outdoor conditions or specific
indoor needs. It can involve installing exhaust fans to boost airflow or using non-electrical options like wind turbines
("whirlybirds") on the roof.

Benefits

It offers the best of both worlds: the energy efficiency of natural ventilation with the reliability and control of
mechanical systems. This helps overcome the limitations of natural ventilation alone, and well-designed systems are
very dependable.

Considerations

Simpler fan systems may have issues with noise, installation, and temperature fluctuations. Hybrid systems also
require a continuous electricity supply for their mechanical parts. Advanced hybrid systems can have higher
construction and design costs than purely mechanical systems.

Importance of Insulation in HVAC Systems:

Insulation is a material used to reduce heat transfer.

Infiltration: The unintentional or uncontrolled entry or flow into a system or space.

- Unwanted air enters through cracks and gaps in the building envelope, affecting energy costs and indoor air quality.

Exfiltration: The unintentional or uncontrolled exit or removal from a system or space.

- Indoor air leaks out through unintentional openings, leading to energy loss and potentially impacting comfort.

Reduced Energy Consumption

Cost Savings

System Sizing

Super-Insulated Homes

Condensation Control

Mould Growth

Building Deterioration
Where Insulation is Crucial for HVAC
• Ductwork and Piping: All HVAC ductwork and piping should be insulated to prevent unintended heat loss
or gain as conditioned air or water travels through the building.
• Building Envelope: Improving the building envelope, which includes insulation and building sealing, is the
best way to increase energy efficiency in conjunction with HVAC systems.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
The ventilation system in a building is designed with three main considerations – respiration, vitiation by body
odour and heat balance of body.
CONSIDERATION OF RESPIRATION
CONSIDERATION OF VITIATION BY BODY ODOUR
CONSIDERATIONS OF HEAT BALANCE OF BODY

FACTORS AFFECTING VENTILATION

The following factors should be carefully considered, as they affect ventilation very much from the comfort
point of view:
Rate of fresh air change

Control on humidity

Quality of air

Temperature

Use of building

1.8 ESSENTIALS GOOD VENTILATING SYSTEM

A good ventilating system should fulfil the following requirements:
It should permit the required amount of fresh air in the room.
It should effectively extract the vitiated air from the room.
All the corners of the room should get proper ventilation.
The value of desired relative humidity should be maintained.
Effective temperature should be maintained with regard to human comfort.
It should exercise full control on incoming air and extracted air.
The ventilating air should be free from impurities such as dust, odour etc.
The velocity of entrance of air should be uniform and this velocity should not exceed 15m/mt.

Centralized Mechanical Ventilation Systems:

Centralized Mechanical Ventilation Systems serve the entire building from a single, central location. These systems
are typically more efficient for larger buildings where maintaining consistent air quality throughout is crucial.

They consist of several components including fans, ducts, and control units.

A centralized system often includes anEnergy Recovery Ventilator (ERV)or aHeat RecoveryVentilator (HRV)to
improve energy efficiency by recovering energy from the exhaust air.

Decentralized Mechanical Ventilation Systems

Decentralized Mechanical Ventilation Systems provide ventilation on a per-room or per-zone basis rather
than from a central location. These systems are ideal for buildings where different zones have varied
ventilation needs or where retrofitting a centralized system would be impractical. Each unit typically includes
 its own fans, ducts, and control mechanisms. Decentralized systems offer flexibility, as they can be installed
in individual rooms or areas that require specific ventilation requirements, such as bathrooms, kitchens, or
classrooms.

Mechanical Ventilation Types: Exhaust, Supply, Balanced, and Energy Recovery

Uses a single fan to exhaust air, depressurizing the building.

This negative pressure pulls fresh outdoor air in through windows and intentional vents.
The system is simple, inexpensive, and most suitable for colder climates.

Energy Recovery Ventilators (ERV)

A major drawback of mechanical ventilation is energy waste.
Energy Recovery ventilation is another subset of the mechanical ventilation system. It prepares a controlled way of
ventilation to minimize waste energy and transfer coolth from the warm exhaust air to the cold supply air.
The outdoor air is pre-treated (pre-cooled in summer, pre-heated in winter) before reaching the main HVAC coil. This
can drastically reduce the energy consumed by the system.
Incorporating ventilation strategies like ERVs may contribute to increasing LEED scores, particularly in the Energy and
Atmosphere category.

Ventilation Strategies
Mechanical Ventilation
Energy Consumption
Solution: Smarter ventilation strategies.
Defined by the design of supply and return locations, as well as the conditions of the supplied air (velocity,
temperature, humidity, and pollutant concentration).
These strategies are crucial because they directly affect a room's thermal comfort and IAQ, offering a path to
reduce HVAC energy consumption without sacrificing air quality.

Ventilation Strategies

Mixing Jet Ventilation (MJV)

Utilizes high-velocity jets to evenly distribute conditioned air throughout a space, ensuring uniform temperature and
air quality.

Local Exhaust Ventilation (LEV)

A targeted system that uses fans to capture and remove specific contaminants at their source, preventing them from
spreading.

Displacement Ventilation (DV)

A low-velocity system that supplies cool air at floor level. The air is then naturally displaced upward by the heat from
occupants, carrying pollutants to a ceiling exhaust.

Impinging Jet Ventilation (IJV)

A hybrid strategy where a high-momentum jet is directed at the floor. It combines the mixing of MJV near the floor
with the upward displacement of DV in the rest of the room.

Piston Ventilation

A specialized system that creates a clean, unidirectional airflow from one end of a space to the other. It is primarily
used in controlled environments like clean rooms.

Heat Exchangers in Ventilation Systems

Heat exchangers are a critical component in MVHR systems. They facilitate the transfer of heat between incoming
and outgoing air streams without mixing the air. This process ensures that fresh air entering the building is pre-
warmed (or pre-cooled) using the energy from the exhaust air, creating a more energy-efficient system. Types of Heat
Exchangers:

Plate Heat Exchangers:Consist of multiple thin plates that create separate pathways for the incoming and outgoing
air, allowing heat to transfer across the plates.

Rotary Heat Exchangers:Use a rotating wheel, often coated with a material that aids in heat transfer, to exchange
heat between the air streams.

Counter-flow Heat Exchangers:Feature air streams that flow in opposite directions, maximizing the heat exchange
efficiency

Benefits of Mechanical Ventilation Systems in Buildings

Mechanical Ventilation Systems offer numerous benefits in buildings, significantly improving air quality, comfort
levels, and energy efficiency.

Improved Air Quality in Buildings

One of the primary benefits of mechanical ventilation systems is the improvement of indoor air quality. These
systems continuously supply fresh air and remove stale air, reducing the concentration of indoor pollutants and
allergens.

Continuous Fresh Air Supply:Ensures a steady flow of fresh air into the building.

Removal of Indoor Pollutants:Reduces the levels of dust, pollen, and other contaminants.

Control of Humidity:Helps manage moisture levels, preventing mold and mildew growth.

Enhanced Comfort Levels

Mechanical ventilation systems contribute significantly to the overall comfort of building occupants. They maintain a
stable and comfortable indoor environment by managing temperature, humidity, and air movement.

Temperature Control: Helps in maintaining consistent indoor temperatures.

Humidity Management: Ensures optimal humidity levels, enhancing comfort.

Reduced Odors: Continuously removes stale air and odors from the indoor environment.

HVAC and Thermal Comfort: Codes and Standards:

The basic purpose of an HVAC system is to provide interior thermal conditions that a majority of occupants will find
acceptable.

ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1:

This standard, Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality, sets benchmarks for minimum ventilation rates, ensuring
designs meet the required fresh air supply.

• It guides the design of effective ventilation systems for commercial and public spaces.

Key Requirements & Related Standards:

• Minimum IAQ: The standard requires minimum ventilation rates to dilute indoor pollutants effectively, often using
the Ventilation Rate Procedure (VRP).
• CO2 Levels: ASHRAE recommends that CO2 levels in occupied spaces should generally not exceed 1000 ppm (or no
greater than 700 ppmv above outdoor CO2 level).

• Residential Standards: For residential buildings, ASHRAE Standard 62.2 is the relevant compliance guide.

• Energy Standards: Ventilation strategies must also comply with energy standards like ASHRAE/IESNA 90.1, which
serves as a prerequisite for energy reduction goals in sustainable building certifications (e.g., LEED).

Architectural Integration of HVAC

HVAC systems require space for components like AHUs, ductwork, and terminals.

• Ductwork: Duct runs must be accounted for in ceiling plenums or dedicated floor systems. For underfloor
displacement ventilation, the duct space beneath the floor must be specially designed.

• Noise Control: Locating equipment far from acoustically sensitive spaces is crucial for controlling noise and
vibration transmission. Rooms generating noise (e.g., equipment rooms) can be acoustically isolated.

Acoustics in Duct Design:

• Air velocity in the ducts must be controlled to prevent velocity noise (turbulence-generated noise), which ranges
from 31.5Hz through 1,000Hz.

• Duct silencing techniques include sound attenuators and lining the last 7 feet of ductwork to the room

Mechanical Ventilation Systems - Summary

Mechanical Ventilation Systems: Systems that use mechanical methods to introduce fresh air and remove stale air
from buildings, essential for maintaining air quality.

Types of Mechanical Ventilation Systems: Exhaust-only, supply-only, balanced, energy recovery (ERV), and heat
recovery (HRV) systems, each designed for specific applications and needs.

Components of a Mechanical Ventilation System: Key parts include fans, ducts, filters, heat exchangers, and control
systems that manage air intake, distribution, and exhaust.

Benefits of Mechanical Ventilation Systems in Buildings: Include improved air quality, humidity control, energy
efficiency, enhanced comfort, and health benefits.

Mechanical Ventilation Heat Recovery Systems: These systems recover heat from outgoing air to condition incoming
air, significantly improving energy efficiency.

An Air Conditioning System is defined as “the process of treating air to control simultaneously its temperature,
humidity, cleanness, and distribution to meet the requirements of the conditioned space”.

Important actions involved in air conditioning :

Temperature Control:

Room temperature is controlled to the predesigned dry bulb temperature by cooling or heating the room air.

Humidity Control:

Room temperature is controlled to the predesigned relative humidity by humidifying or dehumidifying room air.

Air Filtering, Cleaning, Purification: Room air is cleaned by removing dust and dirt from the air.

Air movement and circulation: Air that is controlled in temperature and humidity and cleaned is distributed through a
room. As a result, room air can be maintained evenly in temperature and humidity conditions.
What is Comfortable Air?

The level of warmth or coolness a person feels depends not only on-air temperature (dry bulb temperature) but also
on humidity and the distribution of air.

Air conditioning is known as the process of creating, controlling and maintaining indoor atmospheric conditions best
suited to human or industrial needs.

1. Air conditioning systems help regulate and maintain a comfortable level of temperature for the occupants.,
especially during hot weather.

2. Air conditioning not only helps control temperature but also reduces excessive humidity levels and creates a more
pleasant and healthy indoor environment.3. To give pleasant conditions in restaurants, cinema halls, auditoriums,
etc.

4. Keeping a comfortable environment through air conditioning can improve productivity, particularly in workplaces.
It helps to enhance the efficiency of commercial establishments like offices, shops, stores and banks.

5. To provide comfortable conditions while travelling by car, aeroplane, train, etc.

6. To enhance product quality in manufacturing processes such as cotton cloth, artificial silk, etc.

7. Air conditioning can also enhance the ventilation process by ensuring proper air circulation. It also helps to remove
dust, allergens, pollutants, and odours, and improves the overall indoor air quality.

Classification of Air-Conditioning Systems

According to purpose/function-based:

1. Comfort Air Conditioning System:

The purpose of this system is to create atmospheric conditions (temperature, humidity, air quality) that are
conducive (desired) to human health, comfort, and efficiency.

- To maintain the comfort zone for people.

- It is used at Places where people live, work, or gather, such as home, office, shop, restaurant, hospital, school, etc.

2. Industrial Air Conditioning System

The purpose of this system is to control internal atmospheric conditions that are primarily essential for proper
research and manufacturing processes.

. To maintain precise, stable conditions (e.g., specific temperature, low humidity, dust control) necessary for
material quality or machine operation, rather than just human comfort.

. It is used in Industries like textile mills, paper mills, machine parts manufacturing industry, tool rooms,
printing, photo processing plants, etc.

According to the Season of the Year

1. Winter Air Conditioning System

To maintain indoor atmospheric conditions for human comfort during the winter season (Cold weather).To heat the
air (to raise the temperature).
To bring moisture content up to an acceptable level (humidification, as cold air is often very dry).

2. Summer Air Conditioning System

To maintain indoor atmospheric conditions for human comfort during the summer season (Hot weather).To cool the
air (to lower the temperature).

Remove excess moisture from air (dehumidification, as hot air often carries a lot of moisture).

3. Year-Round Air Conditioning System (All-Weather Air Conditioning)

To maintain a specified temperature and humidity regardless of outside conditions—meaning it works in all seasons.

Composed of heating and cooling equipment with automatic controls to operate as [Link] Winter: Heating with
humidification.

In Summer: Cooling with dehumidification.

According to the Arrangement of Equipment

1. Central Air Conditioning System

This system involves having the main air conditioning components located and assembled together in a single, central
location (often a basement or mechanical room).

The components of this system include a compressor, condenser, dampers, heating and cooling arrangements,
humidifiers, dehumidifiers, fan, etc., and are all placed at one spot.

It is used when the desired indoor conditions (temperature and relative humidity) are approximately the same for a
large number of rooms in the same building.

Suitable for large spaces, such as cinema theaters, exhibition halls, restaurants, etc.

2. Unitary Air Conditioning System

This system involves assembling all the necessary equipment and controls for air conditioning into a single casing (a
single unit).

All components are factory assembled, tested, and balanced.

The unit is installed in or near the vicinity of the space to be air-conditioned.

This system offers more flexibility of operation (often allowing for individual control of units) and has a low initial cost
compared to a central system.

Main equipment or parts used in an air conditioning system:

1. Circulation Fan: The main function of this fan is to and from the room.

2. Air Conditioning units: It is a unit, which consists of cooling and dehumidifying process for summer air conditioning
or heating and humidification process for winter air conditioning.

3. Supply duct: It directs the conditioned air from the circulating fan to the space to be air conditioned at proper
point.

4. Supply outlets: These are grills, which distributes the conditioned air evenly in the room.

5. Return outlets: These are the openings in a room surface which allow the room air to enter the return duct.

6. Filters: The main function of the filters is to remove dust, dirt and other harmful bacteria from the air.
 AC systems are also broadly classified based on their emission form and the degree of centralization.

Classification Type Description Examples

Unitary / Individual Systems where the production of cold or heat is independent for Window AC, Split AC, Packaged AC
Systems each user or single space.

They often use Direct Expansion (DX).

Collective / Centralized Systems where cold or heat production serves a group of users, All-Air, All-Water, Water-Air, VRF.
Systems multiple zones, or entire buildings.

Unitary Systems (Direct Expansion / DX)

DX systems exchange heat directly between the air to be conditioned and the refrigerant. They are best for low cost
and low load intermittent applications.

1. Window / Room Air Conditioners:

A unitary system where the whole refrigeration system (evaporator, condenser, compressor) is housed in a single,
small box.

◦ Serves only one space. A cheap option requiring little installation.

1. Window / Room Air Conditioners-

Disadvantages

Since the compressor and all other working parts are in a single unit inside the room, window ACs are significantly
noisier than split units.

Traditional window ACs are generally less energy-efficient than modern split systems, especially those with inverter
technology, which can lead to higher electricity bills over time.

They are not designed to cool larger or multiple rooms effectively, and may create uneven cooling within the space
they are in.

The unit occupies window space, blocking natural light and potentially obscuring your view.

Many people find the appearance of window ACs bulky and unattractive compared to the sleek design of a split
system.

2. Split Systems

The air conditioning system is divided into two packages, or terminal units, by the split system, often known as a
"mini-split" or ductless system. Included in the condensing unit, which is external to the structure, are the
compressor, condenser, and condenser fan. The air conditioning and distribution are managed by the evaporative
unit, which is situated within. The noisy compressor is located in the outdoor unit, making split ACs operate much
more quietly indoors.

Many split systems feature inverter technology, allowing the compressor to adjust its speed to maintain a consistent
temperature. This results in significant energy savings and lower electricity bills.

Split systems have a sleek, modern, and space-saving design, as the indoor unit is mounted discreetly on a wall and
does not block windows.
With powerful cooling capacities and adjustable airflow, split ACs can more effectively and evenly cool larger, more
complex spaces than window units.

The indoor unit can be installed on any wall, giving you more options for placement.

The purchase price is higher, and professional installation is required to mount both indoor and outdoor units, which
adds to the overall expense.

The process is more involved than installing a window unit and requires drilling a hole in a wall for the connecting
pipes and wiring.

Servicing a split AC is more complex and typically costs more because there are two separate units.

Split ACs are fixed in place, making them a poor choice if you rent your home or plan to move frequently.

3. Packaged Air Conditioners

All-in-one AC system where the evaporator, condenser, and compressor are housed together in one compact cabinet.

Advantages

Generally, has a lower initial purchase price compared to custom-designed or central systems.

Due to their compact, all-in-one nature and pre-assembly, installation is usually simpler and faster.

Requires minimal space as the entire system is contained within a single casing.

Disadvantage

If any component within the unitary system fails (e.g., the compressor or fan), the entire system goes down quickly,
resulting in a complete loss of cooling for the serviced area.

Central Systems (Collective) Classification

1. Total Air Method (All-Air Systems)

The Total Air Method relies exclusively on conditioned air (cooled/heated and humidified/dehumidified) as the
thermal transfer medium. This air is processed in a central unit and distributed via ductwork.

Characteristics:

Cleanliness Focus: This method excels at improving indoor air quality because it facilitates the intake and circulation
of large volumes of outdoor fresh air. This is critical for ventilation and maintaining healthy indoor environments.

Space Requirement: Air has a very low heat capacity compared to water. To carry the necessary amount of heat (to
cool or heat a space), a massive volume of air is required. Consequently, this system demands large, bulky ductwork,
which can take up considerable space in ceilings, walls, or mechanical chases.

Energy Use: Requires powerful fans to push large volumes of air through extensive duct systems, leading to higher
fan power consumption

2. Total Water Method (All-Water Systems)

The Total Water Method uses water (chilled for cooling, hot for heating) circulating through pipes and localized
terminal units (like Fan Coil Units or Radiant Panels) to control room temperature.

Characteristics:

Space Efficiency: Water has a high heat capacity. It can transfer the same amount of heat as air using significantly less
volume. This system requires significantly less space for piping and distribution compared to the massive ducts of all-
air systems.
Ideal for Retrofits: Due to its minimal space requirement, this method is highly suitable for existing buildings
(retrofits) where space is limited or valuable, and installing large ductwork is not feasible.

Localized Control: Offers excellent zone-by-zone control since each terminal unit can be managed independently.

Limitation: While it handles temperature and basic humidity control locally, providing fresh outdoor ventilation air
must be done via a separate, smaller dedicated ventilation system.

3. Water-Air Method (Combined Systems)

The Water-Air Method combines the advantages of both systems. A central system handles the basic cooling/heating
and fresh air ventilation, while water circuits handle the fine-tuning of the temperature in individual zones.

Characteristics:

Hybrid Efficiency: The air system provides the required fresh air and latent heat removal (dehumidification), while the
water system handles the sensible heat loads (temperature change).

Perimeter Zoning: Often used effectively in perimeter zones of large rooms or buildings. These zones have high,
rapidly changing heat loads due to windows and outside wall exposure, which the quick response of the water circuit
can handle efficiently.

Minimized Duct Size: Since the air only handles the ventilation and a portion of the cooling/heating, the size of the
central ductwork can be smaller than in the Total Air Method.

Example Systems: Systems like Induction Units and Fan-Coil Units with dedicated outdoor air (DOAS) fall into this
category.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Cooling & heating load estimate shall be carried out prior to design & installation of HVAC equipment.

Calculation shall consider:

Recommended indoor temperature, RH, air velocity, mean radiant temperature

Outside design conditions.

Details of building construction & orientation of exposure of building components

Fenestration area, thermal properties and shading factors

Occupancy: Number of people and their schedule activities

Ventilation: Requirement for fresh air

Infiltration, air leakage

Internal load: Equipment, computer / sever and lighting

Effective volume and

Occupancy, lighting and equipment schedule

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Design shall also consider the following:

Nature of application & Hours of use & Permissible control limits & Fire safety
Opportunities for heat recovery & Availability of make up water for cooling tower

Energy efficiency & Filtration standard

Suitable diversity factor based on usage & Outdoor and indoor air quality

Consideration to load encountered during off peak hours including nighttime & weekend, anticipated future

changes, permanent or temporary, in building load & system shall be designed that maximum operational

efficiency is maintained.

Special applications like hospitals / operating theatres, computer rooms, data centers & telecommunication

rooms, clean rooms, laboratories, libraries, museum/art galleries, sound recording studio etc. shall be handled

differently.

Computer-based hourly load calculation & energy simulation tools may be used for equipment sizing & to

Identify the effect of various energy conservation measures