Control Systems

PID Controllers
Module 6

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Controllers
• Now, in this module, focus is on Design of Controllers.
• How a controller of certain type or structure is able to attain the design
performance and hence relative stability.

• Dominant Poles of a System 𝑗𝜔

• Which poles dominate the response of the

System?
• Poles Closest the imaginary axis have the most
𝜎
dominant contribution and are called dominant
poles.

CONTROL SYSTEMS 2
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Addition of zero in L.H.S

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Adding zero in RHS Plane

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Dominant Poles of a system

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 PID Controllers
• PID Controller Tuning

CONTROL SYSTEMS (ECC402) 16

PID Controller

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Effect of Addition of Extra Poles and Zeros
• Let us consider a 2nd order system, with 𝝃 = 𝟎. 𝟓 and 𝝎𝒏 = 𝟏 rad/sec.
1
𝐺 𝑠 = 2
𝑠 +𝑠+1
• Effect if Addition of Zero in LHP:
• Lets add a zero at 𝒔 = −𝒂
𝑠
+1 1 1 𝑠
𝐶1 𝑠 = 2 𝑎 = 2 + . 2
𝑠 +𝑠+1 𝑠 +𝑠+1 𝑎 𝑠 +𝑠+1

• Taking inverse Laplace

1
𝑐1 𝑡 = 𝑐 𝑡 + 𝐶ሶ 𝑡
𝑎

CONTROL SYSTEMS (ECC402) 20

Effect of Addition of Zeros
• Now the Step response looks like
1
𝑌 𝑠 = 𝐶1 𝑠
𝑠
𝐶1 𝑠 𝑠 𝐶1 𝑠
= +
𝑠 𝑎 𝑠
𝑌 𝑠 𝑠 𝑌1 𝑠
= +
𝑠 𝑎 𝑠
• Taking inverse Laplace
1 1
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑦1ሶ 𝑡 = 𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑦2 𝑡
𝑎 𝑎

CONTROL SYSTEMS (ECC402) 21

Effect of Addition of Zeros
• Now
1
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑦2 𝑡
𝑎
• Now if the Value of a is very Small (less • Now if the Value of a is Large (a →∞)
than 1) • The zero lies near to infinity.
• The zero lies near to imaginary axis. 1
• The 2 term 𝑦2 𝑡 will be
nd
1 𝑎
• The 2 term 𝑦2 𝑡 will be
nd
negligible
𝑎
significant • The system’s response will be same
• The Overshoot Percentage will as the original system
increase
• The RT will be Small

CONTROL SYSTEMS (ECC402) 22

Effect of Addition of Zeros
• Now impact of Zero on RHP
𝟏
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑦1 𝑡 − 𝒚𝟐 𝒕
𝒂
• Here undershoot can be observed in systems response.
• This leads to a sluggish response
• With increased rise time and delay time

• Poles or Zeros present in the RHP are called non-minimum phase poles and zeros.
• Such Systems are called Non Minimum phase Systems

CONTROL SYSTEMS (ECC402) 23

Effect of Addition of Poles
𝟏
• Lets add a pole at 𝒔 = −𝒂 𝒔
+𝟏
𝒂
• Step Response of Original System
1 1
𝑌1 𝑠 = 2 .
𝑠 +𝑠+1 𝑠

• Step Response of System with pole

1 𝟏 1
𝑌2 𝑠 = 2
𝑠 +𝑠+1 𝒔+𝟏 𝑠
𝒂
• As s →∞ the effect of pole at s = -a will decrease and response sill be same as
the original system
CONTROL SYSTEMS (ECC402) 24
Dominant Poles of a Systems
• Are the ones, which have a dominant contribution to the transient response of
the system.
• Generally occur in complex conjugate form.
• Higher order systems are generally adjusted that there exist a pair of dominant
complex conjugate poles.
• Desirable to have real parts of the other poles and zeros at least 5 times farther
away from the real parts of dominant poles

CONTROL SYSTEMS (ECC402) 25

Effect of Adding Poles to OLTF
• Time response does not give information on the relative stability.
• Root locus is analyzed to comment on relative stability
1 1 1
𝐺1 𝑠 = ; 𝐺2 𝑠 = ; 𝐺3 𝑠 =
𝑠+2 𝑠 + 2 (𝑠 + 4) 𝑠 + 2 (𝑠 + 4)(𝑠 + 8)

CONTROL SYSTEMS (ECC402) 26

Effect of Adding Zero to OLTF
• Time response does not give information on the relative stability.
• Root locus is analyzed to comment on relative stability
1 𝑠+7 𝑠+1
𝐺1 𝑠 = ; 𝐺2 𝑠 = ; 𝐺3 𝑠 =
𝑠 𝑠 + 2 (𝑠 + 5) 𝑠 𝑠 + 2 (𝑠 + 5) 𝑠 𝑠 + 2 (𝑠 + 5)

CONTROL SYSTEMS (ECC402) 27

Propotional Control
• The controller acts on error between the
reference and the measured output.

• Already discussed the impact of varying Gain K, and is dependent on the

movements on the root locus.
• Example:
• For certain criteria, like OS% = 20%, ts < 5 sec.
• There would be certain value of K where it will be satisfied,
• So, the design req. are translated in terms of 𝝃 and 𝝎𝒏
• By adjusting the Gain K, we can achieve these perfomances

CONTROL SYSTEMS (ECC402) 28

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Proportional Control Action

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Propotional Control
• Now the impact of variation of K on the
Bode plot

• In Bode plots, if the gain K is shifted,

• The magnitude plot curve will move up or down,
• While the phase remains constant.
𝐾
• Example: Considering a 1st order plant 𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑇𝑠 + 1
• The CLTF can be obtained as 𝐾
𝐶 𝑠 =
𝑇𝑠 + 1 + 𝐾

CONTROL SYSTEMS (ECC402) 36

Propotional Control
• The error can be given as
1
𝐸 𝑠 = 𝑅(𝑠)
1+𝐺 𝑠
1
= 𝑅(𝑠)
𝐾
1+
𝑇𝑠 + 1
𝑇𝑠 + 1 1
= .
𝑇𝑠 + 1 + 𝐾 𝑠
• Now, steady state error
𝑇𝑠 + 1 1
𝑒𝑠𝑠 = lim 𝑠𝐸 𝑠 = lim 𝑠 =
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 𝑇𝑠 + 1 + 𝐾 𝐾+1

CONTROL SYSTEMS (ECC402) 37

Propotional Control
1
• Hence 𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝐾+1
𝑇
• Proportional Gain has improved the time constant T to
𝐾+1
• But the steady state-state error is there.
• The SSE can be reduced by choosing higher values of K.
• But higher values of K can also lead to instability in the higher order systems

CONTROL SYSTEMS (ECC402) 38

Integral action

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Integral Control
• Here the controller not only acts on the current
error but also the accumulated error over time

• The output of controller is given as:

𝐾
𝑌𝑐 𝑠 = 𝐸(𝑠)
𝑠
𝑡

𝑦𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐾 න 𝑒 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞

CONTROL SYSTEMS (ECC402) 41

Integral Control
• The error will be

1
𝐸 𝑠 = 𝑅(𝑠)
1+𝐺 𝑠 𝐾 𝑠

1 1
=
𝐾 1 𝑠
1+
𝑠 𝑇𝑠 + 1
𝑠(𝑇𝑠 + 1) 1 𝑡
=
𝑠 𝑇𝑠 + 1 + 𝐾 𝑠 𝑦𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐾 න 𝑒 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞

CONTROL SYSTEMS (ECC402) 42

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Integral Control
• Now the SSE

𝑠(𝑇𝑠 + 1) 1
𝑒𝑠𝑠 = lim 𝑠𝐸(𝑠) = lim 𝑠
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 𝑠 𝑇𝑠 + 1 + 𝐾 𝑠

• Now when 𝑠 → 0, SSE = 0

• Thus with integrator the SSE goes to ZERO.
• The order of the system is also increased from 1st to 2nd .
• But in higher order systems, the addition of extra poles may lead to instability.

CONTROL SYSTEMS (ECC402) 44

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Derivative Control
• Here the controller output is given as

𝑑𝑒 𝑡
𝑌𝑐 𝑠 = 𝐾𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑦𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐾
𝑑𝑡
• The output changes proportionally with the change in rate of the input / error here.
• Also called anticipatory control.
𝑠 1 So, the Derivative action :
𝑒𝑠𝑠 = lim =∞ • Increases the speed of response, i.e.
𝑠→0 𝐾𝑠 𝑠
1+ better rise time, settling time,
𝑇𝑠 + 1
• Oscillations are reduced
• Never eliminate the SSE

CONTROL SYSTEMS (ECC402) 47

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PID Controllers
• Full form: Proportional–Integral–Derivative Controller (PID controller)
• 95% of processes uses PID for control
• PID controller continuously calculates an error value 𝑒(𝑡) as the difference between a
desired setpoint (SP) and a measured process variable (PV) and applies a correction
based on proportional, integral, and derivative terms.

𝐾𝐼
𝐾 𝑠 = 𝐾𝑃 + + 𝐾𝐷 𝑠
𝑠

CONTROL SYSTEMS (ECC402) 53

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PID Controllers
• PID controller use 3 control terms of proportional, integral and derivative influence on
the controller output to apply accurate and optimal control.
• 𝑒(𝑡) as the difference between a desired setpoint SP = 𝑟(𝑡) a measured process
variable PV = 𝑦(𝑡)
• 𝑒(𝑡) = 𝑟(𝑡) − 𝑦(𝑡)
• and applies a correction based on proportional, integral, and derivative terms.
• The controller attempts to minimize the error over time by adjustment of a control
variable 𝑢(𝑡) as the opening of a control valve, to a new value determined by a weighted
sum of the control terms.

CONTROL SYSTEMS (ECC402) 56

PID Controllers
• Proportional Term
• It produces an output value that is proportional to the current error value.
• Proportional response can be adjusted by multiplying the error by a constant Kp.
• Given as : 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐾𝑃 𝑒(𝑡)

• High proportional gain results in a large change in the output

for a given change in the error.
• If the proportional gain is too high, the system can become
unstable (see the section on loop tuning).
• A small gain results in a small output response to a large input
error, and a less responsive or less sensitive controller.
• If the proportional gain is too low, the control action may
be too small when responding to system disturbances.
Response of PV to step change of SP vs time, for
three values of Kp (Ki and Kd held constant)

CONTROL SYSTEMS (ECC402) 57

 PID Controllers
• Integral Term
• Contribution from the integral term is proportional to both the magnitude of the error and the
duration of the error.
• Integral in a PID controller is the sum of the instantaneous error over time and gives the
accumulated offset that should have been corrected previously.
• The integral term is given by

• Integral term accelerates the movement of the process

towards setpoint and eliminates the residual steady-
state error that occurs with a pure proportional
controller.
• However, since the integral term responds to
accumulated errors from the past, it can cause the
present value to overshoot the setpoint value. Response of PV to step change of SP vs time, for
three values of KI (KP and Kd held constant)

CONTROL SYSTEMS (ECC402) 58

PID Controllers
• Derivative Term
• The derivative of the process error is calculated by determining the slope of the error over time and
multiplying this rate of change by the derivative gain Kd.
• The derivative term is given by

• Derivative action predicts system behavior and thus

improves settling time and stability of the system.

Response of PV to step change of SP vs time, for

three values of KD (KP and KI held constant)

CONTROL SYSTEMS (ECC402) 59